What are Real Numbers?

In mathematics, real numbers are defined as the

combination of rational and irrational numbers. Rational
numbers are any numbers that can be represented by a
fraction: ab where both a,b are integers and b≠0.
Irrational numbers are simply not rational numbers in that
they cannot be represented as a fraction of two integers.
Numbers like pi and e are irrational.

Category Definition Example

Contain all counting numbers which

Natural
start from 1. All numbers such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,…..
Numbers
…
N = {1, 2, 3, 4,……}

Whole Collection of zero and natural numbers. All numbers including 0 such as 0, 1, 2,
Numbers W = {0, 1, 2, 3,…..} 3, 4, 5, 6,…..…

The collective result of whole numbers Includes: -infinity (-∞),……..-4, -3, -2, -1,
Integers
and negative of all natural numbers. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……+infinity (+∞)

Rational Numbers that can be written in the Examples of rational numbers are ½,
Numbers form of p/q, where q≠0. 5/4 and 12/6 etc.

The numbers which are not rational

Irrational Irrational numbers are non-terminating
and cannot be written in the form of
Numbers and non-repeating in nature like √2.
p/q.
Real Numbers are just numbers like:
1 12.38 −0.8625 34 π (pi) 198

In fact:

Nearly any number you can think of is a Real Number

Real Numbers include:

Whole Numbers (like 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc)

Rational Numbers (like 3/4, 0.125, 0.333..., 1.1, etc )

Irrational Numbers (like π, √2, etc )

Real Numbers can also be positive, negative or zero.

So ... what is NOT a Real Number?

Imaginary Numbers like √−1 (the square root of minus 1)
are not Real Numbers
Infinity is not a Real Number

Mathematicians also play with some special numbers that aren't Real
Numbers.

The Real Number Line

The Real Number Line is like a geometric line.
A point is chosen on the line to be the "origin". Points to the right are
positive, and points to the left are negative.

A distance is chosen to be "1", then whole numbers are marked off:

{1,2,3,...}, and also in the negative direction: {...,−3,−2,−1}

Any point on the line is a Real Number:

 The numbers could be whole (like 7)

 or rational (like 20/9)
 or irrational (like π)
But we won't find Infinity, or an Imaginary Number.

Any Number of Digits

A Real Number can have any number of digits either side of the decimal
point

 120.
 0.12345
 12.5509
 0.000 000 0001

There can be an infinite number of digits, such as 13 = 0.333...

Why are they called "Real" Numbers?

Because they are not Imaginary Numbers

The Real Numbers had no name before Imaginary Numbers were thought
of. They got called "Real" because they were not Imaginary. That is the
actual answer!

Real does not mean they are in the real world

They are not called "Real" because they show the value of
something real.
In mathematics we like our numbers pure, when we write 0.5 we
mean exactly half.

But in the real world half may not be exact (try cutting an
apple exactly in half).

Real numbers and the Number Line

Definitions
A set is a collection of objects, typically grouped within braces {{ }}, where each object is
called an element. For example, {red, green, blue}{red, green, blue} is a set of
colors. A subset is a set consisting of elements that belong to a given set. For
example, {green, blue}{green, blue} is a subset of the color set above. A set with no
elements is called the
empty set

and has its own special notation, {{ }} or ∅∅.

When studying mathematics, we focus on special sets of numbers. The set of

natural (or counting) numbers

, denoted ℕN, is

{1,2,3,4,5,…}𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠{1,2,3,4,5,…}NaturalNumbers
The three periods (…)(…) is called an ellipsis and indicates that the numbers continue
without bound. The set of
whole numbers

, denoted 𝕎W, is the set of natural numbers combined with zero.

{0,1,2,3,4,5,…}𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠{0,1,2,3,4,5,…}WholeNumbers

The set of
integers

, denoted ℤZ, consists of both positive and negative

whole numbers

, as well as zero.

{…,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,…}𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠{…,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,…}Integers

Notice that the sets of natural and

whole numbers

are both subsets of the set of

integers

Rational numbers

, denoted ℚQ, are defined as any number of the form 𝑎𝑏ab, where 𝑎a and 𝑏b are
integers

and 𝑏b is nonzero. Decimals that repeat or terminate are rational. For example,

0.7=710and0.3⎯⎯⎯=0.3333⋯=130.7=710and0.3¯=0.3333⋯=13

The set of

integers

is a subset of the set of

rational numbers

because every integer can be expressed as a

ratio

of the integer and 11. In other words, any integer can be written over 11 and can be
considered a rational number. For example,

5=515=51
Irrational numbers

are defined as any number that cannot be written as a

ratio

of two
integers

. Nonterminating decimals that do not repeat are irrational. For example,

𝜋=3.14159…and2‾√=1.41421…π=3.14159…and2=1.41421…

The set of

real numbers

, denoted ℝR, is defined as the set of all

rational numbers

combined with the set of all

irrational numbers

. Therefore, all the numbers defined so far are subsets of the set of

real numbers

. In summary,

Figure 1.1.11.1.1:

Real Numbers

Number Line
A real number line, or simply number line, allows us to visually display

real numbers

by associating them with unique points on a line. The real number associated with a point
is called a coordinate. A point on the real number line that is associated with a coordinate
is called its

graph

.
To construct a number line, draw a

horizontal line

with arrows on both ends to indicate that it continues without bound. Next, choose any
point to represent the number zero; this point is called the

origin

Figure 1.1.2
1.1.2

Mark off consistent lengths on both sides of the

origin

and label each tick mark to define the scale. Positive

real numbers

lie to the right of the

origin

and negative

real numbers

lie to the left. The number zero (0)(0) is neither positive nor negative. Typically, each tick
represents one unit.

Figu
re 1.1.31.1.3

As illustrated below, the scale need not always be one unit. In the first number line, each
tick mark represents two units. In the second, each tick mark represents 1717 of a unit.

Figure 1.1.41.1.4

The

graph
 of each real number is shown as a dot at the appropriate point on the number line. A
partial

graph

of the set of

integers

ℤZ follows:

Figure 1.1.51.1.5

Example 1.1.11.1.1
Graph

the following set of

real numbers

Solution

Graph

the numbers on a number line with a scale where each tick mark represents 1212 of a unit.

Figure 1.1.61.1.6

Ordering
Real Numbers
When comparing

real numbers

on a number line, the larger number will always lie to the right of the smaller one. It is
clear that 1515 is greater than 55, but it may not be so clear to see that −1−1 is greater
than −5−5 until we
graph
 each number on a number line.

Figure 1.1.71.1.7

We use symbols to help us efficiently communicate relationships between numbers on the

number line. The symbols used to describe an

equality relationship

between numbers follow:

=𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜≠𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜≈𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜=is equal to≠is not equ
al to≈is approximately equal to

These symbols are used and interpreted in the following manner:

5=50≠5𝜋≈3.145 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 50 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 5𝑝𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 3.

145=55 is equal to 50≠50 is not equal to 5π≈3.14pi is approximately equal to
3.14

We next define symbols that denote an

order

relationship between

real numbers

<𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛>𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛≤𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜≥𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜<L

ess than>Greater than≤Less than or equal to≥Greater than or equal to

These symbols allow us to compare two numbers. For example,

Since the

graph

of −120−120 is to the left of the

graph

of –10–10 on the number line, that number is less than −10−10. We could write an
equivalent statement as follows:

Similarly, since the

graph

of zero is to the right of the

graph

of any negative number on the number line, zero is greater than any negative number.

The symbols << and >> are used to denote

strict inequalities

, and the symbols and are used to denote

inclusive inequalities

. In some situations, more than one symbol can be correctly applied. For example, the
following two statements are both true:

In addition, the “or equal to” component of an inclusive inequality allows us to correctly
write the following:

The logical use of the word “or” requires that only one of the conditions need be true: the
“less than” or the “equal to.”

Example 1.1.21.1.2
Fill in the blank with <,=<,=, or >:−2>:−2 ____ −12−12.
Solution

Use > because the

graph

of −2−2 is to the right of the

graph

of −12−12 on a number line. Therefore, −2>−12−2>−12, which reads “negative two

is greater than negative twelve.”

Figure 1.1.81.1.8

Answer:

−2>−12−2>−12

In this text, we will often point out the equivalent notation used to express mathematical
quantities electronically using the standard symbols available on a keyboard. We begin with
the equivalent textual notation for inequalities:
 ≥≤≠">=""<=""!="≥">="≤"<="≠"!="

Many calculators, computer algebra systems, and programming languages use this notation.

Opposites
The

opposite

of any real number 𝑎a is −𝑎−a.

Opposite

real numbers

are the same distance from the

origin

on a number line, but their graphs lie on

opposite

sides of the

origin

and the numbers have

opposite

signs.

Figure 1.1
.91.1.9

For example, we say that the

opposite

of 1010 is −10−10.

Next, consider the

opposite

of a negative number. Given the integer −7−7, the integer the same distance from the
origin

and with the

opposite

sign is +7+7, or just 77.

Figure
1.1.101.1.10

Therefore, we say that the

opposite

of −7−7 is −(−7)=7−(−7)=7. This idea leads to what is often referred to as the

double-negative property

. For any real number 𝑎a,

−(−𝑎)=𝑎−(−a)=a
Example 1.1.31.1.3

What is the

opposite

of −34−34?
Solution

Here we apply the

double-negative property

−(−34)=34−(−34)=34
Example 1.1.41.1.4
Simplify −(−(4))−(−(4))
Solution

Start with the innermost parentheses by finding the

opposite
of +4+4.

−(−(4))=−(−(4))=−(−4)=4−(−(4))=−(−(4))=−(−4)=4

Answer

Example 1.1.51.1.5
Simplify: −(−(−2))−(−(−2)).
Solution

Apply the

double-negative property

starting with the innermost parentheses.

−(−(−2))=−(−(−2))=−(2)=−2−(−(−2))=−(−(−2))=−(2)=−2

Answer

-2
What Are Functions in Mathematics?
A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with
the property that each input is related to exactly one output. Let A & B be any two
non-empty sets; mapping from A to B will be a function only when every element in
set A has one end and only one image in set B.

Another definition of functions is that it is a relation “f” in which each element of set “A” is
mapped with only one element belonging to set “B”. Also, in a function, there can’t be two
pairs with the same first element.

Condition for a Function

Set A and Set B should be non-empty.
In a function, a particular input is given to get a particular output. So, a function f: A-
>B denotes that f is a function from A to B, where A is a domain, and B is a co-
domain.

 For an element, a, which belongs to A, a ∈ A, a unique element b, b ∈ B is there such

that (a,b) ∈ f.

The unique element b to which f relates a is denoted by f(a) and is called f of a, or

the value of f at a, or the image of a under f.

 The range of f (image of a under f)

 It is the set of all values of f(x) taken together.
 Range of f = { y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x in X}

A real-valued function has either P or any one of its subsets as its range. Further, if
its domain is also either P or a subset of P, it is called a real function

Representation of Functions
Functions are generally represented as f(x).

Let , f(x) = x3.

It is said as f of x is equal to x cube.

Functions can also be represented by g(), t(),… etc.

Steps for Solving Functions

Question: Find the output of the function g(t) = 6t2 + 5 at

(i) t = 0

(ii) t = 2

Solution:

The given function is g(t) = 6t2 + 5

(i) At t = 0, g(0) = 6(0)2 + 5 = 5

(ii) At t = 2, g(2) = 6(2)2 + 5 = 29

Types of Functions
There are various types of functions in Mathematics which are explained below in
detail. The different function types covered here are given below:

 One-one Function (Injective Function)

 Many-one Function
 Onto Function (Surjective Function)
 Into Function
 Polynomial Function
 Linear Function
 Identical Function
 Quadratic Function
 Rational Function
 Algebraic Functions
 Cubic Function
 Modulus Function
 Signum Function
 Greatest Integer Function
 Fractional Part Function
 Even and Odd Function
 Periodic Function
 Composite Function
 Constant Function
 Identity Function
One-one Function (Injective Function)
If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the co-domain, the
function is said to be a one-one function.
For example, f; R R, given by f(x) = 3x + 5, is one-one.

Many-one function
On the other hand, if there are at least two elements in the domain whose images
are the same, the function is known as many to one.

For example, f : R R, given by f(x) = x2 + 1, is many-one.

Into Function
If there exists at least one element in the co-domain, which is not an image of any
element in the domain, then the function will be into function.

(Q) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 1} = B be a mapping f : A B; find the nature of the given
function (P). F(x) = |x|

f (x) = |1|
Solution for x = 1 & -1

Hence, it is many one, the range of f(x) from [-1, 1] is [0, 1] is not equal to the co-
domain.

Hence, it is into function.

Let’s say we have the function,

f(x)={x2;x≥0−x2;x<0

For different values of the input, we have different outputs; hence it is a one-one
function, and also, it manages equally to its co-domain; hence, it is onto also.

f (x) = |1|

Solution for x = 1 & -1

Hence, it is many one, the range of f(x) from [-1, 1] is [0, 1] is not equal to the co-
domain.

Hence, it is into function.

Let’s say we have the function,
2
x ; x≥0
f (x)={ 2
−x ; x <0

For different values of the input, we have different outputs; hence it is a one-one
function, and also, it manages equally to its co-domain; hence, it is onto also.

Polynomial function
A real-valued function f : P → P defined by
n
y=f ( a ) =h0 +h1 a+ …..+ hn a
, where n ∈ N and h0 + h1 + … + hn ∈ P, for each a ∈ P, is called polynomial function.

 N = a non-negative integer.
 The degree of the polynomial function is the highest power in the expression.
 If the degree is zero, it’s called a constant function.
 If the degree is one, it’s called a linear function. For example, b = a+1.
 Graph type: Always a straight line.

So, a polynomial function can be expressed as:

n n−1 1
f (x)=an x + an−1 x +… ..+a 1 x + a0

The highest power in the expression is known as the degree of the polynomial
function. The different types of polynomial functions based on the degree are as
follows:

1. The polynomial function is called a constant function if the degree is zero.

2. The polynomial function is called a linear if the degree is one.
3. The polynomial function is quadratic if the degree is two.
4. The polynomial function is cubic if the degree is three.
Linear Function
All functions in the form of ax + b where a, b ∈ R & a ≠ 0 are called linear functions.
The graph will be a straight line. In other words, a linear polynomial function is a first-
degree polynomial where the input needs to be multiplied by m and added to c. It
can be expressed by f(x) = mx + c.

For example, f(x) = 2x + 1 at x = 1

f(1) = 2.1 + 1 = 3

f(1) = 3

Another example of a linear function is y = x + 3

Identical Function
Two functions, f and g, are said to be identical if

(a) The domain of f = domain of g

(b) The range of f = the range of g

(c) f(x) = g(x) ∀ x ∈ Df & Dg

For example, f(x) = x

1
g(x )=
1/x

Solution: f(x) = x is defined for all x

But

1
g(x )=
1/x
is not defined of x = 0

Hence, it is identical for x ∈ R – {0}

Quadratic Function
All functions in the form of y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R, a ≠ 0 will be known as
Quadratic functions. The graph will be parabolic.

−b ± √ D
At x=
2
, we will get its maximum on minimum value depending on the leading coefficient, and that value
will be -D/4a (where D = Discriminant).
In simpler terms,

A quadratic polynomial function is a second-degree polynomial, and it can be

expressed as:

F(x) = ax2 + bx + c, and a is not equal to zero.

Where a, b, and c are constant, and x is a variable.

Example, f(x) = 2x2 + x – 1 at x = 2

If x = 2, f(2) = 2.22 + 2 – 1 = 9

For example, y = x2

Read More: Quadratic Function Formula

Rational Function
These are the real functions of the type

f (a)
g (a)
where f (a) and g (a) are polynomial functions of a defined in a domain, where g(a) ≠ 0.

 For example, f : P – {– 6} → P defined by

f ( a+1)
, f (a)= ∀ a∈ P – −6 ,
g(a+2)

is a rational function.
  Graph type: Asymptotes (the curves touching the axes lines).

Algebraic Functions
An algebraic equation is known as a function that consists of a finite number of terms
involving powers and roots of independent variable x and fundamental operations,
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

For example,
3 2
f ( x )=5 x −2 x + 3 x +6

g(x )= √
3 x +4
¿¿
¿

Cubic Function
A cubic polynomial function is a polynomial of degree three and can be expressed
as:

F(x) = ax + bx2 + cx + d, and a is not equal to zero.

3

In other words, any function in the form of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c, d ∈
R&a≠0
For example, y = x3

Domain ∈ R

Range ∈ R

Modulus Function
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = |a| = a when a ≥ 0. and f(a) = -a when a
< 0 ∀ a ∈ P is called the modulus function.

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P+ U {0}
x x ≥0
 y=¿ x∨¿ {
−x x< 0
Domain: R

Range: [0, ∞)

Signum Function
The real function f : P → P is defined by

1 , ifx>0
{¿ f (a)∨ ¿ , a≠ 0 ¿ 0 , a=0={ 0 , ifx=0
f (a)
−1 , ifx<0

is called the signum function or sign function (gives the sign of real number).

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {1, 0, – 1}

For example, signum (100) = 1

signum (log 1) = 0
signum (x21) =1

Greatest Integer Function

The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = [a], a ∈ P assumes the value of the
greatest integer less than or equal to a is called the greatest integer function.

 Thus f (a) = [a] = – 1 for – 1 ⩽ a < 0

 f (a) = [a] = 0 for 0 ⩽ a < 1
 [a] = 1 for 1 ⩽ a < 2
 [a] = 2 for 2 ⩽ a < 3 and so on…

The greatest integer function always gives integral output. The greatest integral
value that has been taken by the input will be the output.

For example, [4.5] = 4

[6.99] = 6

[1.2] = 2

Domain ∈ R

Range ∈ Integers
Fractional Part Function

{x} = x – [x]

It always gives fractional value as output.

For example, {4.5} = 4.5 – [4.5]

= 4.5 – 4 = 0.5

{6.99} = 6.99 – [6.99]

= 6.99 – 6 = 0.99

{7} = 7 – [7] = 7 –7 = 0

Even and Odd Function

If f(x) = f(-x), then the function will be even function, and if f(x) = -f(-x), then the
function will be odd function.

Example 1:

f(x) = x2sinx

f(-x) = -x2sinx

Here, f(x) = -f(-x)

It is an odd function.

Example 2:

f(x)=x2
and

f(−x)=x2

f(x) = f(-x)

It is an even function.

Periodic Function
A function is said to be a periodic function if a positive real number T exists, such
that f(u – t) = f(x) for all x ε domain.

For example, f(x) = sin x

f(x + 2π) = sin (x + 2π) = sin x fundamental

Then period of sin x is 2π.

Composite Function
Let A, B, and C be three non-empty sets

Let f: A → B & g : G → C be two functions, then gof : A → C. This function is called

the composition of f and g given gof (x) = g(f(x)).

For example, f(x) = x2 & g(x) = 2x

f(g(x)) = f(2,x) = (2x)2 = 4x2

g(f(x)) = g(x2) = 2x2

Constant Function
The function f : P → P is defined by b = f (x) = D, a ∈ P, where D is a constant ∈ P,
is a constant function.

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {D}
 Graph type: A straight line which is parallel to the x-axis.

In simple words, the polynomial of 0th degree where f(x) = f(0) = a 0 = c. Regardless
of the input, the output always results in a constant value. The graph for this is a
horizontal line.
Identity Function
P= set of real numbers

The function f : P → P defined by b = f (a) = a for each a ∈ P is called the identity

function.

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P
 Graph type: A straight line passing through the origin.

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2. IIT JEE Study Material
3. Limits Continuity And Differentiability
Limits, Continuity and Differentiability - Evaluations and
Examples
The limit concept is certainly indispensable for the development of analysis, for
convergence and divergence of infinite series also depend on this concept.
The theory of limits and then defining continuity, differentiability and the definite
integral in terms of the limit concept is successfully executed by mathematicians. In
this section, you will study this concept in detail with the help of solved examples.

What Are Limits?

The expression

limx→cf(x)=L

means that f(x) can be as close to L as desired by making x sufficiently close to ‘C’. In such a
case, we say that the limit of f, as x approaches to C, is L.

The neighbourhood of a point:

Let ‘a’ be real number and ‘h; is very close to ‘O’, then

The left-hand limit will be obtained when x = a – h or x -> a–

Similarly, the right-hand limit will be obtained when x = a + h or x -> a+

Related Concepts:

 Functions
 Limits, Continuity and Differentiability
 Differentiation
 Applications of Derivatives

Existence of Limit
The limit will exist if the following conditions get fulfilled:

(a)

limx→a−=f(x)=limx→a+

, i.e., LHL = RHL

(b) Both LHL & RHL should be finite.

Examples
 

 limx→1x2+1=12+1=2
 limx→0x2−x=02−0=0
 limx→2x2−4x+3=4−42+3=0

(c) In limits, we have in determinant forms such as

00,∞∞,0×∞,∞×∞,1∞,0∘,∞∘

In these cases, we try to simplify the problem into a valid function.

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Calculus Problems

1,94,255
 Expected Questions and Solutions

906

Use of Expansion in Evaluating Limits

Some Important Expansions

1. log⁡(1+x)=x−x22+x33−x44+…….
2. ex=1+x+x22!+x33!−x44!+…….
3. ax=1+xlog⁡a+x22!(loga)2+…….
4. sin⁡x=x−x33!+x55!……
5. cos⁡x=1−x22!+x44!……
6. tan⁡x=x+x33+215x5+……

Some Important limits

1. limx→0sin⁡xx=1
2. limx→01−cos⁡xx2=12
3. limx→0tan⁡xx=1
4. limx→0ex−1x=1
 5. limx→0log⁡(1+x)x=1

Example: Solve

limx→0sin⁡x−xx3

Solution:

Evaluation of Algebraic Limits

Direct substitution method
Example 1:

limx→1(3x2+4x+5)

= 3(1)2 + 4(1) + 5 = 12

Example 2:

limx→2x2−4x+3=4−42+3=05=0

Factorisation method
Example:

limx→2x2−5x+6x2−4

Solution:

limx→2(x−2)(x−3)(x+2)(x−2)=limx→2x−3x+2

=−14

Rationalisation method
Example:

limx→02+x−2x

Solution:

limx→0(2+x−2)(2+x+2)x(2+x+2)
=122

Using Result:

limx→axn−anx−a=nan−1

Example:

limx→2x10−210x5−25

Continuity

What Is Continuity?
A continuous function is a function for which small changes in the input results in
small changes in the output. Otherwise, a function is said to be discontinuous.

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if

limx→af(x)=limx→a+f(x)=f(a)

i.e., LHL = RHL = value of the function at x = a

Else, a function f(x) is said to be a discontinuous function.

Example 1:

f(x)=12sin⁡x−1,

discuss the continuity or discontinuity.

Solution: Clearly, the function will be not defined for

sin⁡x=12=sin⁡π6

Function is discontinuous for

x=nπ+(−1)nπ6

Example 2: What value must be assigned to K so that the function

f(x)={x4−256x−4,x≠4k,x=4

is continuous at x = 4?

Solution:

f(4)=limx→4x4−256x−4=limx→0x4−44x−4=4.44−1=256

Example 3: Discuss the continuity of

(a) Sgn (x3 – x)

(b)

f(x)=[21+x2]

,x>0[]

Solution:
(a) f(x) = sgn (x3–x)

Here, x3 – x = 0, so, x =0, –1, 1

Hence, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0, 1, –1

(b)

21+x2

, x > 0 is a monotonically decimal function

Hence,

f(x)=[21+x2],x≥0

is discontinuous,

When 2/(1 + x2) is on integer

⇒21+x2=1,2atx=1,0

Example 4: Discuss the continuity of

f(x)={x−2x≤04−x2x>0
at x = 0.

Solution:

limx→0−f(x)=limx→0−(x−2)=−2

Intermediate Value Theorem

If f is continuous on [a, b] and f(a) ≠ f(b), then for any value c ∈ (f(a), f(b)), there is at
least one number in x0 (a, b) for which f(x0) = c

Limits, Continuity and Differentiability JEE Main Questions

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 12 Must-Do JEE Questions of Limits Continuity and Differentiability

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Differentiability
A function, say f(x), is said to be differentiable at the point x = a if the derivative f ‘(a)
exists at every point in its domain.

Existence of Derivative
Right and left-hand derivative

RHD: f’(0+) =

limh→0+f(a+h)−(a)h

LHD: F’

F′(a−)=limh→0−h(a−h)−f(a)−h
How can a function fail to be differentiable?
The function f(x) is said to be non-differentiable at x = a, if

(a) Both RHD & LHD exist but are not equal

(b) Either or both RHD & LHD are not finite

(c) Either or both RHD & LHD do not exist.