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 THIRD EDITION
Image and Video Compression for
MULTIMEDIA
ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTALS, ALGORITHMS, AND STANDARDS

Yun-Qing Shi and Huifang Sun

Image and Video Compression
for Multimedia Engineering
 IMAGE PROCESSING SERIES
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The Pennsylvania State University,
Malvern, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Image Acquisitions and Processing with LabVIEW, by Christopher G. Relf

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Image and Video Compression for Multimedia Engineering: Fundamentals, Algorithms, and
Standards, by Yun-Qing Shi and Huifang Sun

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by Kim-Hui Yap, Ling Guan, Stuart William Perry, and Hau San Wong

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Image and Video Compression for Multimedia Engineering: Fundamentals, Algorithms, and
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Image-Processing-Series/book-series/CRCIMAGEPROC
Image and Video Compression
for Multimedia Engineering
Fundamentals, Algorithms, and Standards
Third Edition

Yun-Qing Shi and Huifang Sun

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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To beloved Kong Wai Shih, Wen Su, Zhengfang Chen, Huai, Wen, Tian

and

Xuedong, Min, Yin, Andrew, Rich, Haixin, Allison, Adam, Emily, Kailey
Contents

Preface to the Third Edition .................................................................................................... xxiii

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... xxv
Authors ...................................................................................................................................... xxvii

Part I Fundamentals

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................3
1.1 Practical Needs for Image and Video Compression ................................................4
1.2 Feasibility of Image and Video Compression ........................................................... 5
1.2.1 Statistical Redundancy....................................................................................5
1.2.1.1 Spatial Redundancy .........................................................................5
1.2.1.2 Temporal Redundancy .................................................................... 8
1.2.1.3 Coding Redundancy ........................................................................9
1.2.2 Psychovisual Redundancy ........................................................................... 10
1.2.2.1 Luminance Masking ...................................................................... 11
1.2.2.2 Texture Masking............................................................................. 14
1.2.2.3 Frequency Masking........................................................................ 14
1.2.2.4 Temporal Masking ......................................................................... 14
1.2.2.5 Color Masking ................................................................................ 16
1.2.2.6 Color Masking and Its Application in Video Compression ....... 19
1.2.2.7 Summary: Differential Sensitivity ............................................... 20
1.3 Visual Quality Measurement .................................................................................... 20
1.3.1 Subjective Quality Measurement ................................................................ 21
1.3.2 Objective Quality Measurement..................................................................22
1.3.2.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio .....................................................................22
1.3.2.2 An Objective Quality Measure Based on Human Visual
Perception ........................................................................................23
1.4 Information Theory Results ...................................................................................... 27
1.4.1 Entropy ............................................................................................................ 27
1.4.1.1 Information Measure ..................................................................... 27
1.4.1.2 Average Information per Symbol................................................. 28
1.4.2 Shannon’s Noiseless Source Coding Theorem .......................................... 28
1.4.3 Shannon’s Noisy Channel Coding Theorem ............................................. 29
1.4.4 Shannon’s Source Coding Theorem ............................................................ 29
1.4.5 Information Transmission Theorem ........................................................... 30
1.5 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 30
Exercises .................................................................................................................................. 31
References ............................................................................................................................... 32

vii
viii Contents

2. Quantization .......................................................................................................................... 33
2.1 Quantization and the Source Encoder ..................................................................... 33
2.2 Uniform Quantization ................................................................................................ 35
2.2.1 Basics................................................................................................................ 36
2.2.1.1 Definitions ....................................................................................... 36
2.2.1.2 Quantization Distortion ................................................................ 38
2.2.1.3 Quantizer Design ........................................................................... 39
2.2.2 Optimum Uniform Quantizer ..................................................................... 40
2.2.2.1 Uniform Quantizer with Uniformly Distributed Input ............40
2.2.2.2 Conditions of Optimum Quantization .......................................42
2.2.2.3 Optimum Uniform Quantizer with Different Input
Distributions ...................................................................................43
2.3 Nonuniform Quantization ........................................................................................ 45
2.3.1 Optimum (Nonuniform) Quantization ...................................................... 45
2.3.2 Companding Quantization .......................................................................... 45
2.4 Adaptive Quantization............................................................................................... 49
2.4.1 Forward Adaptive Quantization ................................................................. 50
2.4.2 Backward Adaptive Quantization............................................................... 51
2.4.3 Adaptive Quantization with a One-Word Memory ................................. 52
2.4.4 Switched Quantization ................................................................................. 52
2.5 PCM............................................................................................................................... 53
2.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 56
Exercises .................................................................................................................................. 57
References ............................................................................................................................... 57

3. Differential Coding ............................................................................................................. 59

3.1 Introduction to DPCM ................................................................................................ 59
3.1.1 Simple Pixel-to-Pixel DPCM ......................................................................... 60
3.1.2 General DPCM Systems ................................................................................63
3.2 Optimum Linear Prediction ......................................................................................65
3.2.1 Formulation ....................................................................................................65
3.2.2 Orthogonality Condition and Minimum Mean Square Error ................. 66
3.2.3 Solution to Yule-Walker Equations ............................................................. 67
3.3 Some Issues in the Implementation of DPCM ........................................................ 67
3.3.1 Optimum DPCM System .............................................................................. 67
3.3.2 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D DPCM ............................................................................... 67
3.3.3 Order of Predictor .......................................................................................... 69
3.3.4 Adaptive Prediction....................................................................................... 69
3.3.5 Effect of Transmission Errors ....................................................................... 70
3.4 Delta Modulation ........................................................................................................ 70
3.5 Interframe Differential Coding ................................................................................. 74
3.5.1 Conditional Replenishment.......................................................................... 74
3.5.2 3-D DPCM ....................................................................................................... 75
3.5.3 Motion-Compensated Predictive Coding .................................................. 76
3.6 Information-Preserving Differential Coding..........................................................77
3.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 78
Exercises .................................................................................................................................. 79
References ............................................................................................................................... 79
Contents ix

4. Transform Coding ................................................................................................................ 81

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 81
4.1.1 Hotelling Transform ...................................................................................... 81
4.1.2 Statistical Interpretation ...............................................................................83
4.1.3 Geometrical Interpretation ..........................................................................84
4.1.4 Basis Vector Interpretation ...........................................................................85
4.1.5 Procedures of Transform Coding ................................................................ 86
4.2 Linear Transforms....................................................................................................... 87
4.2.1 2-D Image Transformation Kernel ............................................................... 87
4.2.1.1 Separability ..................................................................................... 87
4.2.1.2 Symmetry ........................................................................................ 88
4.2.1.3 Matrix Form .................................................................................... 88
4.2.1.4 Orthogonality ................................................................................. 89
4.2.2 Basis Image Interpretation............................................................................ 89
4.2.3 Sub-image Size Selection .............................................................................. 91
4.3 Transforms of Particular Interest .............................................................................. 92
4.3.1 Discrete Fourier Transform .......................................................................... 92
4.3.2 Discrete Walsh Transform ............................................................................ 93
4.3.3 Discrete Hadamard Transform .................................................................... 94
4.3.4 Discrete Cosine Transform ........................................................................... 96
4.3.4.1 Background ..................................................................................... 96
4.3.4.2 Transformation Kernel .................................................................. 96
4.3.4.3 Relationship with DFT................................................................... 97
4.3.5 Performance Comparison ............................................................................. 99
4.3.5.1 Energy Compaction ....................................................................... 99
4.3.5.2 Mean Square Reconstruction Error ........................................... 100
4.3.5.3 Computational Complexity ........................................................ 102
4.3.5.4 Summary ....................................................................................... 102
4.4 Bit Allocation ............................................................................................................. 102
4.4.1 Zonal Coding................................................................................................ 103
4.4.2 Threshold Coding ........................................................................................ 103
4.4.2.1 Thresholding and Shifting.......................................................... 105
4.4.2.2 Normalization and Roundoff ..................................................... 105
4.4.2.3 Zigzag Scan ................................................................................... 108
4.4.2.4 Huffman Coding .......................................................................... 108
4.4.2.5 Special Codewords ....................................................................... 110
4.4.2.6 Rate Buffer Feedback and Equalization .................................... 110
4.5 Some Issues ................................................................................................................ 110
4.5.1 Effect of Transmission Error ...................................................................... 110
4.5.2 Reconstruction Error Sources .................................................................... 110
4.5.3 Comparison Between DPCM and TC ....................................................... 111
4.5.4 Hybrid Coding ............................................................................................. 111
4.6 Summary .................................................................................................................... 112
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 114
References ............................................................................................................................. 115
x Contents

5. Variable-Length Coding: Information Theory Results (II)......................................... 117

5.1 Some Fundamental Results ..................................................................................... 117
5.1.1 Coding an Information Source .................................................................. 117
5.1.2 Some Desired Characteristics .................................................................... 119
5.1.2.1 Block Code ..................................................................................... 119
5.1.2.2 Uniquely Decodable Code .......................................................... 120
5.1.2.3 Instantaneous Codes.................................................................... 121
5.1.2.4 Compact Code............................................................................... 122
5.1.3 Discrete Memoryless Sources .................................................................... 122
5.1.4 Extensions of a Discrete Memoryless Source .......................................... 122
5.1.4.1 Definition ....................................................................................... 123
5.1.4.2 Entropy .......................................................................................... 123
5.1.4.3 Noiseless Source Coding Theorem ............................................ 124
5.2 Huffman Codes ......................................................................................................... 124
5.2.1 Required Rules for Optimum Instantaneous Codes .............................. 125
5.2.2 Huffman Coding Algorithm ...................................................................... 126
5.2.2.1 Procedures ..................................................................................... 127
5.2.2.2 Comments ..................................................................................... 127
5.2.2.3 Applications .................................................................................. 128
5.3 Modified Huffman Codes........................................................................................ 128
5.3.1 Motivation ..................................................................................................... 128
5.3.2 Algorithm ...................................................................................................... 129
5.3.3 Codebook Memory Requirement .............................................................. 129
5.3.4 Bounds on Average Codeword Length .................................................... 130
5.4 Arithmetic Codes ...................................................................................................... 131
5.4.1 Limitations of Huffman Coding ................................................................ 131
5.4.2 The Principle of Arithmetic Coding ......................................................... 132
5.4.2.1 Dividing Interval (0,1) into Subintervals ................................... 133
5.4.2.2 Encoding ........................................................................................ 134
5.4.2.3 Decoding ....................................................................................... 135
5.4.2.4 Observations ................................................................................. 136
5.4.3 Implementation Issues ................................................................................ 137
5.4.3.1 Incremental Implementation ...................................................... 138
5.4.3.2 Finite Precision ............................................................................. 138
5.4.3.3 Other Issues................................................................................... 138
5.4.4 History ........................................................................................................... 139
5.4.5 Applications .................................................................................................. 139
5.5 Summary .................................................................................................................... 140
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 141
References ............................................................................................................................. 142

6. Run-Length and Dictionary Coding: Information Theory Results (III) ................ 143
6.1 Markov Source Model .............................................................................................. 143
6.1.1 Discrete Markov Source .............................................................................. 144
6.1.2 Extensions of a Discrete Markov Source .................................................. 145
6.1.2.1 Definition ....................................................................................... 145
6.1.2.2 Entropy .......................................................................................... 145
6.1.3 Autoregressive Model ................................................................................. 146
Contents xi

6.2 Run-Length Coding .................................................................................................. 146

6.2.1 1-D Run-Length Coding ............................................................................. 147
6.2.2 2-D Run-Length Coding ............................................................................. 148
6.2.2.1 Five Changing Pixels ................................................................... 149
6.2.2.2 Three Coding Modes ................................................................... 150
6.2.3 Effect of Transmission Error and Uncompressed Mode ........................ 150
6.2.3.1 Error Effect in the 1-D RLC Case ............................................... 151
6.2.3.2 Error Effect in the 2-D RLC Case ............................................... 151
6.2.3.3 Uncompressed Mode ................................................................... 152
6.3 Digital Facsimile Coding Standards ...................................................................... 152
6.4 Dictionary Coding .................................................................................................... 153
6.4.1 Formulation of Dictionary Coding............................................................ 153
6.4.2 Categorization of Dictionary-Based Coding Techniques ....................... 153
6.4.2.1 Static Dictionary Coding ............................................................. 153
6.4.2.2 Adaptive Dictionary Coding ...................................................... 154
6.4.3 Parsing Strategy ........................................................................................... 154
6.4.4 Sliding Window (LZ77) Algorithms ......................................................... 155
6.4.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 155
6.4.4.2 Encoding and Decoding.............................................................. 155
6.4.4.3 Summary of the LZ77 Approach ............................................... 158
6.4.5 LZ78 Algorithms .......................................................................................... 159
6.4.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 159
6.4.5.2 Encoding and Decoding.............................................................. 159
6.4.5.3 LZW Algorithm ............................................................................ 160
6.4.5.4 Summary ....................................................................................... 162
6.4.5.5 Applications .................................................................................. 163
6.5 International Standards for Lossless Still Image Compression ......................... 163
6.5.1 Lossless Bilevel Still Image Compression ................................................ 163
6.5.1.1 Algorithms .................................................................................... 163
6.5.1.2 Performance Comparison ........................................................... 164
6.5.2 Lossless Multilevel Still Image Compression .......................................... 164
6.5.2.1 Algorithms .................................................................................... 164
6.5.2.2 Performance Comparison ........................................................... 164
6.6 Summary .................................................................................................................... 165
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 166
References ............................................................................................................................. 167

7. Some Material Related to Multimedia Engineering ................................................... 169

7.1 Digital Watermarking............................................................................................... 169
7.1.1 Where to Embed Digital Watermark ........................................................ 169
7.1.2 Watermark Signal with One Random Binary Sequence ........................ 170
7.1.3 Challenge Faced by Digital Watermarking .............................................. 173
7.1.4 Watermark Embedded into the DC Component ..................................... 175
7.1.5 Digital Watermark with Multiple Information Bits and Error
Correction Coding ....................................................................................... 178
7.1.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 178
7.2 Reversible Data Hiding ............................................................................................ 178
7.3 Information Forensics............................................................................................... 179
References ............................................................................................................................. 179
xii Contents

Part II Still Image Compression

8. Still Image Coding Standard—JPEG ............................................................................. 183

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 183
8.2 Sequential DCT-Based Encoding Algorithm ........................................................ 185
8.3 Progressive DCT-Based Encoding Algorithm ...................................................... 190
8.4 Lossless Coding Mode ............................................................................................. 192
8.5 Hierarchical Coding Mode ...................................................................................... 193
8.6 Summary .................................................................................................................... 194
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 194
References ............................................................................................................................. 195

9. Wavelet Transform for Image Coding: JPEG2000........................................................ 197

9.1 A Review of Wavelet Transform ............................................................................. 197
9.1.1 Definition and Comparison with Short-Time Fourier
Transform ...................................................................................... 197
9.1.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform ...................................................................... 201
9.1.3 Lifting Scheme............................................................................................. 203
9.1.3.1 Three Steps in Forward Wavelet Transform .......................... 203
9.1.3.2 Inverse Transform ...................................................................... 204
9.1.3.3 Lifting Version of CDF (2,2) ...................................................... 204
9.1.3.4 A Numerical Example ............................................................... 205
9.1.3.5 (5,3) Integer Wavelet Transform ............................................... 206
9.1.3.6 A Demonstration Example of (5,3) IWT.................................. 206
9.1.3.7 Summary..................................................................................... 207
9.2 Digital Wavelet Transform for Image Compression ............................................ 207
9.2.1 Basic Concept of Image Wavelet Transform Coding ............................. 207
9.2.2 Embedded Image Wavelet Transform Coding Algorithms .................. 209
9.2.2.1 Early Wavelet Image Coding Algorithms and Their
Drawbacks ..................................................................................209
9.2.2.2 Modern Wavelet Image Coding ............................................... 210
9.2.2.3 Embedded Zerotree Wavelet Coding ..................................... 211
9.2.2.4 Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees Coding ...................... 212
9.3 Wavelet Transform for JPEG-2000 .......................................................................... 214
9.3.1 Introduction of JPEG2000........................................................................... 214
9.3.1.1 Requirements of JPEG-2000...................................................... 214
9.3.1.2 Parts of JPEG-2000 ..................................................................... 215
9.3.2 Verification Model of JPEG2000 ................................................................ 216
9.3.3 An Example of Performance Comparison between JPEG and
JPEG2000 ......................................................................................................219
9.4 Summary .................................................................................................................... 219
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 219
References ............................................................................................................................. 221
Contents xiii

10. Non-standardized Still Image Coding...........................................................................223

10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 223
10.2 Vector Quantization ................................................................................................. 224
10.2.1 Basic Principle of Vector Quantization .................................................... 224
10.2.1.1 Vector Formation........................................................................225
10.2.1.2 Training Set Generation ............................................................225
10.2.1.3 Codebook Generation................................................................ 226
10.2.1.4 Quantization ............................................................................... 226
10.2.2 Several Image Coding Schemes with Vector Quantization .................. 227
10.2.2.1 Residual VQ ................................................................................ 227
10.2.2.2 Classified VQ .............................................................................. 228
10.2.2.3 Transform Domain VQ ............................................................. 228
10.2.2.4 Predictive VQ.............................................................................. 229
10.2.2.5 Block Truncation Coding .......................................................... 229
10.2.3 Lattice VQ for Image Coding .................................................................... 230
10.3 Fractal Image Coding ............................................................................................... 232
10.3.1 Mathematical Foundation.......................................................................... 232
10.3.2 IFS-Based Fractal Image Coding ..............................................................234
10.3.3 Other Fractal Image Coding Methods ..................................................... 236
10.4 Model-Based Coding ................................................................................................ 236
10.4.1 Basic Concept............................................................................................... 236
10.4.2 Image Modeling .......................................................................................... 236
10.5 Summary.................................................................................................................... 237
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 238
References ............................................................................................................................. 238

Part III Motion Estimation and Compensation

11. Motion Analysis and Motion Compensation ............................................................... 243

11.1 Image Sequences ....................................................................................................... 243
11.2 Interframe Correlation ............................................................................................. 246
11.3 Frame Replenishment .............................................................................................. 249
11.4 Motion-Compensated Coding ................................................................................ 250
11.5 Motion Analysis ........................................................................................................ 253
11.5.1 Biological Vision Perspective .................................................................... 253
11.5.2 Computer Vision Perspective .................................................................... 253
11.5.3 Signal Processing Perspective ................................................................... 255
11.6 Motion Compensation for Image Sequence Processing ...................................... 256
11.6.1 Motion-Compensated Interpolation ........................................................ 256
11.6.2 Motion-Compensated Enhancement ....................................................... 258
11.6.3 Motion-Compensated Restoration ........................................................... 259
11.6.4 Motion-Compensated Down-Conversion ............................................... 259
11.7 Summary.................................................................................................................... 259
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 261
References ............................................................................................................................. 262
xiv Contents

12. Block Matching ................................................................................................................... 265

12.1 Non-overlapped, Equally Spaced, Fixed-Size, Small Rectangular Block
Matching ....................................................................................................................265
12.2 Matching Criteria ...................................................................................................... 267
12.3 Searching Procedures............................................................................................... 269
12.3.1 Full Search ................................................................................................... 269
12.3.2 2-D Logarithm Search ................................................................................ 269
12.3.3 Coarse-Fine Three-Step Search................................................................. 269
12.3.4 Conjugate Direction Search ....................................................................... 271
12.3.5 Subsampling in the Correlation Window ............................................... 272
12.3.6 Multiresolution Block Matching ............................................................... 273
12.3.7 Thresholding Multiresolution Block Matching ...................................... 274
12.3.7.1 Algorithm .................................................................................... 275
12.3.7.2 Threshold Determination ......................................................... 276
12.3.7.3 Thresholding .............................................................................. 278
12.3.7.4 Experiments ................................................................................ 279
12.4 Matching Accuracy................................................................................................... 281
12.5 Limitations with Block-Matching Techniques ...................................................... 281
12.6 New Improvements .................................................................................................. 283
12.6.1 Hierarchical Block Matching .................................................................... 283
12.6.2 Multigrid Block Matching .........................................................................284
12.6.2.1 Thresholding Multigrid Block Matching ............................... 285
12.6.2.2 Optimal Multigrid Block Matching ........................................ 288
12.6.3 Predictive Motion Field Segmentation .................................................... 289
12.6.4 Overlapped Block Matching ..................................................................... 292
12.7 Summary.................................................................................................................... 293
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 295
References ............................................................................................................................. 296

13. Pel-Recursive Technique ................................................................................................... 299

13.1 Problem Formulation ............................................................................................... 299
13.2 Descent Methods....................................................................................................... 301
13.2.1 First-Order Necessary Conditions ........................................................... 301
13.2.2 Second-Order Sufficient Conditions ........................................................ 301
13.2.3 Underlying Strategy ................................................................................... 302
13.2.4 Convergence Speed .................................................................................... 303
13.2.4.1 Order of Convergence ...............................................................304
13.2.4.2 Linear Convergence ...................................................................304
13.2.5 Steepest Descent Method...........................................................................305
13.2.5.1 Formulae .....................................................................................305
13.2.5.2 Convergence Speed....................................................................305
13.2.5.3 Selection of Step Size .................................................................305
13.2.6 Newton-Raphson’s Method ....................................................................... 306
13.2.6.1 Formulae .....................................................................................306
13.2.6.2 Convergence Speed.................................................................... 307
13.2.6.3 Generalization and Improvements.......................................... 307
13.2.7 Other Methods ............................................................................................308
Contents xv

13.3 Netravali-Robbins’ Pel-Recursive Algorithm .......................................................308

13.3.1 Inclusion of a Neighborhood Area ...........................................................308
13.3.2 Interpolation ................................................................................................ 309
13.3.3 Simplification ...............................................................................................309
13.3.4 Performance .................................................................................................309
13.4 Other Pel-Recursive Algorithms............................................................................. 310
13.4.1 Bergmann’s Algorithm (1982).................................................................... 310
13.4.2 Bergmann’s Algorithm (1984) ................................................................... 310
13.4.3 Cafforio and Rocca’s Algorithm ............................................................... 310
13.4.4 Walker and Rao’s algorithm ...................................................................... 311
13.5 Performance Comparison ........................................................................................ 311
13.6 Summary.................................................................................................................... 312
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 313
References ............................................................................................................................. 313

14. Optical Flow ........................................................................................................................ 315

14.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 315
14.1.1 2-D Motion and Optical Flow ................................................................... 316
14.1.2 Aperture Problem ....................................................................................... 317
14.1.3 Ill-Posed Problem ........................................................................................ 319
14.1.4 Classification of Optical-Flow Techniques .............................................. 319
14.2 Gradient-Based Approach ....................................................................................... 320
14.2.1 Horn and Schunck’s Method .................................................................... 320
14.2.1.1 Brightness Invariance Equation ............................................... 320
14.2.1.2 Smoothness Constraint ............................................................. 322
14.2.1.3 Minimization .............................................................................. 323
14.2.1.4 Iterative Algorithm .................................................................... 323
14.2.2 Modified Horn and Schunck Method...................................................... 325
14.2.3 Lucas and Kanade’s Method ..................................................................... 327
14.2.4 Nagel’s Method ........................................................................................... 327
14.2.5 Uras, Girosi, Verri, and Torre’s Method ................................................... 327
14.3 Correlation-Based Approach................................................................................... 328
14.3.1 Anandan’s Method ..................................................................................... 328
14.3.2 Singh’s Method ............................................................................................ 329
14.3.2.1 Conservation Information ........................................................ 331
14.3.2.2 Neighborhood Information ...................................................... 331
14.3.2.3 Minimization and Iterative Algorithm ................................... 332
14.3.3 Pan, Shi, and Shu’s Method ....................................................................... 333
14.3.3.1 Proposed Framework ................................................................334
14.3.3.2 Implementation and Experiments ........................................... 336
14.3.3.3 Discussion and Conclusion ......................................................345
14.4 Multiple Attributes for Conservation Information ..............................................346
14.4.1 Weng, Ahuja, and Huang’s Method ......................................................... 347
14.4.2 Xia and Shi’s Method ................................................................................. 347
14.4.2.1 Multiple Image Attributes ........................................................348
14.4.2.2 Conservation Stage .................................................................... 349
14.4.2.3 Propagation Stage ...................................................................... 350
14.4.2.4 Outline of Algorithm................................................................. 350
xvi Contents

14.4.2.5 Experimental Results ................................................................ 351

14.4.2.6 Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................... 351
14.5 Summary.................................................................................................................... 352
Exercises ................................................................................................................................354
References ............................................................................................................................. 355

15. Further Discussion and Summary on 2-D Motion Estimation ................................. 357
15.1 General Characterization ......................................................................................... 357
15.1.1 Aperture Problem ....................................................................................... 357
15.1.2 Ill-Posed Inverse Problem .......................................................................... 357
15.1.3 Conservation Information and Neighborhood Information ................ 358
15.1.4 Occlusion and Disocclusion ...................................................................... 358
15.1.5 Rigid and Nonrigid Motion ...................................................................... 359
15.2 Different Classifications ........................................................................................... 360
15.2.1 Deterministic Methods vs. Stochastic Methods ..................................... 360
15.2.2 Spatial Domain Methods vs. Frequency Domain Methods ................. 360
15.2.2.1 Optical-Flow Determination Using Gabor Energy Filters ..... 361
15.2.3 Region-Based Approaches vs. Gradient-Based Approaches ................364
15.2.4 Forward vs. Backward Motion Estimation ............................................. 365
15.3 Performance Comparison between Three Major Approaches ........................... 367
15.3.1 Three Representatives ................................................................................ 367
15.3.2 Algorithm Parameters ................................................................................ 367
15.3.3 Experimental Results and Observations ................................................. 367
15.4 New Trends ................................................................................................................ 368
15.4.1 DCT-Based Motion Estimation ................................................................. 368
15.4.1.1 DCT and DST Pseudophases.................................................... 368
15.4.1.2 Sinusoidal Orthogonal Principle ............................................. 370
15.4.1.3 Performance Comparison ......................................................... 371
15.5 Summary.................................................................................................................... 371
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 372
References ............................................................................................................................. 372

Part IV Video Compression

16. Fundamentals of Digital Video Coding ........................................................................ 377

16.1 Digital Video Representation .................................................................................. 377
16.2 Information Theory Results: Rate Distortion Function of Video Signal .......... 378
16.3 Digital Video Formats .............................................................................................. 381
16.3.1 Digital Video Color Systems ..................................................................... 381
16.3.2 Progressive and Interlaced Video Signals ............................................... 383
16.3.3 Video Formats Used by Video Industry .................................................. 383
16.4 Current Status of Digital Video/Image Coding Standards ................................ 385
16.5 Summary.................................................................................................................... 389
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 389
References ............................................................................................................................. 391
Contents xvii

17. Digital Video Coding Standards—MPEG-1/2 Video ................................................. 393

17.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 393
17.2 Features of MPEG-1/2 Video Coding..................................................................... 394
17.2.1 MPEG-1 Features ......................................................................................... 394
17.2.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 394
17.2.1.2 Layered Structure Based on Group of Pictures ..................... 394
17.2.1.3 Encoder Structure ...................................................................... 395
17.2.1.4 Structure of the Compressed Bitstream ................................. 399
17.2.1.5 Decoding Process....................................................................... 401
17.2.2 MPEG-2 Enhancements.............................................................................. 402
17.2.2.1 Field/Frame-Prediction Mode ................................................. 402
17.2.2.2 Field/Frame DCT Coding Syntax............................................404
17.2.2.3 Downloadable Quantization Matrix and Alternative
Scan Order ..................................................................................404
17.2.2.4 Pan and Scan ..............................................................................405
17.2.2.5 Concealment Motion Vector ..................................................... 406
17.2.2.6 Scalability .................................................................................... 406
17.3 MPEG-2 Video Encoding .........................................................................................408
17.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................408
17.3.2 Pre-processing .............................................................................................408
17.3.3 Motion Estimation and Motion Compensation ...................................... 409
17.3.3.1 Matching Criterion .................................................................... 410
17.3.3.2 Searching Algorithm ................................................................. 410
17.3.3.3 Advanced Motion Estimation .................................................. 412
17.4 Rate Control ............................................................................................................... 413
17.4.1 Introduction of Rate Control ..................................................................... 413
17.4.2 Rate Control of Test Model 5 for MPEG-2 ............................................... 413
17.4.2.1 Step 1: Target Bit Allocation ..................................................... 413
17.4.2.2 Step 2: Rate Control ................................................................... 414
17.4.2.3 Step 3: Adaptive Quantization ................................................. 416
17.5 Optimum Mode Decision ........................................................................................ 417
17.5.1 Problem Formation ..................................................................................... 417
17.5.2 Procedure for Obtaining the Optimal Mode .......................................... 420
17.5.2.1 Optimal Solution........................................................................ 420
17.5.2.2 Near-Optimal Greedy Solution ...............................................422
17.5.3 Practical Solution with New Criteria for the Selection
of Coding Mode...........................................................................................423
17.6 Statistical Multiplexing Operations on Multiple Program Encoding ............... 424
17.6.1 Background of Statistical Multiplexing Operation ................................ 424
17.6.2 VBR Encoders in StatMux .......................................................................... 426
17.6.3 Research Topics of StatMux ....................................................................... 427
17.6.3.1 Forward Analysis....................................................................... 428
17.6.3.2 Potential Modeling Strategies and Methods.......................... 428
17.7 Summary ....................................................................................................................430
Exercises ................................................................................................................................430
References .............................................................................................................................430
xviii Contents

18 Application Issues of MPEG-1/2 Video Coding ........................................................... 433

18.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 433
18.2 ATSC DTV Standards...............................................................................................433
18.2.1 A Brief History ............................................................................................433
18.2.2 Technical Overview of ATSC Systems..................................................... 435
18.2.2.1 Picture Layer .............................................................................. 435
18.2.2.2 Compression Layer .................................................................... 436
18.2.2.3 Transport Layer .......................................................................... 437
18.3 Transcoding with Bitstream Scaling ...................................................................... 438
18.3.1 Background.................................................................................................. 438
18.3.2 Basic Principles of Bitstream Scaling .......................................................440
18.3.3 Architectures of Bitstream Scaling...........................................................442
18.3.3.1 Architecture 1: Cutting AC Coefficients .................................442
18.3.3.2 Architecture 2: Increasing Quantization Step .......................443
18.3.3.3 Architecture 3: Re-encoding with Old Motion Vectors
and Old Decisions......................................................................444
18.3.3.4 Architecture 4: Re-encoding with Old Motion Vectors
and New Decisions ....................................................................444
18.3.3.5 Comparison of Bitstream Scaling Methods ...........................445
18.3.4 MPEG-2 to MPEG-4 Transcoding ............................................................. 447
18.4 Down-Conversion Decoder .....................................................................................448
18.4.1 Background..................................................................................................448
18.4.2 Frequency Synthesis Down-Conversion ................................................. 450
18.4.3 Low-Resolution Motion Compensation ................................................... 452
18.4.4 Three-Layer Scalable Decoder ..................................................................454
18.4.5 Summary of Down-Conversion Decoder................................................ 457
Appendix A: DCT-to-Spatial Transformation ......................................... 458
Appendix B: Full-Resolution Motion Compensation in
Matrix Form .........................................................................459
18.5 Error Concealment .................................................................................................... 460
18.5.1 Background.................................................................................................. 460
18.5.2 Error Concealment Algorithms ................................................................ 462
18.5.2.1 Codeword Domain Error Concealment ................................. 463
18.5.2.2 Spatio-temporal Error Concealment ....................................... 463
18.5.3 Algorithm Enhancements ......................................................................... 467
18.5.3.1 Directional Interpolation .......................................................... 467
18.5.3.2 I-picture Motion Vectors ........................................................... 468
18.5.3.3 Spatial Scalable Error Concealment ........................................ 469
18.5.4 Summary of Error Concealment .............................................................. 470
18.6 Summary.................................................................................................................... 471
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 471
References ............................................................................................................................. 472
Contents xix

19. MPEG-4 Video Standard: Content-Based Video Coding........................................... 475

19.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 475
19.2 MPEG-4 Requirements and Functionalities ......................................................... 476
19.2.1 Content-Based Interactivity ....................................................................... 476
19.2.1.1 Content-Based Manipulation and Bitstream Editing ........... 476
19.2.1.2 Synthetic and Natural Hybrid Coding ................................... 476
19.2.1.3 Improved Temporal Random Access ...................................... 476
19.2.2 Content-Based Efficient Compression...................................................... 477
19.2.2.1 Improved Coding Efficiency .................................................... 477
19.2.2.2 Coding of Multiple Concurrent Data Streams ...................... 477
19.2.3 Universal Access ......................................................................................... 477
19.2.3.1 Robustness in Error-Prone Environments ............................. 477
19.2.3.2 Content-Based Scalability ......................................................... 477
19.2.4 Summary of MPEG-4 Features ................................................................. 477
19.3 Technical Description of MPEG-4 Video............................................................... 478
19.3.1 Overview of MPEG-4 Video...................................................................... 478
19.3.2 Motion Estimation and Compensation ................................................... 479
19.3.2.1 Adaptive Selection of 16 × 16 Block or Four
8 × 8 Blocks ........................................................................ 480
19.3.2.2 Overlapped Motion Compensation ........................................ 481
19.3.3 Texture Coding............................................................................................ 481
19.3.3.1 INTRA DC and AC Prediction ................................................ 482
19.3.3.2 Motion Estimation/Compensation of
Arbitrary-Shaped VOP ..............................................................483
19.3.3.3 Texture Coding of Arbitrary-Shaped VOP.............................484
19.3.4 Shape Coding .............................................................................................. 486
19.3.4.1 Binary Shape Coding with CAE Algorithm .......................... 486
19.3.4.2 Gray-Scale Shape Coding ......................................................... 488
19.3.5 Sprite Coding ............................................................................................... 489
19.3.6 Interlaced Video Coding ............................................................................ 490
19.3.7 Wavelet-Based Texture Coding ................................................................. 490
19.3.7.1 Decomposition of the Texture Information ........................... 490
19.3.7.2 Quantization of Wavelet Coefficients ..................................... 491
19.3.7.3 Coding of Wavelet Coefficients of Low-Low Band and
Other Bands ................................................................................ 491
19.3.7.4 Adaptive Arithmetic Coder...................................................... 491
19.3.8 Generalized Spatial and Temporal Scalability ....................................... 491
19.3.9 Error Resilience ........................................................................................... 493
19.4 MPEG-4 Visual Bitstream Syntax and Semantics ................................................ 494
19.5 MPEG-4 Visual Profiles and Levels ....................................................................... 495
19.6 MPEG-4 Video Verification Model ......................................................................... 496
19.6.1 VOP-Based Encoding and Decoding Process ......................................... 497
19.6.2 Video Encoder ............................................................................................. 497
19.6.2.1 Video Segmentation .................................................................. 497
19.6.2.2 Intra/Inter Mode Decision ....................................................... 499
19.6.2.3 Off-line Sprite Generation ........................................................ 499
19.6.2.4 Multiple VO Rate Control .........................................................500
19.6.3 Video Decoder ............................................................................................. 501
xx Contents

19.7 Summary ....................................................................................................................502

Exercises ................................................................................................................................502
References .............................................................................................................................503

20. ITU-T Video Coding Standards H.261 and H.263.........................................................505

20.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................505
20.2 H.261 Video Coding Standard ................................................................................ 505
20.2.1 Overview of H.261 Video Coding Standard ........................................... 505
20.2.2 Technical Detail of H.261 ...........................................................................507
20.2.3 Syntax Description ......................................................................................508
20.2.3.1 Picture Layer ............................................................................ 508
20.2.3.2 Group of Blocks Layer ............................................................508
20.2.3.3 Macroblock Layer ....................................................................508
20.2.3.4 Block Layer ...............................................................................509
20.3 H.263 Video Coding Standard ................................................................................ 510
20.3.1 Overview of H.263 Video Coding ............................................................ 510
20.3.2 Technical Features of H.263 ....................................................................... 511
20.3.2.1 Half-Pixel Accuracy................................................................. 511
20.3.2.2 Unrestricted-Motion Vector Mode ........................................ 512
20.3.2.3 Advanced-Prediction Mode ................................................... 512
20.3.2.4 Syntax-Based Arithmetic Coding .......................................... 514
20.3.2.5 PB-frames ..................................................................................515
20.4 H.263 Video Coding Standard Version 2 ............................................................... 516
20.4.1 Overview of H.263 Version 2..................................................................... 516
20.4.2 New Features of H.263 Version 2.............................................................. 516
20.4.2.1 Scalability ..................................................................................516
20.4.2.2 Improved PB-frames ...............................................................518
20.4.2.3 Advanced Intra Coding ..........................................................518
20.4.2.4 Deblocking Filter .....................................................................519
20.4.2.5 Slice-Structured Mode ............................................................ 520
20.4.2.6 Reference Picture Selection .................................................... 521
20.4.2.7 Independent Segmentation Decoding ..................................521
20.4.2.8 Reference Picture Resampling ............................................... 521
20.4.2.9 Reduced-Resolution Update ..................................................522
20.4.2.10 Alternative INTER VLC (AIV) and Modified
Quantization ....................................................................... 523
20.4.2.11 Supplemental Enhancement Information ............................524
20.5 H.263++ Video Coding and H.26L.........................................................................524
20.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................525
Exercises ................................................................................................................................525
References .............................................................................................................................525

21. Video Coding Standard—H.264/AVC ............................................................................. 527

21.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................527
21.2 Overview of the H.264/AVC Codec Structure ..................................................... 528
21.3 Technical Description of H.264/AVC Coding Tools ............................................ 531
21.3.1 Instantaneous Decoding Refresh Picture................................................ 531
21.3.2 Switching I Slices and Switching P Slices ............................................... 532
21.3.3 Transform and Quantization ....................................................................534
Contents xxi

21.3.4 Intra Frame Coding with Directional Spatial Prediction ..................... 536
21.3.5 Adaptive Block Size Motion Compensation ........................................... 536
21.3.6 Motion Compensation with Multiple References .................................. 537
21.3.7 Entropy Coding........................................................................................... 538
21.3.8 Loop Filter ....................................................................................................543
21.3.9 Error Resilience Tools .................................................................................545
21.4 Profiles and Levels of H.264/AVC ..........................................................................546
21.4.1 Profiles of H.264/AVC ................................................................................. 547
21.4.2 Levels of H.264/AVC ...................................................................................548
21.5 Summary.................................................................................................................... 550
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 550
References ............................................................................................................................. 550

22. A New Video Coding Standard—HEVC/H.265 ........................................................... 553

22.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 553
22.2 Overview of HEVC/H.265 Codec Structure ......................................................... 554
22.3 Technical Description of H.265/HEVC Coding Tools ......................................... 555
22.3.1 Video Coding Block Structure (Codesequois 2012) ............................... 555
22.3.2 Predictive Coding Structure ..................................................................... 559
22.3.3 Transform and Quantization .................................................................... 562
22.3.4 Loop Filters .................................................................................................. 563
22.3.5 Entropy Coding........................................................................................... 566
22.3.6 Parallel Processing Tools ........................................................................... 567
22.4 HEVC/H.265 Profiles and Range Extensions (Sullivan et al. 2013) ................... 568
22.4.1 Version 1 of HEVC/H.265 .......................................................................... 568
22.4.2 Version 2 of HEVC/H.265 .......................................................................... 569
22.4.3 Versions 3 and 4 of HEVC/H.265 ............................................................. 572
22.5 Performance Comparison with H.264/AVC .......................................................... 574
22.5.1 Technical Difference Between H.264/AVC and HEVC/H.265 ............. 574
22.5.2 Performance Comparison Between H.264/AVC and HEVC/H.265 ..... 575
22.6 Summary.................................................................................................................... 577
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 577
References ............................................................................................................................. 577

23. Internet Video Coding Standard—IVC ......................................................................... 579

23.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 579
23.2 Coding Structure of IVC Standard ......................................................................... 581
23.2.1 Adaptive Transform ................................................................................... 582
23.2.2 Intra Prediction ........................................................................................... 582
23.2.3 Inter Prediction ........................................................................................... 582
23.2.4 Motion Vector Prediction ........................................................................... 583
23.2.5 Sub-pel Interpolation.................................................................................. 584
23.2.6 Reference Frames ........................................................................................ 584
23.2.7 Entropy Coding........................................................................................... 585
23.2.8 Loop Filtering .............................................................................................. 585
23.3 Performance Evaluation ........................................................................................... 586
23.4 Summary.................................................................................................................... 589
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 589
References ............................................................................................................................. 589
xxii Contents

24. MPEG Media Transport ................................................................................................... 591

24.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 591
24.2 MPEG-2 System ......................................................................................................... 592
24.2.1 Major Technical Definitions in MPEG-2 System Document ................ 593
24.2.2 Transport Streams ...................................................................................... 594
24.2.2.1 Structure of Transport Streams ............................................... 595
24.2.2.2 Transport Stream Syntax .......................................................... 597
24.2.3 Transport Streams Splicing ....................................................................... 599
24.2.4 Program Streams ........................................................................................ 601
24.2.5 Timing Model and Synchronization ........................................................ 603
24.3 MPEG-4 System......................................................................................................... 605
24.3.1 Overview and Architecture ...................................................................... 605
24.3.2 Systems Decoder Model.............................................................................608
24.3.3 Scene Description ....................................................................................... 609
24.3.4 Object Description Framework ................................................................. 609
24.4 MMT ........................................................................................................................... 610
24.4.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 610
24.4.2 MMT Content Model .................................................................................. 612
24.4.3 Encapsulation of MPU ............................................................................... 613
24.4.4 Packetized Delivery of Package ................................................................ 614
24.4.5 Cross Layer Interface .................................................................................. 615
24.4.6 Signaling ...................................................................................................... 615
24.4.7 Hypothetical Receiver Buffer Model........................................................ 616
24.5 Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP............................................................ 616
24.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 617
24.5.2 Media Presentation Description ............................................................... 618
24.5.3 Segment Format .......................................................................................... 619
24.6 Summary.................................................................................................................... 620
Exercises ................................................................................................................................ 620
References ............................................................................................................................. 621

Index ............................................................................................................................................. 623

Preface to the Third Edition

When looking at the prefaces of the first and second editions of this book published in 1999
and 2008, respectively, it is observed that the most of analyses, discussion and estimation
made there are still correct. The image and video compression as well as audio compres-
sion continue to play an important role in multimedia engineering. The trend of switch-
ing from analog to digital communications continues. Digital image and video, digital
multimedia, Internet, world wide web (WWW) have been continuously and vigorously
growing in the past 10 years. Therefore, in this third edition of the book, we have kept the
most of material in the second edition with some new additions. Some major changes we
have made are listed as follows.
First, in this book’s third edition, one chapter has been added (new Chapter 7), which
briefly introduces the digital watermarking technology. Furthermore, the so-called revers-
ible data hiding and information forensics have been briefly introduced.
Second, two new chapters describing the recently developed video coding standard,
HEVC/H.265 (Chapter 22) and IVC (Chapter 23) are added into the third edition. New
Chapter 22 introduces HEVC/H.265 which is the video coding standard, and has greatly
improved the coding efficiency compared with currently existing video coding standards.
In the new Chapter 23 an MPEG royalty free video coding standards has been introduced,
which is used for applications of internet video transmission. Third, for the previous
Chapter 21 covering the system part of MPEG, multiplexing/demultiplexing and synchro-
nizing the coded audio, video and other data has been changed as Chapter 24 in this
new addition. Since we have added two new MPEG Transport standards: MPEG media
transport (MMT) and MPEG DASH (Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP) into this
chapter, we change the title of this chapter to MPEG Transportation Standards.
For the rest of this new edition, we just made some minor changes and, of course, we
reorganized the chapter orders.

xxiii
Acknowledgments

We are pleased to express our gratitude for the support and help we received during the
course of writing this book.
Dr. Yun-Qing Shi thanks his friend and former colleague Dr. C. Q. Shu for fruitful tech-
nical discussion related to some contents of the book. Sincere thanks are also directed to
several of his friends and former students, Drs. J. N. Pan, X. Xia, S. Lin and Y. Shi, for their
technical contributions and computer simulations related to some subjects of the book. He
is grateful to Ms. L. Fitton for her English editing of 11 chapters, and to Dr. Z. F. Chen for
her help in preparing many graphics.
Dr. Huifang Sun expresses his appreciation to many friends and colleagues of the
MPEGers who provided MPEG documents and tutorial materials that are cited in some
revised chapters of this edition. He extends his appreciation to his colleague Dr. Anthony
Vetro for his supports and providing a good working environment to complete this revised
edition.
We would like to express our deep appreciation to Dr. Z. F. Chen for her great help in
formatting all the chapters of the book. We both thank Dr. F. Chichester for his help in
preparing the book.
Special thanks go to the editor-in-chief of the CRC Press Digital Image Processing book
series, Dr. P. Laplante, for his constant encouragement and guidance. The help from the
publisher of Electrical Engineering at CRC Press, Nora Konopka, is also appreciated.
The last, but not the least, we thank our families for their patient support during the
course of the writing. Without their understanding and support, we would not have been
able to complete this book.

Yun-Qing Shi and Huifang Sun

December 12, 2018

xxv
Authors

Yun-Qing Shi has been a professor with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, NJ, since 1987. He
has authored and co-authored more than 300 papers in his research areas, a book on Image
and Video Compression, three book chapters on Image Data Hiding, one book chapter on
Steganalysis, and one book chapter on Digital Image Processing. He has edited more than
10 proceedings of international workshops and conferences, holds 29 awarded US patents,
and delivered more than 120 invited talks around the world. He is a member of IEEE
Circuits and Systems Society (CASS)'s Technical Committee of Visual Signal Processing
and Communications, Technical Committee of Multimedia Systems and Applications, an
associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, and a fellow
of IEEE for his contribution to Multidimensional Signal Processing since 2005.

Huifang Sun received the BS degree in Electrical Engineering from Harbin Engineering
Institute (Harbin Engineering University now), Harbin, China, in 1967, and the PhD degree
in Electrical Engineering from University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. In 1986, he jointed
Fairleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck, New Jersey, as an assistant professor and pro-
moted to an associate professor in 1990. From 1990 to 1995, he was with the David Sarnoff
Research Center (Sarnoff Corp), Princeton, New Jersey, as a member of technical staff and
later promoted to Technology Leader of Digital Video Technology. He joined Mitsubishi
Electric Research Laboratories (MERL), in 1995 as a senior principal technical staff member
and was promoted as deputy director in 1997, vice president and MERL Fellow in 2003 and
now as MERL Fellow. He holds 66 U.S. patents and has authored or co-authored 2 books as
well as more than 150 journal and conference papers. For his contributions on HDTV devel-
opment he obtained 1994 Sarnoff Technical Achievement Award. He also obtained the best
paper award of IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics in 1993, the best paper award
of International Conference on Consumer Electronics in 1997 and the best paper award
of IEEE Transaction on CSVT in 2003. He was an associate editor for IEEE Transaction on
Circuits and Systems for Video Technology and the chair of Visual Processing Technical
Committee of IEEE Circuits and System Society. He is an IEEE Life Fellow. He also served
as a guest professor of Peking University, Tianjin University, Shanghai Jiaotong University
(Guest Researcher) and several other universities in China.

xxvii
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no related content on Scribd:
40. PYHÄ-AAMU.

Tänä päivänä, ystävä, olemme me jälleen puhtaat ja synnittömät!

Kuule, kuinka kirkonkellot soivat läpi kaupungin ja katso, kuinka

taivas on kirkas ja kadut valkeana uudesta lumesta, jota on yön
aikana satanut. Tänään, ystävä, on uusi päivä, joka ei eilistä muista,
ja tänä aamuna olemme me uudet ihmiset, puhtaat ja synnittömät
niinkuin vastasyntyneet lapset.

Kaikki, mitä eilen minua vastaan rikoit, on anteeksi annettu ja

unohdettu. Sillä tänään on taivas kirkas ja tänään on uusi päivä.
Miksi minä säilyttäisin mustaa mieltä, kun Jumalakin antaa
aurinkonsa joka päivä uutena paistaa.

Kaikki, ystävä, mitä minua vastaan rikoit, on anteeksi annettu ja

unohdettu, — ja silloin on sinun syntisi pesty ja pois pyyhitty. Nosta
pääsi ja katso minua kirkkain silmin, sillä me olemme jälleen puhtaat
ja synnittömät.

Tänään on uusi päivä ja tänään voimme antaa taivaalle uuden

lupauksen. Unohda, että sen eilen rikoit. Unohda eilinen päivä ja
eiliset synnit ja omantunnontuskat, sillä taivaskin ne unohti, — sillä
hetkellä kun minä ne anteeksi annoin ja unohdin.
 Katso minua silmiin, ystävä, ja ole onnellinen niin kuin minäkin.
Katso, kuinka aamu on kirkas, ja kuule, kuinka kirkonkellot soivat läpi
kaupungin.

Tänäänhän on uusi päivä.

41. LIIAN PITKÄLLEKÖ LEIKIN?

Elämä oli minulle suuri huvipaikka ja lempi sen parhain leikki.

Leikillä silmiisi katsoin ja leikillä käteesi tartuin. Suuri lapsi minä

olin ja lempi mieluisin leluni. Leikin vuoksi luoksesi tulin ja leikilläni
sinulle lemmestä puhuin. Aijoin sinut vain hetkeksi kanssani leikkiin
saada ja sitten mennä pois.

Mutta liian pitkällekö leikin, tyttöni, ja liian syvälle silmiisi katsoin,

kun minusta itsestäni tulikin lempeni leikkikalu, — sillä näethän, ettei
minulla olekaan enään voimaa mennä pois.
42. MIKSI LAINKAAN TULIT?

Miksi hymyilitkään, tyttöni, minulle silloin, kun sinuun ensi kerran

katsoin? Miksi koskaan sallit minun kotiisi tulla? Ja miksi tänään
kutsuani noudatit, kun sinua luokseni pyysin? Miksi ollenkaan tulit
tähän kaupunkiin ja tielleni osuit? Ja miksi lainkaan samaan
maailmaan synnyit? — Kun kuitenkin tulit liian myöhään.

Miksi et vuosia sitten tullut luokseni unissa ja sanonut, että Sinä se

olet, — kun Sinä se kuitenkin olit. Että minä olisin tietänyt sinua
odottaa, — kun sinä kuitenkin tulit.

Miksi, tyttöni, sinä lainkaan tulit, — kun kuitenkin tulit liian

myöhään?
43. LÖYSITKÖ KENTIES SINÄ?

Ennen minua rakastivat monet, nyt ei minusta pidä enään kukaan, —

paitsi sinä, tyttöni, — en edes itsekään.

Jo kauan sitten lakkasivat he löytämästä minusta mitään kaunista,

— tänään en löytänyt enään itsekään. Katsoin elämääni ja itseäni,
mutta en löytänyt kummastakaan mitään, joka olisi pelastanut minut
kantamasta helvettiä sielussani. — Silloin muistin minä, tyttöni, sinut.

Sano, miksi yhä ystäväni olet? — Löysitkö kenties sinä sen, mitä
eivät löytäneet muut, enkä minä?

Sano, löysitkö, tyttöni? Sinun sanasi helvetistä minut lunastaa.

44. MENE PIAN, TYTTÖSENI!

Liian kirkkaat ovat silmäsi, tyttöni, minun niihin katsoa, ja liian valkea
on kätesi minun käteeni annettavaksi. Puhtaampi sieluani on jo sinun
ruumiisikin ja sielusi kauniimpi kauneintakin ajatustani.

Liian hyvä olet sinä, tyttöni, minulle.

Unohda, että koskaan tuttusi olin. Älä ojenna minulle kättäsi

enään, äläkä katso minua silmiin, vaan lähde luotani ja jätä minut, —
niin kauan kun minulla vielä on voimaa käskeä sinua pois.

Mene pian, tyttöni, ja unohda että koskaan tuttusi olin!

45. SISARUKSET.

Me tiesimme kaikesta hiukan ja sen me tiesimme varmaan, ettemme

ole ketään rakastaneet, sisareni ja minä.

Mutta tänään, kun silmämme sattuvat toisiinsa, me hymyilemme.

Ei mitään erityistä ole tapahtunut. Ei kukaan ole käynyt meillä tai
lähettänyt kukkia kotiimme, entisetkin ovat ikkunalaudalla kuihtuneet.
Eivätkä naapuritkaan, jotka asuvat katumme varrella, tiedä mitään
erityistä kertoa, — sillä se ei ole salaisuus. Joku on vain kerran
kävellyt keskellämme, puristanut yhtä aikaa molempien käsiä ja
katsonut kumpaakin silmiin.

Päivä on mennyt, toinen tullut ja kaikki on ennallaan. Eivätkä

naapuritkaan, jotka asuvat katumme varrella, tiedä mitään erityistä
kertoa, — meillä kun ei ole salaisuutta.

Mutta aina milloin silmämme sattuvat toisiinsa, me hymyilemme.

Sillä tiedämme kaikesta hiukan, mutta sitä emme enään niin
varmaan tiedä, olemmeko ketään rakastaneet, vai emme, sisareni ja
minä.
46. LEMPEMME.

Ystäväni sanoi minulle:

»Minä tiedän, että sinä olet varhaisempi kukon laulua tullessasi, ja

se tieto saa mieleni alati ilostumaan. Mutta yhtä minä sinulta pyydän:
kun tulet ja minä kuulen veräjän narahtavan sinun sitä avatessasi ja
riennän kuistilleni sinua vastaan, niin tule aroin askelin sivu aamu-
unisen pellavapeltoni. Tule epätietoisena minun lemmestäni ja anna
poskipäittesi punertua ujoudesta, että minä luulisin lempemme
olevan vasta alussa.

Älä kerro minulle huulillasi siitä, jonka minä sinun arkakatseisilta

kasvoiltasi näen. Ole niinkuin et mitään tietäisi, että minun silmieni
täytyisi kertoa siitä sinulle joka aamu sinun tullessasi. Älä kysy sitä
minulta ääneen, ettei minun suuni tarvitsisi nimittää sitä nimellään,
— ettemme kadottaisi lempeämme.

Kun tulet, tyttöni, tule epätietoisena minun sydämestäni, jotta

luulisin kaiken olevan vasta alussa. Että en koskaan pääsisi perille
viinin paljoudesta leilissäsi — voidakseni kuvitella sen kestävän
ikuisesti».
47. EIVÄT HE VOI AAVISTAA.

Meillä oli kerran rakkaus, sinulla ja minulla. Mutta siitä on jo kauan,

kun aloimme sanoa: »Se on kuollut».

Nyt kokoan minä piikkejä — pistääkseni niillä sinua, ja pieniä kiviä

— lingotakseni niitä sinuun. Minun sanani ovat piikkejä. Tekoni ovat
pieniä kiviä. Jos ne osuvat sinuun ja osuessaan koskevat, olen minä
iloinen ja nauran. Jos heität ne takaisin, nousee siitä vain iloni, sillä
silloin on minulla syy pistää vielä terävämmin ja heittää vielä
sattuvammin sinuun. Alati puhallan minä sotatorveen enkä pelkää
mitään — paitsi rauhaa. Sanon sinulle pahimmat sanat, jotka löydän.
Eikä minua masenna mikään — paitsi sanattomuus. Sillä sillä
hetkellä kun suuni lakkaisi julistamasta: »Vihollinen»! ja tulisi
hiljaisuus, — kuiskaisi sydämeni: »Ystävä», Sentähden puhallamme
me sotatorveen ja pidämme melua, ettei se meidän rakkautemme
ääni kuuluisi. Me häpeäisimme, jos tulisi ilmi, että se onkin vain
valekuollut. Me kun sen jo hautasimme, istutimme kukkia kummulle
ja lauloimme hiljaisen suruvirren sen ääressä. Pyyhimme
silmänurkastamme kyyneleen ja ilmoitimme lehdessä: »Se on
kuollut». Eihän kuolleen sovi enään puhua.
 Kun me näin olemme asestautuneet toisiamme vastaan, sanovat
naapurit: »He pelkäävät toistensa vihaa ja ovat varuillaan». — Eivät
he voi aavistaa, että me meidän rakkauttamme pelkäämme.
48. SYY EI OLE MINUN EIKÄ SINUN.

Sattuma toi sinut vastaani tänään. Katsoit kultaista rengasta

vasemman käteni nimettömässä ja virkoit: »Joku on löytänyt
ystävyytesi. Minäkin etsin sitä kerran, — syy on sinun — että en sitä
silloin löytänyt». Ja menit ohitseni. Katsoin suurin, ihmettelevin silmin
jälkeesi. Kuinka olisin voinut silloin aavistaa, että sinä minun
ystävyyttäni etsit. Sillä sinä hait sitä niinkuin metsästäjä riistaansa.
Silmäsi katsoivat kuin kaksipiippuisen haulikon suut ja kutsusi oli
kuin jahtikoiran haukunta, ja minä pakenin tykyttävin sydämin ja
peljästynein silmin, niinkuin nuori peura takaa-ajajaansa.

Kuinka olisin voinut silloin aavistaa, että sinä minun ystävyyttäni

etsit. — Vasta tänään sen ymmärrän. Mutta syy ei ole minun, eikä
sinun, ettet sitä löytänyt. Sillä sinä et tietänyt kuinka minun
ystävyyttäni etsitään, enkä minä ymmärtänyt kuinka sinä ystävyyttä
etsit.

Syy ei ole sinun, eikä minun, ettei meistä tullut ystäviä, — vaan
Jumalan, joka meidät niin erilaisiksi loi.
49. JUURI SELLAISENA.

Sinä olet kuin rekilaulujen sankari, ja lempesi on yksinkertainen kuin

kansanlaulun sävel.

Kylissä ryöstät sinä tyttöjen sydämet ja kaupungeissa juot pöydän

alle markkinaveikot. Naiset kutsuvat sinua ryöväriksi, ja miehet
sanovat että tuhlari olet. He osaavat ulkoa sinun tekosi niinkuin
rekiveisut, ja sinun nimesi on aina heidän huulillaan niinkuin
kansanlaulu. Joka markkinapaikkaan olet sinä tervetullut ja joka
kylän luhdissa sinua odottaa sykkivä sydän, vaikka tietää että vain
mennäksesi tulet.

Älä pysähdy minunkaan ovelleni, sinä armas poika, sen

pitemmälle kuin sinulla on tapana pysähtyä. Haavoita sydämeni
niinkuin olet haavoittanut kymmeniä sydämiä ja jätä verta tihkuvana
jälkeesi, niin kuin olet jättänyt muutkin minua ennen. Ole se mikä olet
aina ollut, — sillä juuri sellaisena olet sinä minulle rakas.
50. MARKKINATORI.

Sanot ystävä, että olen muuttunut. Että sanani nyt ovat

sydämettömät ja nauruni haavoittaa lempeäsi.

Suotta on sinun siitä pahastua ja kantaa noin huonoa tuulta

kasvoillasi. Sillä tottahan sinä sen tietänet, että elämä on suuri
markkinapaikka, jossa pitää kaikkea katsella ja kaikelle nauraa.
Jossa pitää syödä rinkilöitä ja ajaa karusellissa. Katsella ilveilijöitä ja
murhenäytelmiä, mutta ei tulla vakavaksi eikä unohtaa —
katselevansa markkinoita.

Suotta on sinun siitä pahastua, jos minun sanani nyt ovat

sydämettömät ja: nauruni haavoittaa lempeäsi, — sillä ehkä ne
kerran juuri sinulta opin.
51. NAISEN SYDÄN.

Tänään hän meni ja jätti kimpun valkeita kukkia rannalla seisovan

tyttönsä rintaan.

Taivas oli pilvessä, meri valkeita vaahtopäitä täynnä. Laiva loittoni

ja vei minun; ystäväni. Parvi kalalokkeja kirkui sen kintereillä, se oli
kuin ilkeätä naurua, en kestänyt sitä kuulla, juoksin kotiini ja itkin.
Suutelin valkeita kukkia povellani, kunnes niiden terälehdet vähin
erin tippuivat helmaani. Katselin niitä. Ne putoilivat yksitellen niinkuin
tulevat päivät. Mitä useampi niitä on menevä, sitä kauemmas hän
loittonee, sitä yksinäisemmäksi minä jään — niinkuin valkean
kukkani kanta, josta terälehdet ovat varisseet.

Jonkun laivan sireenin ääni kuului mereltä, — kaukaa — yhä

kauempaa. Se pisti sydämeeni kuin puukon viilto. Se on tihkuva
verta hänen joka ainoan askeleensa jälkeen, — ja sireenin äänestä
kuulen kuinka ne aina vain etenevät ja etenevät, ne askeleet; — ja
minun sydänvereni on vuotava kuiviin ja sen elinvoima hiutuva pois,
— ellei joutuin joku toinen sen vuotoa tuki.
52. VANHUUS JA NUORUUS.

Ystäväni, jolla on harmaat ohimoilla, elämän pitkä tie takanaan ja

kaikista viinimaista sen varsilla kokemus, virkkoi minulle:

Monenlaisista viineistä humalluin, monenlaisia maisemia näin ja

monenkaltaisia naisia kohtasin. Toiset olivat väkeviä kuin vanha viini,
toiset mietoja ja kirkkaita. Toiset kuumia kuin keskikesä, toiset
kirveleviä kuin pakkaspäivät. Mutta ei yksikään ollut niinkuin sinä.
Sinä olet aamu ennen auringon nousua, viileä ja valoisa, ja kirkkaan
keskipäivän lupaa sinun taivaanrantasi. Sinua minä etsin ja sinun
kättäsi omaani kaipasin.

Voi, kaukainen olet sinä minulle, vastasin hiljaa. Se elämän pitkä

tie, joka on sinulla jo takanasi, on minulla vasta edessäni. Kaukaa on
sinulla lupa katsoa, kaukaa ja syrjästä, — ettet häiritsisi luonnollista
kulkuani. Niinkuin mätä hedelmä sinä olet, joka on vaarallinen
raakilolle. Sinä tuot minulle väsyneen ruumiisi ja täyteen viisauksia
ahdetun henkesi ja sanot: Kaikki on arvotonta, tämä on elämän
tulos. Ei, anna minun itse laskea elämän yhteenlasku, kenties tulos
on toinen.
 Älä lähesty minua, etten mädäntyisi jo raakilona. Ettei minun
täytyisi astua elämään pilaantuneella ruumiilla ja epäuskoisella
sielulla. Terveellä ruumiilla ja nuorella uskolla tahdon käydä elämän
olympialaisiin, että minulla olisi edes mahdollisuus — palata
seppelöitynä.

Jos rakastat minua, niin väisty ja anna minun mennä!

Minä rakastan sinun harmaita ohimoitasi ja rikasta sieluasi, mutta

minä rakastan myös minun nuorta luontoani, — sillä siinä luonnossa
puhuu minulle Jumalan ääni.
53. TUSKA.

Paina lujasti hengessäsi minut poveasi vasten, sinä rakas sinä!

Tahtoisin särkeä ja lyödä maahan nämä muurit väliltämme, —

nämä, jotka antavat suurimman nautinnon, — mutta myös
suurimman tuskan, sillä ne ikuisesti erottavat meidät sinuksi ja
minuksi, — nämä hirveät, ihanat ruumiit.

Tahtoisin ottaa irti sinun sielusi ruumiistasi — ja suudella sitä.

Tahtoisin tulla likelle, likelle sinua, niin likelle, että unohtaisimme
molemmat, että sinä olet sinä ja minä olen minä. Mutta ei. Me emme
koskaan voi syleillä sitä, jota me toisissamme rakastamme. — Meille
jää alati vain toistemme ruumiit käsiin. Nojaamme avuttomina
toisiimme ja värisemme tuskasta, — mutta se tuska on ihana, se
pistävä kipu povessa, — sydämen taivaallisin hetki, onnen korkein
ilmenemismuoto täällä tomun ja tuhkan maassa. Sillä silloin näin
minä sielusi kauneuden ja tahdoin tarttua siihen, — mutta käsiini jäi
vain ruumis. Siitä tuska. Mutta minä näin, ja siinä epätoivoisessa
tietoisuudessa, siinä se suuri onni.

Jos sinä syleilisit ruumistani, enkä minä silloin tuskasta värisisi

yläpuolella maallisen hyväntuntoni, jos siinä ruumiittemme syleilyssä
tuntisimme saaneemme kaiken ja olisimme onnelliset, — saisit sinä
hellittää käsivartesi otteen, saisimme kääntää selkämme toisillemme
ja mennä eri teitä, — sillä me olisimme eläinten kaltaisia ja meidän.
yhdessäolomme olisi rikos.

Mutta jos ruumiittemme syleilystä on syntynyt vielä suurempi

kaipuu, tunne siitä kuinka vähän, vähän saattoi antaa, — olemme
me tiellä jumalten luo ja meillä on syy yhdessä oloomme, sillä
meidän tiemme sinne on yhteinen.

Siunattu tuska! Sen kautta näin minä todellisen sinun — ja sinussa

Jumalan, — ja silloin uskoin sen olemassa oloon, jota ei voi käsin
koskea, ja siihen todellisuuteen, jota ei ole silminnähtävästi
todistettu. Ja minä ymmärsin mitä varten maailma ja maailmoita on
— ja mitä varten minä.
54. KADOTETULLE SYDÄMELLE.

Taiteilijalle minussa on sinun muistosi — ilo ja nautinto.

Ihmiselle — tuska ja kidutus.

Jumalalle — usko itseensä.

Jokainen noista kolmesta minussa otti sinusta osansa.

Ensimäisessä säilyt kauan. Keskimmäiseltä unohdut uuden ilon tai
tuskan tullen. Ikuisesti jää sinusta jälelle minuun vain jumalani suuri
kiitos — siitä että olit!
55. SIKSI SE OLI.

Oletko huomannut, sinä, joka ennen olit minulle rakas, kuinka

omenien posket ovat punertuneet ja joku lehti jo kellastunut, —
niinkuin silloin, kun minä vielä olin sinulle rakas? Katsoin ulos
ikkunasta tänään ja huomasin sen — ja muistin meidän muinaisen
lempemme.

Muistatko sitä syksyä ja sitä syksyistä aamua? Katso ulos

ikkunastasi, se oli juuri niinkuin tämä. Muistatko sitä? Sinä aamuna
seisoin kuistillani ja kuulin puutarhasta sinun äänesi minua kutsuvan.
Juoksin polulle, jonka vain me molemmat tiesimme. Sitten eilisen oli
sille uusia lehtiä tippunut ja omenapuiden raskaat oksat tarttuivat
hameeni helmoihin. Sinä olit kiivennyt aidan yli, joka on kotiemme
välillä. Minä annoin käteni sinun odottaviin käsiisi ja me
naurahdimme molemmat. Katsoin sinun silmiisi ja näin niissä
naurun, — näin muutakin, — mitä enemmän katsoin, sitä enemmän
näin — näin koko maailmani. Ja rintakehäni tuntui olevan liian pieni
sydämelleni, se tulvi kuin vesi keväisin meidän joessamme. Puristin
sinun kättäsi ja juoksin yhtäkkiä pois. Puiden oksat piiloittivat valkean
pukuni ja jalkaini jäljet peittyivät putoileviin lehtiin. Minun ajatukseni
villiintyivät syksyisen puutarhan tuoksusta ja juoksin kuin lapsi, joka
kuvittelee lentävänsä, juoksin ja nauroin. En rohjennut mennä