MPEN 322 Solid Mechanics III - 2022

2021 / 2022 Academic Year
LECTURE NOTES
MPEN 322: SOLID MECHANICS III
By
Stephen Talai, PhD

(PhD. Mechanical Vibrations, University of Pretoria/Tshwane University of Technology – South Africa)
Bridges have members having both symmetrical and unsymmetrical cross-section
Email address: [email protected]

Cell No.: +254 726 317 569
Technology Block: Room T64
Moi University, School of Engineering

Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering
©January, 2022
MPE 322 – SOLID MECHANICS III (3 units)
COURSE CONTENT
1. Composite Beams: types of applications, equivalent section properties, timber-steel
beams, reinforced concrete.
2. Strain energy methods; strain energy in tension, shear, bending and torsion, Impact loads
3. Castigliano's theorem, application to deflection of beams, statically indeterminate
systems
4. and deflection of trusses, Struts; Euler's formula for struts with various end constraints,
struts with initial curvature, eccentrically loaded strut, strut with transverse loading,
validity limit of Euler's formula, empirical formula for struts
5. Unsymmetrical bending general flexural formula, stresses due to bending (symmetrical
and unsymmetrical shapes) bending due to thermal stresses
6. Thermostat and their design, strip deflection constant and strip force concepts, minimum
volume concepts.
REFERENCES
1. Strength of materials and Structures (4th Edition), Butterworth Heinemann, 1999, Case J.,
Chilver L. and Ross C.T.F
2. Strength of Materials (Mechanics of Solids), 2010, Er. R.K Rajput
MPEN 322: Solid Mechanics II, Lecture Notes by Dr. SM. Talai Page ii of 91
1 CHAPTER 1
COMPOSITE BEAMS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Frequently in civil engineering construction, beams are fabricated from comparatively
inexpensive materials of low strength which are reinforced by small amounts of high-strength
material such as steel. In this way a timber beam of rectangular section may have steel plates
bolted to its sides or to its top and bottom surfaces. Again, concrete beams are reinforced in their
weak tension zones and also, if necessary, in their compression zones, by steel reinforcing bars.
Other instances arise where steel beams support concrete floorslabs in which the strength of the
concrete may be allowed for in the design of the beams. The design of reinforced concrete beams
and concrete-and-steel beams relies on ultimate load analysis.
1.2 STEEL REINFORCED TIMBER BEAMS
The timber joist of breadth 𝑏 and depth 𝑑 shown in Fig. 1.1 is reinforced by two steel plates
bolted to its sides, each plate being of thickness 𝑡 and depth 𝑑.
Fig. 1.1: Steel-reinforced timber beam

Let us suppose that the beam is bent to a radius 𝑅 at this section by a positive bending
moment, 𝑀. Clearly, since the steel plates are firmly attached to the sides of the timber joist, both
are bent to the same radius, 𝑅.The bending moment is given by
𝐸𝐼
𝑀= … (1)
𝑅
Thus, the bending moment, 𝑀𝑡 ,carried by the timber joist is
𝐸𝑡 𝐼𝑡
𝑀𝑡 = … (2)
𝑅
MPEN 322: Solid Mechanics II, Lecture Notes by Dr. SM. Talai Page 1 of 91
where 𝐸𝑡 , is Young’s modulus for the timber and 𝐼𝑡 is the second moment of area ofthe timber
section about the centroidal axis, 𝐆𝐱. Similarly for the steel plates
𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑀𝑠 = … (3)
𝑅
The total bending moment is then
1
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑡 + 𝑀𝑠 = (𝐸 𝐼 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠 )
𝑅 𝑡𝑡
from which
1 𝑀
= … (4)
𝑅 𝐸𝑡 𝐼𝑡 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
From a comparison of Eqns.(4) and (1) we see that the composite beam behaves as a
homogeneous beam of bending stiffness 𝐸𝐼 where
𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝑡 𝐼𝑡 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝐸𝑠
or EI = 𝐸𝑡 (𝐼𝑡 + 𝐼) … (5)
𝐸𝑡 𝑠
The composite beam may therefore be treated wholly as a timber beam having a total second
moment of area
𝐸𝑠
𝐼𝑡 + 𝐼
𝐸𝑡 𝑠
This is equivalent to replacing the steel reinforcing plates by timber ‘plates’ each having a
thickness (𝑬𝒔 ⁄𝑬𝒕 )𝒕as shown in Fig. 1.2(a).
Alternatively, the beam may be transformed into a wholly steel beam by writing Eq. (5) as
𝐸𝑡
EI = 𝐸𝑠 ( 𝐼𝑡 + 𝐼𝑠 )
𝐸𝑠
so that the second moment of area of the equivalent steel beam is
𝐸𝑡
𝐼 + 𝐼𝑠
𝐸𝑠 𝑡
which is equivalent to replacing the timber joist by a steel ‘joist’ of breadth (𝐸𝑡 /𝐸𝑠 )𝑏(Fig.
1.2(b)). Note that the transformed sections of Fig. 1.2 apply only to the caseof bending about the
horizontal axis,𝐆𝐱.Note also that the depth, 𝑑,of the beam is unchanged by either transformation.
Fig. 1.2 Equivalent beam sections
The direct stress due to bending in the timber joist is obtained using
𝑀𝑡 𝑦
𝜎𝑡 = … (6)
𝐼𝑡
From Eqns.(2) and (4)
𝐸𝑡 𝐼𝑡
𝑀𝑡 = 𝑀
𝐸𝑡 𝐼𝑡 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑀
or 𝑀𝑡 = 𝐸𝐼 … (7)
1 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑡 𝑡
Substituting in Eqn. (7) into Eqn. (6) we have direct stress distribution in the steel as
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑡 = 𝐸 … (8)
𝐼𝑡 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑡
Similarly, by considering the equivalent steel beam of Fig. 1.2(b), we obtain the direct stress
distribution in the steel. i.e.
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑠 = 𝐸 … (9)
𝐼𝑠 + 𝐸𝑡 𝐼𝑡
𝑠
Example 1
A beam is formed by connecting two timber joists each 100 𝑚𝑚 × 400 𝑚𝑚 with a steel plate
12 𝑚𝑚 × 300 𝑚𝑚 placed symmetrically between them (Fig. 1.3). If the beam is subjected to a
bending moment of 50 kNm, determine the maximum stresses in the steel and in the timber. The
ratio of Young’s modulus for steel to that of timber is 12: 1.
Fig. 1.3:Steel-reinforced timber beam

Solution
The second moments of area of the timber and steel about the centroidal axis, Gx, are
4003
𝐼𝑡 = 2 × 100 × = 1067 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
and
4003
𝐼𝑠 = 12 × = 27 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
The maximum stress in timber is given by

𝑀𝑦 50 × 106 × 200
𝜎𝑡 = ± 𝐸𝑠 = ± 6 + 12 × 27 × 106
= ±7.2 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑡 + 𝐼𝑠 1067 × 10
𝐸𝑡
The maximum stress in steel is given by
𝑀𝑦 50 × 106 × 150
𝜎𝑠 = ± 𝐸𝑡 =± 1067×106
= ± 64.7 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑠 + 𝐸 𝐼𝑡 27 × 106 +
𝑠 12
Consider now the steel-reinforced timber beam of Fig. 1.4(a) in which the steel plates are
attached to the top and bottom surfaces of the timber. The section may be transformed into an
equivalent timber beam (Fig. 1.4(b)) or steel beam (Fig. 1.4(c)) by the methods used for the
beam of Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.4 Reinforced timber beam with steel plates attached to its top and bottom surfaces
The direct stress distributions are then obtained from Eqns. (8) and (9). There is, however, one
important difference between the beam of Fig. 1.1 and that of Fig. 1.4(a). In the latter case, when
the beam is subjected to shear loads, the connection between the timber and steel must resist
horizontal complementary shear stresses as shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Shear stresses between steel plates and timber beam
Generally, it is sufficiently accurate to assume that the timber joist resists all the vertical shear
and then calculate an average value of shear stress, 𝜏𝑎𝑣 . Thus,
𝑆𝑦
𝜏𝑎𝑣 =
𝑏𝑑
so that, based on this approximation, the horizontal complementary shear stress is 𝑆𝑦 /𝑏𝑑and the
shear force per unit length resisted by the timber/steel connection is 𝑆𝑦 /𝑑 .
Example 2
A timber joist 100 mm x 200 mm is reinforced on its top and bottom surfaces by steel
plates 15 𝑚𝑚 thick × 100 𝑚𝑚 wide. The composite beam is simply supported over a span of
4 𝑚 and carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 𝑘𝑁/𝑚. Determine the maximum direct stress
in the timber and in the steel and also the shear force perunit length transmitted by the
timber/steel connection. Take 𝐸𝑠 /𝐸𝑡 = 15.
Solution
The second moments of area of the timber and steel about a horizontal axis through the centroid
of the beam are
100 × 2003
𝐼𝑡 = = 66.7 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
and
𝐼𝑠 = 2 × 15 × 100 × 107.52 = 34.7 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
The maximum bending moment in the beam occurs at mid-span and is
𝑤𝑙 4 10 × 44
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 20 𝑘𝑁𝑚
8 8
The maximum stress in timber is given by
𝑀𝑦 20 × 106 × 100
𝜎𝑡∙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± 𝐸 =± = ±3.4 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑡 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠 66.7 × 106 + 15 × 34.7 × 106
𝑡
The maximum stress in steel is given by

𝑀𝑦 20 × 106 × 115
𝜎𝑠∙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± 𝐸𝑡 =± 66.7×106
= ± 58.8 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑠 + 𝐸 𝐼𝑡 34.7 × 106 +
𝑠 12
The maximum shear force in the beam occurs at the supports and is equal to 10 × 4⁄2 = 20 𝑘𝑁.
The average shear stress in the timber joist is then
𝑆𝑦 20 × 103
𝜏𝑎𝑣 = = = 1 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑏𝑑 100 × 200
It follows that the shear force per unit length in the timber/steel connection is
1 × 𝑙00 = 100 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 or 100 𝑘𝑁/𝑚.
1.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

Concrete is a brittle material which is weak in tension. It follows that a beam comprised solely of
concrete would have very little bending strength since the concrete in the tension zone of the
beam would crack at very low values of load. Concrete beams are therefore reinforced in their
tension zones (and sometimes in their compression zones) by steel bars embedded in the
concrete. Generally, whether the beam is precast or forms partof a slab/beam structure, the bars
are positioned in a mould (usually fabricated from timber and called formwork) into which the
concrete is poured. On setting, the concrete shrinks and grips the steel bars; the adhesion or bond
between the bars and the concrete transmits bending and shear loads from the concrete to the
steel.In the design of reinforced concrete beams the elastic method is generally employed.
Elastic Theory
Consider the concrete beam section shown in Fig. 1.6(a). The beam is subjected to a bending
moment, M, and is reinforced in its tension zone by a number of steel bars of total cross-
sectional area𝑨𝒔 .The centroid of the reinforcement is at a depth 𝒅𝟏 , from the upper surface of the
beam; 𝒅𝟏 is known as the effective depth of the beam. The bending moment, M, produces
compression in the concrete above the neutral axis whose position is at some, as yet unknown,
depth𝒏, below the upper surface of the beam. Below the neutral axis the concrete is in tension
and is assumed to crack so that its contribution to the bending strength of the beam is negligible.
Thus all tensile forces are resisted by the reinforcing steel.
The reinforced concrete beam section may be conveniently analyzed by the transforming it into
equivalent section. The steel reinforcement is, therefore, transformed into an equivalent area, 𝑚𝐴𝑠 ,of
concrete in which m, the modular ratio, is given by
𝐸𝑠
𝑚=
𝐸𝑐
where 𝐸𝑠 , and 𝐸𝑐 , are Young’s moduli for steel and concrete, respectively. The transformed
section is shown in Fig. 1.6(b).
Fig. 1.6 Reinforced concrete beam
Taking moments of areas about the neutral axis we have

𝑛
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑚𝐴𝑠 (𝑑1 − 𝑛)
2
which, when rearranged, gives a quadratic equation in 𝑛, i.e.
𝑏𝑛2
+ 𝑚𝐴𝑠 𝑛 − 𝑚𝐴𝑠 𝑑1 = 0 … (10)
2
𝑚𝐴𝑠 2𝑏𝑑1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑛= (√1 + − 1) … (11)
𝑏 𝑚𝐴𝑠
Note:
The negative solution of Eq. (10) has no practical significance and is therefore ignored.
The second moment of area, 𝐼𝑐 , of the transformed section is
𝑏𝑛3
𝐼𝑐 = + 𝑚𝐴𝑠 (𝑑1 − 𝑛)2 … (12)
3
so that the maximum stress, 𝝈𝒄 , induced in the concrete is
𝑀𝑛
𝜎𝑐 = … (13)
𝐼𝑐
The stress, 𝜎𝑠 , in the steel may be deduced from the strain diagram (Fig. 1.6(c)) which is linear
throughout the depth of the beam since the beam section is assumed to remain plane during
bending. Thus
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑐
⁄𝐸 ⁄𝐸
𝑠 𝑐
=
𝑑1 − 𝑛 𝑛
from which
𝐸𝑠 𝑑1 − 𝑛 𝑑1
𝜎𝑠 = 𝜎𝑐 ( ) = 𝜎𝑐 𝑚 ( − 1) … (14)
𝐸𝑐 𝑛 𝑛
Substituting for 𝜎𝑐 , from Eq. (13) we obtain
𝑚𝑀
𝜎𝑠 = (𝑑1 − 𝑛) … (15)
𝐼𝑐
From the stress diagram of Fig. 1.6(d), the moment of resistance of a beam when either the
stress in the concrete or the steel reaches a maximum allowable value is computed as
𝑛
𝑀 = 𝐶 (𝑑1 − )
3
𝜎𝑐 𝑛
So that, 𝑀 = 𝑏𝑛 (𝑑1 − ) … (16)
2 3
Alternatively, taking moments about the centroid of the concrete stress diagram
𝑛
𝑀 = 𝑇 (𝑑1 − )
3
𝑛
or 𝑀 = 𝜎𝑠 𝐴𝑠 (𝑑1 − ) … (17)
3
Example 3
A rectangular section reinforced concrete beam has a breadth of200 𝑚𝑚 and is 350 𝑚𝑚 deep to
the centroid of the steel reinforcement whichconsists of two steel bars each having a diameter
of 20 𝑚𝑚. If the beam is subjectedto a bending moment of30 kNm, calculate the stress in the
concrete and in the steel.Themodular ratio mis 15.
Solution
The area𝑨𝒔 of the steel reinforcement is given by
𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 2 × × 202 = 628.3 𝑚𝑚2
4
The position of the neutral axis is obtained from Eqn.(11) and is
𝑚𝐴𝑠 2𝑏𝑑1 15 × 628.3 2 × 200 × 350

𝑛= (√1 + − 1) = (√1 + − 1) = 140.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑏 𝑚𝐴𝑠 200 15 × 628.3
Now using Eqn.(12)

𝑏𝑛3 200 × 140.53
𝐼𝑐 = + 𝑚𝐴𝑠 (𝑑1 − 𝑛)2 = + 15 × 628.3(350 − 140.5)2 = 598.5 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
3 3
The maximum stress in the concrete follows from Eqn.(13),
𝑀𝑛 30 × 106 × 140.5
𝜎𝑐 = = = 7 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑐 598.5 × 106
and from Eqn.(15)
𝑚𝑀 15 × 30 × 106
𝜎𝑠 = (𝑑1 − 𝑛) = (350 − 140.5) = 157.5 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑐 598.5 × 106
Example 4
A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular section of breadth 250 𝑚𝑚 and a depth of
400 𝑚𝑚 to the steel reinforcement, which consists of three 20 𝑚𝑚 diameter bars. If the
maximum allowable stresses in the concrete and steel are 7 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and 140 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2,
respectively, determine the moment of resistanceof the beam. The modular ratio m = 15.
Solution
The area, 𝐴𝑠 of steel reinforcement is
𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 3 × × 202 = 942.5 𝑚𝑚2
4
𝑚𝐴𝑠 2𝑏𝑑1 15 × 942.5 2 × 250 × 400

𝑛= (√1 + − 1) = (√1 + − 1) = 163.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑏 𝑚𝐴𝑠 250 15 × 942.5
The maximum bending moment that can be applied such that the permissible stress in the
concrete is not exceeded is given by Eq. (16). Thus
𝜎𝑐 𝑛 7 163.5
𝑀= 𝑏𝑛 (𝑑1 − ) = × 250 × 163.5 (400 − ) × 10−6 = 49.4 𝑘𝑁𝑚
2 3 2 3
Similarly, from Eq. (17) the stress in the steel limits the applied moment to
𝑛 163.5
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑠 𝐴𝑠 (𝑑1 − ) = 140 × 942.5 (400 − ) × 10−6 = 45.6 𝑘𝑁𝑚
3 3
The steel is therefore the limiting material and the moment of resistance of the beam
is 45.6 𝑘𝑁 𝑚.
2 CHAPTER 2
STRAIN ENERGY AND DEFLECTION DUE TO SHEAR AND BENDING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
When elastic body is loaded it undergoes deformations i.e. its dimensions change and when it
is relieved of the load it regains its original shape. For the time loaded, energy is stored in it;
the same is given up or released by the loading when the load is removed. This energy is called
strain energy.
The strain energy stored by the body 'within' elastic limit, when loaded externally is called
'resilience', and the maximum energy which a body stores 'upto' elastic limit is called ‘Proof
resilience'.
Proof resilience is the mechanical property of materials and it indicates their capacity to bear
shocks. Proof resilience per unit volume of piece is called 'Modulus of resilience'.
2.2 STRAIN ENERGY IN SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION

Let us take the case of a bar of cross-sectional are 𝐴 and length 𝑙 and subjected to a load 𝑊.
Suppose these load extends the bar by an amount 𝛿𝑙 and produces a maximum stress 𝜎.
The work done by W and hence the strain energy 𝑈 stored in the material is equal to the shaded
in Fig. 2.1, under the force-extension curve.
Strain energy stored in the bar = Work done by the load
1
𝑈= ∙ 𝑊. 𝛿𝑙
2
𝑊 𝜎𝑙 𝜎𝑙
= . [∵ 𝛿𝑙 = ]
2 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝑙 ∵ 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

= . [ ]
2 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = 𝜎 × 𝐴
𝜎 2 𝐴𝑙 𝜎 2 𝑉
𝑈= =
2𝐸 2𝐸
[𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐴 × 𝑙]
Fig. 2.1
If 𝜎𝑝 be the proof stress or maximum stress to which the bar is stressed up to the elastic limit,
then,
𝜎𝑝2
Proof resillencene, 𝑈𝑃 = ×𝑉
2𝐸
𝜎𝑝2
and, modulus of resience =
2𝐸
2.3 Stresses due to different types of loads
A body may besubjectedtofollowingtypesofloads:
1. Graduallyappliedloads
2. Suddenlyappliedloads
3. Fallingorimpactloads.
2.3.1 Graduallyappliedloads:
Abodyissaidtobeacteduponbyagraduallyappliedloadiftheloadincreasesfromzeroand reaches its
final value stepwise.
Let 𝑊 be the load applied gradually on a body and
let𝛿𝑙and𝜎bethecorrespondingchangeinlengthand maximumstressinducedinit.
1
Energy due to external load = 𝜎 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝛿𝑙
2
1
Also, work done on the body = 𝑊 ∙ 𝛿𝑙
2
But, strain energy stored = Work done on the body
1 1 𝑊
𝜎 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝛿𝑙 = 𝑊 ∙ 𝛿𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 =
2 2 𝐴
It may be remembered that unless specifically mentioned, the load is always gradually applied.
2.3.2 Suddenly applied loads:
When the load is applied all of a sudden and not stepwise is called suddenly applied load. Now,
let the load 𝑊 be applied all of a sudden and maximum stress thus produced be 𝜎𝑠𝑢 ; the
extension being the same as 𝛿𝑙
Then,
Energy stored = External work done
1 2𝑊
𝑊 × 𝛿𝑙 = 𝜎 ∙ 𝐴 × 𝛿𝑙 ∴ 𝜎𝑠𝑢 =
2 𝑠𝑢 𝐴
This shows that stress (𝜎𝑠𝑢 ) due to suddenly applied load is double that gradually applied load.
Evidently the instantaneous strains will also be in the same ratio.
2.3.3 Falling or impact loads

The load which falls from a height or strike the body with certain momentum is called falling or
impact load.
Refer to Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.2
Consider a weight 𝑊 falling through a height ℎ on a collar fitted on the rod which is of length 𝑙
and has a cross sectional area 𝐴. Let the extension and maximum stress thus produced be 𝛿𝑙𝑖 and
𝜎𝑖 respectively.
Now,
External work done on the bar = Energy stored in the bar
1
𝑊(ℎ + 𝛿𝑙𝑖 ) =
𝜎 𝐴 × 𝛿𝑙𝑖
2 𝑖
𝛿𝑖 𝑙 1 𝛿𝑖 𝑙 𝛿𝑖 𝑙
𝑊 [ℎ + ] = 𝜎𝑖 𝐴 × [∵ 𝛿𝑙𝑖 = ]
𝐸 2 𝐸 𝐸
𝛿𝑖 𝑙 𝜎𝑖2 𝐴𝑙
𝑊 [ℎ + ]=
𝐸 2𝐸
𝜎𝑖2 𝐴𝑙 𝜎𝑖 𝑊𝑙
− − 𝑊ℎ = 0
2𝐸 𝐸
𝑊𝑙 𝑊 2 𝑙2 2𝑊ℎ 𝐴𝑙
±√ +
𝐸 𝐸2 𝐸
𝜎𝑖 = 𝐴𝑙
𝐸
𝑊𝑙 𝑊𝑙 2𝑊ℎ 𝐴𝑙 𝐸2 2ℎ𝐴𝐸
± √1 + × 𝑊 2 𝑙2 𝑊 ± 𝑊√1 +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝑊𝑙
𝜎𝑖 = 𝐴𝑙 or 𝜎𝑖 =
𝐴
𝐸
[Taking +𝑣𝑒 sign only (max. value)]
𝑊 2ℎ 𝐴 𝐸
or 𝜎𝑖 = [1 + √1 + ]
𝐴 𝑊𝑙
If𝛿𝑙𝑖 is negligible as compared to ℎ,

𝜎𝑖2 𝐴𝑙
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑊ℎ =
2𝐸
2𝑊ℎ 𝐸
𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝜎𝑖 = √
𝐴𝑙
2𝑊
[ 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑖𝑓 ℎ = 0 𝜎𝑖 = ]
𝐴
Now, static deflection 𝛿𝑙 due to load 𝑊 is given by
𝑊𝑙 𝑊 2ℎ
𝛿𝑙 = ∴ 𝜎𝑖 = (1 + √1 + )
𝐴𝐸 𝐴 𝛿𝑙
2ℎ 𝑊
= 𝜎 (1 + √1 + )∵𝜎=
𝛿𝑙 𝐴
𝜎𝑖 2ℎ
∴ = 1 + √1 +
𝜎 𝛿𝑙
𝜎𝑖
The dimensionless ratio is usually called load factor and is denoted by 𝑛.
𝜎
2ℎ
∴ 𝑛 = 1 + √1 +
𝛿𝑙
Let 𝑊𝑒 be the equivalent static load that produces the same stress𝜎𝑖 ; as produced by the load 𝑊
applied with impact.
𝑊𝑒 𝑊
∴ 𝜎𝑖 = , and 𝜎=
𝐴 𝐴
𝜎𝑖 𝑊𝑒 𝑊𝑒 𝜎𝑖
∴ = , or 𝑛= =
𝜎 𝑊 𝑊 𝜎
Hence, 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑛𝑊
The load factor is important because it gives the fact by which the load producing impact should
be multiplied to give an equivalent static load for design. Once 𝑊𝑒 is known, the solution of a
design problem can be carried out as usual by taking 𝑊𝑒 instead of the load 𝑊.
Following relations are worth noting:
𝑛 ∙ 𝛿𝑙 = 𝛿𝑙𝑖 … (𝑖)
𝑛𝜎 = 𝜎𝑖 … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑛𝑊 = 𝑊𝑖 … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Sometimes a different factor known as impact factor𝑛′ is defined as follows:
2ℎ
𝑛′ = √1 + ∴ 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛′
𝛿𝑙
Thus the load factor is equal to the impact factor plus one. The impact factor gives the fact or
responsible for producing the impact load over and above the static load. It can be found that
𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊
𝑛′ = 𝑛 − 1 =
𝑊
Impact factors and load factors in many cases are usually determined from tests and experience
for use in design.
Worked Example
A steel bar 4 𝑐𝑚 by 4 𝑐𝑚 in section, 3 𝑚 long is subjected to an axial pull of 128 𝑘𝑁. Taking
𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 calculate the alteration in the length of the bar. Calculate also the amount of
energy stored in the bar during the extension.
Solution
Refer 2.3
Fig. 2.3
Cross − sectional area of the bar, 𝐴 = 4 × 4 = 16 𝑐𝑚2 = 16 × 10−4 𝑚2
Axial pull applied, 𝑊 = 128 𝑘𝑁
Length of the bar,𝑙 = 3 𝑚
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Elongation of the bar, 𝜹𝒍:
Using the following relation, we have
𝑊𝑙 (128 × 100) × 3
𝛿𝑙 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎𝒎 𝐴𝑛𝑠
𝐴𝐸 16 × 10−4 × 200 × 109
Energy stored in the bar during elongation, U:

We know that,
𝑊 128 × 1000
𝜎= = = 8 × 107 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐴 16 × 10−4
𝜎2 (8 × 107 )2 × 16 × 10−4 × 3
∴ 𝑈= × 𝐴𝑙 = = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟖 𝑵𝒎 𝐨𝐫 𝑱
2𝐸 3 × 200 × 109
Worked Example
A uniform metal bar has a cross-sectional area of 7 𝑐𝑚2 and a length of 1.5 𝑚. With an elastic
limit of 60 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2, what will be its proof resilience? Determine also the maximum of an
applied load which may be suddenly applied without exceeding the elastic limit. Calculate the
value of gradually applied load which will produce the same extension as that produced by the
suddenly applied load above. Take:𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Solution
Cross − sectional area of the bar, 𝐴 = 7 𝑐𝑚2 = 7 × 10−4 𝑚2
Length of th bar, 𝑙 = 1.5 𝑚
Elastic limit, 𝜎 = 160 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
Proof resilience, 𝑼𝒑 :
Using the relation,
𝜎𝑝2 𝐴𝑙 (160 × 106 )2 × 7 × 10−4 × 1.5
𝑈𝑝 = = = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟐 𝑵𝒎 𝐨𝐫 𝑱 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2𝐸 2 × 200 × 109
Maximum value of suddenly applied load, 𝑊:
1
We know that
𝑊 × 𝛿𝑙 = 𝜎 × 𝐴 × 𝛿𝑙
2
𝜎𝐴 (160 × 10 ) × 7 × 10−4 160 × 106 × 7
6
𝑊= = = = 56 000𝑁 = 𝟓𝟔 𝒌𝑵 𝑨𝒏𝒔
2 2 2 × 104
Equivalent gradually applied load, 𝑾𝒆
𝑊𝑒 1
We know that, × 𝛿𝑙 = 𝜎 × 𝐴 × 𝛿𝑙
2 2
𝑊𝑒 = 𝜎 × 𝐴 = 160 × 106 × 7 × 10−4 = 112 000 𝑁 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝑵 𝑨𝒏𝒔
2.4 STRAIN ENERGY IN PURE SHEARING

Considerarectangularblockof materialsubjected to shearing forces Sacting across two of its
opposite faces (Fig. 2.4). The face LM will move, relative to face NP, a distance 𝑀𝑀′ = 𝑀𝑁 ×
𝜙, where 𝜙is the angle of shear produced.
Fig. 2.4
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑆 × 𝑀𝑀′
2
1
= 𝑆 × 𝑀𝑁 × 𝜙
2
𝑀𝑀′
[∵ = tan 𝜙, because 𝜙 is very small]
𝑀𝑁
Now,
𝜏
𝑆 = 𝜏 × 𝐿𝑀, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙 =
𝐶
𝜙 = 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Taking unit depth normal to diagram, we have
1 𝜏 1 𝜏2
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜏 × 𝐿𝑀 × 𝑀𝑁 × = × 𝐿𝑀 × 𝑀𝑁
2 𝐶 2𝐶
Now (𝐿𝑀 × 𝑀𝑁) is the volume of the rectangular block, since it has unit depth
normal to LMNP
𝜏2
∴ Strain energy, 𝑈= × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
2𝐶
This is the shearing strain energy of a block of material subjected to a constant shearing stress
throughout.
2.5 STRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION
Consider a solid circular shaft of length 𝑙 and radius 𝑅, subjected to a torque 𝑇 producing a twist
𝜃 in the length of the shaft (Fig. 2.5)
Fig. 2.5
1
The work done = 𝑇𝜃, which is stored in the shaft as strain energy
2
But,
𝑇 𝐶𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐼𝑝 𝑙 𝑅
where,
𝑇 = Torque applied,
𝐼𝑝 = Polar moment of inertia,
𝐶 = Modulus of rigidity
𝑙 = Length of the shaft and
𝜏 = Maximum shear stress on the surface of the shaft
𝜏 × 𝐼𝑝 𝜏𝑙
∴ 𝑇= , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃=
𝑅 𝐶𝑅
1 𝜏 × 𝐼𝑝 𝜏 × 𝑙 1 𝜏 2 𝐼𝑝 × 𝑙
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = × = × 2
2 𝑅 𝐶×𝑅 2 𝐶 𝑅
𝜋𝑅 4
But, 𝐼𝑝 =
2
1 𝜏 2 𝜋𝑅 4 × 𝑙 1 𝜏 2
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = × = × × 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑙
2𝐶 2 𝑅2 4 𝐶
𝜏2
Strain energy, 𝑈= × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
4𝐶
(∵ Volume = 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑙)
Whentheshaftishollow,withanexternalradius 𝑅and internal radius 𝑟:
Again,
1 𝜏𝑙 𝜏𝐼𝑝
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑇𝜃, and 𝜃= , and, 𝑇=
2 𝐶𝑅 𝑅
𝜏 2 𝐼𝑝 𝑙
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ×
2𝐶 𝑅 2
𝜋 4
But, 𝐼𝑝 = (𝑅 − 𝑟 4 )
2
𝜏 2 𝜋𝑙 (𝑅 4 − 𝑟 4 ) 𝜏 2 𝜋𝑙(𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 )(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = × = ×
2𝐶 2 𝑅2 4𝐶 𝑅2
𝜏 2 (𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 )
= × 𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑙
4𝐶 𝑅2
𝜏 2 𝑅2 + 𝑟 2
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑈 = × × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
4𝐶 𝑅2
Worked Example
The external diameter of a hollow shaft is twice the internal diameter. It is subjected to pure
torque and it attains a maximum shear stress 𝜏. Show that strain energy stored per unit volume of
5𝜏2
the shaft is . Such a shaft is required to transmit 5 400 𝑘𝑊 at 110 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚 with uniform
16𝐶
torque, the maximum stress not exceed 84 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Determine: Take: 𝐶 = 90 𝐺𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
i. The shaft diameters
ii. The energy stored per 𝑚3
Solution
Let, 𝑅 = External radius of the hollow shaft
𝑟 = Internal radius of the hollow shaft = 𝑅 ⁄2 (Given)
Then strain is given by:
𝜏2 𝑅2 + 𝑟 2 𝜏2 2
𝑅2 𝟓𝝉𝟐
𝑈⁄𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = ×( ) = × (𝑅 + ) = 𝐴𝑛𝑠
4𝐶 𝑅2 4𝐶𝑅 2 4 𝟏𝟔𝑪
Power required to be transmitted, 𝑃 = 5 400 𝑘𝑊, 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑁 = 110 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
Maximum shear stress, 𝜏 = 84 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
i. The shaft diameter, D:
110
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇, or, 5400 × 1000 = 2𝜋 × ×𝑇
60
5400 × 1000 × 60
𝑇= = 468 783 𝑁𝑚
2𝜋 × 110
𝑇 𝜏
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, =
𝐼𝑃 𝑅
𝜏 𝜋 𝜏
𝑇 = 𝐼𝑝 ∙ = (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) ×
𝑅 32 𝐷⁄2
𝜋 𝐷4 − 𝑑4 𝜋 𝐷4 − (𝐷⁄2)4
468 783 = ( )𝜏 = [ ]𝜏
16 𝐷 16 𝐷
𝜋 15𝐷4 1 15𝜋
= × × ×𝜏 = × 𝐷3 × 84 × 106 = 15.46 × 106 𝐷3
16 16 𝐷 256
∴ 468 783 = 15.46 × 106 𝐷3
𝐷 = 0.312 𝑚 = 312 𝑚𝑚
312
𝑑= = 156 𝑚𝑚
2
ii. Energy stored per 𝒎𝟑
𝑈⁄ 5 𝜏2 5 (84 × 106 )2
= ∙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 16 𝐶 = × = 24 500 𝐽⁄𝑚3 = 24.5 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑚3
16 90 × 109
Hence, energy stored per 𝑚3 , = 24.5 𝑘 𝐽⁄𝑚3
2.6 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING

2.6.1 BendingUnderGraduallyAppliedLoads
Fig. 2.6 shows a beam of uniform cross-section with certain end conditions such that the bending
moment varies along its length. Consider a small length 𝑑𝑥 of a beam where the bending
moment is 𝑀. Consider further a small strip 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 of thickness 𝑑𝑦 at a distance 𝑦 from the
neutral axis.
Let 𝑏 be the width of the strip. Volume of the strip is 𝑑𝑥 · 𝑑𝑦. 𝑏.
Fig. 2.6
∴Strain energy of the small volume (𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑏)
(Stress on EFGH)𝟐
= × volume (𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑏)
2𝐸
𝜎2
= × 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑦
2𝐸
𝑀𝑦 2 𝑏 𝑀 𝜎 𝑀𝑦
=( ) ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑦 [∵ = or 𝜎 = ]
𝐼 2𝐸 𝐼 𝑦 𝐼
𝑀2
= 𝑏𝑦 2 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑦
2 𝐸𝐼 2
∴ 𝑑𝑈 = Strain energy of the volume within 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐷′ 𝐷
𝑀2 2
𝑀2
= ∫( 𝑑𝑥) 𝑦 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑦 2 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑𝑦
2 𝐸𝐼 2 2 𝐸𝐼 2
Now,
∫ 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = Sum of second moments of areas 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠- 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼

𝑀2 𝑀2
∴ 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐸𝐼 2 2𝐸𝐼
Theaboveexpressiongivesthestrainenergyofthebeamoflength𝑑𝑥
∴Strainenergyofthewholeofthebeamisgivenby
𝑀2
𝑈=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
For any given load and end conditions, 𝑀 can be expressed in terms of 𝑥 and then total strain
energy can be evaluated with the help of the above equation
In case 𝑀 is constant over the length 𝑙
𝑀2 𝑙
𝑈=
2 𝐸𝐼
Strain energy and deflection due to bending:
In order to calculate the deflection under the load in the case of beams under the action of a
single point load, after calculating the strain energy of beam, it is equated to the work done by
that load for it gradual movement equal to the deflection. If 𝑦 is the deflection under load 𝑊
then,
1 2𝑈
𝑈 = 𝑊𝑦, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑦 =
2 𝑊
2.6.2 Bending Under Impact Loads
Fig.2.7 shows a simply supportted beam AB. Let weight 𝑊 drop from a height ℎ at the point 𝐶
on the beam. To find the instantanous deflection under the load the following procedure is
adopted.
Fig. 2.7
Let 𝑊𝑒 be the equivalent weight which when applied gradually at the point C will produce
thesame deflection 𝑦.
Since in the two cases, the deflection is same, the strain energies in the two cases will beequal.
Further since the strain energy of the beam is equal to the work done by the individual loadsin
the two cases, we
1
𝑊(ℎ + 𝑦) = 𝑊𝑦 … (𝑖)
2 𝑒
Depending on the end conditions the deflection y can be found in terms of 𝑊𝑒 and in general
𝑦 𝛼 𝑊𝑒 or 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑊𝑒 … (𝑖𝑖)
(where, 𝑘 = constant which depends upon the beam and its end conditions)
From eqns. (i) and (ii)
1
𝑊(ℎ + 𝑘𝑊𝑒 ) = 𝑊𝑒 𝑦 … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2
The solution of the quadratic equation (iii) gives the value of 𝑊𝑒 . Then the value of y can be
evaluated from eqn. (ii).
Worked Example
A point load of 10 𝑘𝑁 applied to a simply supported beam at mid-span produces a deflection of
6𝑚𝑚 and a maximum bending stress of 20 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Calculate the maximum value of
momentary stress produced when a weight of 5 𝑘𝑁 is allowed to fall through a height of 18 𝑚𝑚
on the beam at middle of the span.
Solution
Point load, 𝑊𝑠 = 10 𝑘𝑁
Deflection produced, = 6 𝑚𝑚
Maximum bending stress produced, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
Magnitude of the falling weight 𝑊 = 5𝑘𝑁
Height of fall, ℎ = 18𝑚𝑚 = 0.018 𝑚
Let, 𝑊𝑒 = The static load equivalent to the given impact/falling load, 𝑘𝑁.
Since 10 𝑘𝑁 load produces a deflection of 6 𝑚𝑚, then will produce a deflection y such that
6
𝑦= × 𝑊𝑒 = 0.6𝑊𝑒 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0006𝑊𝑒 𝑚
10
Now, equating the work done by the equivalent static load and the given falling load,
1
𝑊(ℎ + 𝑦) = 𝑊 ∙𝑦
2 𝑒
1
5(0.018 + 0.0006𝑊𝑒 ) = 𝑊 × 0.0006𝑊𝑒
2 𝑒
0.09 + 0.003𝑊𝑒 = 0.0003𝑊𝑒2
300 + 10𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑒2
𝑊𝑒2 − 10𝑊𝑒 − 300 = 0
10 ± √100 + 1200
𝑊𝑒 = = 23 𝑘𝑁
2
Since a static load of 10 𝑘𝑁 induces a maximum bending stress of 20 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , the maximum
bending stress produced in the impact case for which equivalent static load is 23 𝑘𝑁, will be
23
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 × = 𝟒𝟔 𝑴𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 𝐴𝑛𝑠
10
Worked Example
A 1 𝑚 long beam rectangular in section 30 𝑚𝑚 wide × 40 𝑚𝑚 deep is supported on rigid
supports at its ends. If it is struck at the centre by a 12 𝑘𝑔 mass falling through a height of
60 𝑚𝑚 find:
i. The instantaneous stress developed
ii. The instantaneous strain energy stored in the beam
Take: 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Fig. 2.8
Solution
z
𝑏𝑑 3 0.03 × 0.043
∴ 𝐼= = = 1.6 × 10−7 𝑚4
12 12
Static deflection due to load 𝑊
𝑊𝑙 3
𝛿𝑙 =
48𝐸𝐼
117.73 × 13
= = 7.66 × 10−5 𝑚
48 × 200 × 109 × 1.6 × 10−7
2ℎ 2 × 0.06
∴ 𝑛(load factor) = 1 + √1 + = 1 + √1 + = 40.6
𝛿𝑙 7.66 × 10−5
i. The instantaneous stress developed, 𝜎𝑖 :

𝑀 𝑊𝑙 117.72 × 1
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎= = = 1 = 3.68 × 106 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝑍 4𝑍 4 × × 0.03 × 0.044
6
= 3.68 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
∴ 𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝜎 = 40.6 × 3.68 = 𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟒 𝑴𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
ii. Strain energy stored in the beam
1
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑈 = 𝑊 ∙ 𝛿𝑙𝑖
2 𝑒
1
= (𝑛𝑊) × (𝑛𝛿𝑙)[∵ 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑛𝑊, 𝛿𝑙𝑖 = 𝑛𝛿𝑙]
2
𝑛2 40.62
= ∙ 𝑊 ∙ 𝛿𝑙 = × 117.72 × 7.66 × 10−5 = 7.4𝐽
2 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑼 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝑱 𝑨𝒏𝒔
𝜎2 (149.4 × 106 )2
[𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦: 𝑈 = × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = × 0.03 × 0.04 × 1 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝑱 𝑨𝒏𝒔]
18𝐸 18 × 200 × 109
3 CHAPTER 3
Castigliano's theorem, application to deflection of beams, statically indeterminate systems (Page
900 - 914)
3.1 CASTIGLIANO'S THEOREM
Castigliano’s theorem can be used in the following cases:
1. To determine the displacement of complicated structure.
2. The find the deflection of beams due to shearing or bending if the total strain energy
due to shearing forces or bending moments (as the case may be) is known
3. To find the deflections of curved beams, springs etc
·
Aircraft wheels are fitted with landing gears specially made to absorb and gradually
release shock and strain energy
Castigliano’s theorem is stated as follows:If 𝑈 is the total strain energy of any structure due
to the application of external loads 𝑊1 , 𝑊2, 𝑊3 , … 𝑊𝑛 at points 𝐴1 , 𝐴2, 𝐴3 , … 𝐴𝑛 respectively
in the directions 𝐴𝑋1 , 𝐴𝑋2, 𝐴𝑋3 , … 𝐴𝑋𝑛 and due to the couples 𝑀1 , 𝑀2, 𝑀3 , … 𝑀𝑚 at points
𝐵1 , 𝐵2, 𝐵3 , … 𝐵𝑛 respectively then the deflections at the points 𝐴1 , 𝐴2, 𝐴3 , … 𝐴𝑛 in the
directions 𝐴𝑋1 , 𝐴𝑋2, 𝐴𝑋3 , … 𝐴𝑋𝑛 are
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
, , ,… and the angular position of the couples are , , ,…
𝜕𝑊1 𝜕𝑊2 𝜕𝑊3 𝜕𝑊𝑛 𝜕𝑀1 𝜕𝑀2 𝜕𝑀3 𝜕𝑀𝑛
at the respective points of applications.
Points to remember while applying Castigliano’s theorem
1. (a) Treat each loads and couples/moments as variables and carry out the partial
differentiation
(b) Substitute the numeral values of different loads and couples in the above equation
2. To find out the deflection or rotation at a point of the structure there is no load or couple
acting, then it may be assumed that a dummy load 𝑊 or dummy moment/couple is acting
at that point and give a value zero at the end.
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = ( ) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝜙=( )
𝜕𝑊 𝑊=0 𝜕𝑀 𝑀=0
i. Deflection under axial load:
Strain energy axial load W,
𝑊2
𝑈=∫ 𝑑𝑥,
2 𝐴𝐸
𝜕𝑈 𝑊
∴ 𝛿= =∫ 𝑑𝑥 (3.1)
𝜕𝑊 𝐴𝐸
ii. Deflection under bending moment:
Strain energy under bending moment M,
𝑀2
𝑈=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐸𝐼
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑀 𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝑀 𝜕𝑀
∴ 𝛿= = × = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 × =∫ 𝑑𝑥 (3.2)
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑊
Worked Example 1
Using Castigliano’s theorem, obtain the deflection under a single concentrated load applied to a
simply supported beam shown Fig. 3.1. 𝐸𝐼 = 2.2 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
Solution
Refer to Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1
Let the load at 𝐶 be denoted by 𝑊. Taking moments about 𝐵, we get
𝑊
𝑅𝐴 × 4 = 𝑊 × 1, or𝑅𝐴 =
4
Consider a section 𝑋𝑋 at a distance 𝑥from 𝐴.
𝑊𝑥
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑅𝐴 × 𝑥 − 𝑊(𝑥 − 3) = − 𝑊(𝑥 − 3)
4
𝜕𝑀 𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝛿 = = − (𝑥 − 3)
𝜕𝑊 4
Also,
𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝛿=∫ ∙ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑊
3 4
1 𝑊𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑊𝑥 𝑥
= ∫ × 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ { − 𝑊(𝑥 − 3)} × { − (𝑥 − 3)} 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 4 4 𝐸𝐼 4 4
0 3
3 4
𝑊 𝑊 𝑥 2
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ { − (𝑥 − 3)} 𝑑𝑥
16𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 4
0 3
3 4
𝑊 𝑊 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 12 2
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
16𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 4
0 3
3 4
𝑊 9𝑊
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16) 𝑑𝑥
16𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼
0 3
3 5
𝑊 𝑥3 9𝑊 𝑥 3 8𝑥 2
= | | + | − + 16𝑥|
16𝐸𝐼 3 0 16𝐸𝐼 3 2 3
9𝑊 9𝑊
= + (12.33 − 28 + 16)
16𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼
9𝑊 0.75𝑊
(1 + 0.33) =
=
16𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
0.75 × 60 × 103
𝛿= = 0.02045𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝟐𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔
2.2 × 106
Worked Example 2
Using Castigliano’s theorem, determine the deflection of at the free end of the cantilever beam
shown in Fig. 3.2. Take𝐸𝐼 = 4.9 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
Solution
Refer to Fig. 3.2. Apply dummy load 𝑊at 𝐵.
Fig. 3.2
Consider a section 𝑋𝑋 at a distance 𝑥 from 𝐵. Then

𝑀𝑥 = 𝑊𝑥 + 30(𝑥 − 1) + 20 × 1 × (𝑥 − 1.5) + 16(𝑥 − 2)
𝜕𝑀𝑥
=𝑥
𝜕𝑊
𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝛿=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑊
1
2
1
= [∫ 𝑊𝑥 × 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ {𝑊𝑥 × 𝑥 + 30(𝑥 − 1) × 𝑥 + 20(𝑥 − 1.5) × 𝑥} 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 1
0
3
+ ∫ {𝑊𝑥 × 𝑥 + 30(𝑥 − 1) × 𝑥 + 20 × 1(𝑥 − 1.5) × 𝑥 + 16(𝑥 − 2) × 𝑥}𝑑𝑥 ]
2
1 2
1 𝑥3 𝑊𝑥 3 𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3
= [𝑊 | | + | + 30 ( − ) + 20 ( − 0.75𝑥 2 )|
𝐸𝐼 3 0 3 3 2 3 1
3
𝑊𝑥 3 𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥3
+| + 30 ( − ) + 20 ( − 0.75𝑥 2 ) + 16 ( − 𝑥 2 )| ]
3 3 2 3 3 2
Putting 𝑊 = 0, we get
1 7 3 7 5 19 5 19 19
𝛿= [30 ( − ) + 20 ( + ) + 30 ( − ) + 20 ( − 3.75) + 16 ( − 5)]
𝐸𝐼 3 2 6 12 3 2 3 3
1 5 19 23 4
= (30 × + 20 × + 30 × + 20 × 2.58 + 16 × )
𝐸𝐼 6 12 6 3
1 × 103
= (25 + 31.667 + 115 + 51.6 + 21.33) = 0.050𝑚 or 50.0 𝑚𝑚
4.9 × 106
∴ 𝛿 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔
Worked Example 3
A shaft is supported by two anti-frictions bearing with loads of 140 𝑁 each acting at 𝐵 and 𝐷 as
shown in Fig. 3.4. The portion of shaft between 𝐵 and 𝐶 has a diameter of 2𝑑 compared to a
diameter 𝑑 for the portion of the shaft between 𝐴 and 𝐵; and between C and 𝐷. Using
Castigliano’s theorem, determine the deflection of shaft at points 𝐵 and 𝐷.
Fig. 3.4
Solution
𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋 𝜋𝑑 4
𝐼1 = ; 𝐼1 = (2𝑑)4 = × 16 = 16𝐼1 ;
64 64 64
Let 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 be the loads acting at points B and D respectively.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑅𝐴 × 2 = 𝑊1 × 0.5 + 𝑊2 × 1.5, 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅𝐴 = 0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑊2 = 𝑊1 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊2
∴ 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2 − 𝑊1 + 𝑊2
= 1.75𝑊2 − 0.75𝑊1
Consider a section 𝑋𝑋 at a distance 𝑥 from 𝐴. Then,
𝑀𝑥 = (0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2 )𝑥 − 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 1.5) − (1.75𝑊2 − 0.75𝑊1 )(𝑥 − 2)
For 𝑥 < 1.5𝑚, we have
𝑀𝑥 = (0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2 )𝑥
𝜕𝑀𝑥
= 0.25𝑥
𝜕𝑊1
For 1.5𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝑚, we have
𝑀𝑥 = (0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2 )𝑥 − 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 1.5)
𝜕𝑀𝑥
= 0.25𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1.5 = 1.5 − 0.75𝑥
𝜕𝑊1
Now, deflection at 𝐵 is given by
1.5
1
𝛿𝐵 = ∫ (0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2 )𝑥 × 0.25𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼1
0
2
1
+ ∫[(0.25𝑊1 + 0.75𝑊2 )𝑥 − 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 1.5)] (1.5 − 0.75𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼2
1.5
𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑊1 = 𝑊2 = 140𝑁 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

1.5 2
1 1
𝛿𝐵 = ∫ 35𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 210 (1.5 − 0.75𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼1 𝐸𝐼2
0 1.5
1.5
35 𝑥 3 210 2
= | | + |1.5𝑥 − 0.375𝑥 2 |1.5
𝐸𝐼1 3 0 𝐸𝐼2
39.375 210
= + [1.5(2 − 1.5) − 0.375(22 − 1.52 )]
𝐸𝐼1 16𝐸𝐼1
(∵ 𝐼2 = 16𝐼1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟)
39.375 210 𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟏
= + [0.75 − 0.656] = 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝐸𝐼1 16𝐸𝐼1 𝑬𝑰𝟏
Deflection at point 𝐷 is given by,
140 × 1.53 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟓
𝛿𝐷 = = 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
3𝐸𝐼1 𝑬𝑰𝟏
𝑊𝑙 3
(∵ 𝛿 = … 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑)
3𝐸𝐼
Worked Example 4
Fig. 3.3 shows a cantilever, 8𝑚 long, carrying a point load 5 𝑘𝑁 at the centre and a uniformly
distributed load of 2𝑘𝑁/𝑚 for a length 4𝑚 from the end B. If 𝐸𝑙 is the flexural rigidity of the
cantilever, find the reaction at the prop.
Solution
Refer to Fig. 3.3. Reaction at the prop, R (in 𝑘𝑁):
Fig. 3.3
Portion AC (origin at A):
4 4
(𝑅𝑥)2 𝑅2𝑥 3 64𝑅 2 32 𝑅 2
𝑈1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = =
2 𝐸𝐼 6 𝐸𝐼 0 6 𝐸𝐼 3 𝐸𝐼
0
Portion CB (origin at C):

Bending moment,
2 × 𝑥2
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑅(𝑥 + 4) − 5𝑥 −
2
= 𝑅(𝑥 + 4) − 5𝑥 − 𝑥 2
4
(𝑀𝑥 )2
∴ 𝑈2 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐸𝐼
0
Total strain energy = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2

∂U
At the propped end, =0
𝜕𝑅
4
𝜕𝑈 64𝑅 𝑀𝑥 𝑑𝑀𝑥
∴ = +∫( ∙ ) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑅 3 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑅
0
4
64𝑅 1
= + ∫[𝑅(𝑥 + 4) − 5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ](𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥
3 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
0
4
64𝑅 1
= + ∫[𝑅(𝑥 + 4)2 − 5𝑥(𝑥 + 4) − 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 4)] 𝑑𝑥
3 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
0
4
64𝑅 1
= + ∫[𝑅(𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 16) − 5(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥) − (𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 )] 𝑑𝑥
3 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
0
4
64𝑅 1 𝑥3 2
𝑥3 2
𝑥 4 4𝑥 3
0= + [𝑅 ( + 4𝑥 + 16𝑥) − 5 ( + 2𝑥 ) − ( + )]
3 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 3 3 4 3 0
64𝑅 64 64 256 256

0= + [𝑅 ( + 64 + 64) − 5 ( + 32) − ( + )]
3 3 3 4 3
= 21.33𝑅 + [149.33𝑅 − 266.67 − 149.33]
21.33𝑅 + 149.33𝑅 − 416 = 0
170.66𝑅 = 416, ∴ 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟕 𝒌𝑵 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
4 CHAPTER 4
COLUMN AND STRUTS
4.1 Introduction
A member of structure or bar which carries an axial compressive load is called the strut. If the
strut is vertical i.e. inclined at 90° to the horizontal is known as column, pillaror stanchion.
Generally, a member in any position other than vertical, subjected to acompressive load
iscalled 'strut' and vertical member subjected to a compressive load iscalled 'column'.
Mechanical digger’s Hydraulic arms partly behaves as column and struts
Another difference between the strut and column is that strut may have its one or both the ends
fixed rigidly or hinged or pin pointed; while the column will have both the ends fixed
rigidly.
The examples of struts are: Piston rods, connecting rods, side links in forging machines etc. The
failure of such member will occur:
i. By pure compression;
ii. By buckling;
iii. By combination of pure compression andbuckling, depending upon a
slenderness ratio.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS
Depending upon the slenderness ratio or length to diameter ratio, columns can be divided into
three classes:
1. Short columns:
Columns which have lengths less than 8 times their respective diameters or slenderness
ratio less than 32 are called short columns. When short columns are subjected to
compressive loads, their buckling is generally small as compared with direct compressive
stress. Therefore it is assumed that short columns are always subjected to direct
compressive stresses only.
2. Medium size columns
The columns which have their lengths varying from 8 times their diameter to 30 times
their respective diameters or slenderness ratio lying between 32 and 120 are called
medium size columns or intermediate columns. In these columns, both the bucking as
well as direct stresses are of significant values. Therefore, in the design of intermediate
columns both these stresses are taken into account.
3. Long columns
The columns having their lengths more than 30 times their respective diameters or
slenderness ration more than 120 are called long columns. They are usually subjected to
bucking stresses only. Direct compressive stress is very small compared with buckling
stress, and hence it is neglected.
4.3 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS
The strength of a column depends upon the slenderness ratio. If the slenderness ratio is
increased the compressive strength of a column decreases as the tendency to buckle is increased.
The strength of the column depends upon the end conditions also.
4.3.1 END CONDITIONS
The end conditions of a loaded column can be had in four ways:Refer to Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.1
i. Both ends pin jointed or hinged or free

ii. One end fixed and other end free
iii. One end fixed and the other pin jointed
iv. Both ends fixed
EQUIVALENT LENGTH (𝐼𝑒 )

Thedistancebetweenadjacentpointsofinflexioniscalledequivalentlengthoreffective
lengthorsimplecolumnlength.Apointofinflexionisfoundateverycolumnendthatisfree to
rotateandateverypointwherethereisachangeoftheaxis.
Henceincaseof:
i. Bothendshinged:
Equivalentlength = Actuallength
𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙
ii. One end fixed and other end free:
𝑙𝑒 = 2𝑙
Thefreeendwillswaysidewiseandthecurvatureinthelength𝑙willbesimilarto that of
theupperhalfofthesimplecolumn.
iii. One end fixed and other pin jointed:

𝑙
𝑙𝑒 =
√2
Betweenthetopofthecolumnandinflexionpoint
iv. Both end fixed.
𝑙
𝑙𝑒 =
2
The distance between two inflection points
4.4 EULER’S THEORY FOR LONG COLUMNS

Assumptions
The following assumptions are made while deriving the Euler’s Formula:
i. The column is initially straight and of uniform lateral dimension
ii. The compressive load is exactly axial and it passes through the centroid of the
column section
iii. The material of the column is perfectly homogenous and isotropic
iv. Pin joints are frictionless and fixed ends are perfectly rigid
v. The weight of the column itself is neglected
vi. The column fails by buckling alone
vii. Limit of proportionality is not exceeded
4.5 SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR BENDING MOMENTS

A bending moment which bends the column so as to present convexity towards the' initial line of
the member will be regarded as positive (Fig. 4.2). ,
A bending moment which bends the column as to present concavity towards the initialcentre
ofthe member will regarded as negative(Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3
EULER’S FORMULA
Euler’s formula is used calculating the critical load for a column or strut, and is as follows:
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2
𝑙𝑒
Where,
𝑃 = 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑,
𝐸 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑦
𝐼 = 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝐼𝑒 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡
A column of given length, cross-section and material will have different values of buckling loads
for different end conditions as given in Table 4.1
Table 4.1
LIMITATIONSFORTHEUSEOFEULER'SFORMULA
The following are the limitations due to which Euler's formula is of little practical use.
1. It is applicable to an ideal strut only and in practice, there is always crookedness in the
column and the load applied may not be exactly co-axial.
2. It takes no account of direct stress. It means that it may give a buckling load for struts far
inexcess of load which they can withstand under direct compression.
4.6 APPLICABILITY OF EULER THEORY
- It is assumed that only buckling has any effect in developing this theory that is the strut is
assumed to be slender.
- If the maximum allowable compressive stress in the strut is 𝜎𝑐 , the breaking or crushing
load/strength would be 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴
- If P exceeds 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 then strut will be break in crushing
- It is found that for values of slenderness ratio greater than 80, the Euler formula may be
applied, but it will not conform closely with the actual buckling load until the slenderness
ratio becomes very large.
4.7 DERIVATIONS OF EULER'S FORMULA (FOR DIFFERENT END

CONDITIONS)
4.7.1 Case I. When both ends of the column are hinged or pinned:
Fig. 4.4 shows a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙 and uniform sectional area 𝐴, hinged at both the
ends𝐴and 𝐵. Let P be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled.
Consider any section 𝑋𝑋 at a distance 𝑥 from the end 𝐵. Let 𝑦 be the deflection (lateral
displacement) at the section.
The bending moment at the section is given by
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 = −𝑃𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 + 𝑃𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃
+ 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
The solution to the above differential equation is
𝑃 𝑃
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥 √ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥√ )
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

At 𝐵, the deflection is zero.
∴ At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
Fig. 4.4
Hence, 𝐶1 = 0
At 𝐴 also, the deflection is zero.

∴ At 𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦 = 0
𝑃
∴ 0 = 𝐶2 sin (𝑙. √ )
𝐸𝐼
Since 𝐶1 = 0, we conclude that 𝐶2 cannot be be zero.

This is because if both 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are zero the column will not bend at all.
Hence
𝑃
sin (𝑙. √ ) = 0
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ 𝑙. √ = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, 4𝜋 …
𝐸𝐼
Considering the first practical value, we have
𝑃
𝑙. √ =𝜋
𝐸𝐼
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃= … (4.1)
𝑙2
4.7.2 Case II: When one end is fixed and other is free
Fig. 4.5 shows a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙 whose lower end 𝐵 is fixed, the upper end 𝐴 being free.
Fig. 4.5
Let due to crippling load 𝑃 the column just buckle. Let 𝛿 be the deflection at the top end. At any
section 𝑋𝑋 distant 𝑥 from the fixed end 𝐵, the bending moment is given by
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = +𝑃(𝛿 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
∴ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝛿,
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑃 𝑃𝛿
Hence, 2
+ 𝑦=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The solution to the above differential equation is
𝑃 𝑃
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥√ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥√ ) + 𝛿
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

∴ 𝐴𝑡, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
∴ 0 = 𝐶1 + 𝛿 or𝐶1 = −𝛿
The slope at any section is given by
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
= −𝐶1 √ sin (𝑥 √ ) + 𝐶2 √ cos (𝑥 √ )
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
At 𝐵 the slope is zero.
𝑑𝑦 𝑃
∴ 𝐴𝑡, 𝑥 = 0, =0 ∴ 0 = 𝐶2 √ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
At 𝐴 the deflection is 𝛿.
∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦=𝛿
𝑃 𝑃
∴ 𝛿 = −𝛿 cos (𝑙 √ )+𝛿 or cos (𝑙 √ ) = 0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
∴ 𝑙√ = , ,
𝐸𝐼 2 2 2
𝑃 𝜋
∴ 𝑙√ =
𝐸𝐼 2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝑃= … . (4.2)
4𝑙 2
4.7.3 Case III: When one end the column is fixed and other end pinned or hinged:
Fig. 4.6 shows a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙, whose upper end 𝐴 is hinged while its lower end fixed
Let 𝑃 be the crippling load. Studying the nature of bending we realize that moment therefore
justifies the need for a horizontal force also at the top end 𝐴 without which no bending moment
can occur at 𝐵.
Hence the hinge at A must exert a horizontal force 𝐻at 𝐴. Consider any section 𝑋𝑋 at a distance
𝑥 from the lower fixed end 𝐵. The bending moment at the section is given by
Fig. 4.6
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = −𝑃𝑦 + 𝐻(𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
∴ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃𝑦 = 𝐻(𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
The solution to above differential equation is,
𝑃 𝑃 𝐻
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥 √ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥√ ) + (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

The slope at any section is given by,
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝐻
= −𝐶1 √ sin (𝑥√ ) + 𝐶2 √ cos (𝑥√ ) −
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
At B, the deflection is zero.
∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦=0
𝐻 𝐻
∴ 0 = 𝐶1 + 𝑙, Hence, 𝐶1 = − 𝑙
𝑃 𝑃
At B, the slope is zero.
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑃 𝐻 𝐻 𝐸𝐼
∴ 0 = 𝐶2 √ − , or, 𝐶2 = √
𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
At 𝐴, the deflection is zero

∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦=0
𝐻 𝑃 𝐻 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
∴ 0=− 𝑙 cos (𝑙 ∙ √ ) + √ sin (𝑙 ∙ √ )
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑃 𝐸𝐼
Simplifying, we get
𝑃 𝑃
tan (𝑙 ∙ √ ) = (𝑙 ∙ √ )
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The solution to this equation is
𝑃
𝑙∙√ = 4.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐸𝐼
𝑙2𝑃
∴ = 4.52 = 20.25
𝐸𝐼
20.25 𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝑷 = 4.52 =
𝑙2
Approximately 20.25 = 2𝜋 2
2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝑃= … (4.3)
𝑙2
4.7.4 Case IV: When both ends of the column are fixed:
Fig. 4.7 shows a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙whose both the ends 𝐴 and 𝐵 are fixed. Obviously there
will be a restraint moments say 𝑀0 at each end.Let 𝑃 be the crippling load.
Fig. 4.7
Considering any section 𝑋𝑋 distant 𝑥 from the lower end 𝐵. The bending moment at the
section 𝑋𝑋, given by
𝑑2𝑦
∴ 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀0 − 𝑃𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑃𝑦 𝑀0
∴ + =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The solution to the above differential equation
𝑃 𝑃 𝑀0
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥√ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥 √ ) +
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
Where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

The slope at any section is given by:
= −𝐶1 √ sin (𝑥 √ ) + 𝐶2 √ cos (𝑥 √ )
∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦=0
𝑀0 𝑀0
∴ 0 = 𝐶1 + or𝐶1 = −
𝑃 𝑃
At 𝐵, the slope is zero.
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑃
0 = 𝐶2 √ or𝐶2 = 0
𝐸𝐼
∴ At 𝐴, the deflection is zero.

∴ 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦=0
𝑀0 𝑃 𝑀0 𝑀0 𝑃
0=− cos (𝑙 ∙ √ ) + , or [1 − cos (𝑙 ∙ √ )] = 0
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑃 𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ cos (𝑙 ∙ √ )=1
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ 𝑙 ∙ √ = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 6𝜋 …
𝐸𝐼
Considering the first practical value
𝑃
𝑙∙√ = 2𝜋
𝐸𝐼
4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
Hence, 𝑷 =
𝑙2
Worked Example 1(Case III)
A solid round bar 60 𝑚𝑚 in diameter and 2.5 𝑚 long is used as a strut. One end of the strut is
fixed, while its other end is hinged. Find the safe compressive load for this strut, using Eulers
formula. Assume 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 and factor of safety = 3.
Solution
Diameter of solid round bar, 𝐷 = 0.06 𝑚
Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Factor of safety, F. O. S = 3
Length of round bar (shrut), 𝑙 = 2.5 𝑚
End conditions: One end hinged, other fixed
𝑙 2.5
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = = = 1.768 𝑚
√2 √2
Safe compressive load:
Euler’s crippling load is given by the relation,
2 9 4 𝜋
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 × 200 × 10 × 64 × 0.06
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 = × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 401.7 𝑘𝑁
𝑙𝑒 1.7682
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 401.7
∴ 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 133.9 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆. 3
Worked Example 2 (Case III)
In an experimental determination of the buckling load for 1.2 𝑚 diameter mild steel pin-ended
struts of various lengths, two of the values obtained were:
i. When length = 50 cm, the load = 10 𝑘𝑁, and
ii. When length = 20 𝑐𝑚, the load = 30𝑘𝑁
Make the necessary calculations and then state whether either of the above values of the loads
conforms to the Euler’s formula for the critical load. Take 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Solution
Moment of inertia,
𝜋
Moment of inertia, 𝐼 = × 1.22 = 0.102 𝑐𝑚4 = 0.102 × 10−8 𝑚4
64
At 𝑙1 = 50 𝑐𝑚, load = 10 𝑘𝑁
At 𝑙2 = 20 𝑐𝑚, load = 30 𝑘𝑁
End conditiona: Both ends pin jointed.
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙
Using the relation,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = , we have
𝑙𝑒2
𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 0.102 × 10−8
𝑃1 = × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 8.05 𝑘𝑁 … (𝑖)
0.52
Similarly,
𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 0.102 × 10−8
𝑃2 = × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 50.34 𝑘𝑁 … (𝑖𝑖)
0.22
From the above two calculations, we find that the load in case (i) conforms approximatetly.
Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron column (one end rigidly fixed and the
other hinged) of 150 𝑚𝑚 external diameter, 100 𝑚𝑚 internal diameter and 10 𝑚 length. Use
Euler’s formula with a factor of safety of 5, and 𝐸 = 95 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2.
Solution
External diameter, 𝐷 = 0.15 𝑚
Internal diameter, 𝑑 = 0.1 𝑚
Length of the column, 𝑙 = 10 𝑚
Factor of safety, 𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 = 5
End conditions: One end rigidly fixed and the other hinged
𝑙 10
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = = = 7.07 𝑚
√2 √2
Safe compressive load:
Using the relation,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 , we have
𝑙𝑒
𝜋
𝜋 2 × 95 × 109 × 64 × (0.154 − 0.14 )
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 374 𝑘𝑁
(7.07)2
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 374
∴ 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 74.8 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 5
A slender pin ended aluminium column 1.8 𝑚 long and of circular cross-section is to have an
outside diameter of 50 𝑚𝑚. Calculate the necessary internal diameter to prevent failure by
buckling if the actual load applied is 13.6 𝑘𝑁 and the critical load applied is twice the actual
load. Take 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 for aluminium.
Solution
Outside diameter, 𝐷 = 0.05 𝑚
Inside diameter of the column, 𝑑:
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑 2 ) = (0.052 − 𝑑 2 )
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) = (0.054 − 𝑑 4 )
64 64
Also, critical load = 2 × safe load (Given)
= 2 × 13.6 = 27.2 kN
End conditions: Pin-ended
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙 = 1.8 𝑚
Using the relation,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 , we have
𝑙𝑒
𝜋
𝜋 2 × 70 × 109 × 64 × (0.054 − 𝑑 4 )
27.2 × 103 = = 374 𝑘𝑁
1.82
27.2 × 103 × 1.82 × 64
(0.054 − 𝑑 4 ) = = 2.6 × 10−6
𝜋 2 × 70 × 109 × 𝜋
𝑑 4 = 6.25 × 10−6 − 2.6 × 10−6 = 3.65 × 10−6

𝑑 = 0.0437𝑚 = 43.7 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
Worked Example 5 (Case IV)
A built-up beam shown in Fig. 4.8 is simply supported at its ends. Compute its length, given that
when it is subjected to a load of 40 𝑘𝑁 per metre length, it deflects by 1 𝑐𝑚. Find out the safe
load, if this beam is used as a column with both ends fixed. Assume a factor of safety of 4. Use
Euler’s formul. 𝐸 = 210 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
Solution
Load, 𝑤 = 40 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Let, 𝑙 = Length of beam
Moment of inertia of section about 𝑋-𝑋 axis
1
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = (30 × 1103 − 28 × 1003 )
12
= 994 166 𝑐𝑚4 = 99.41 × 10−4 𝑚4
Fig. 4.8
5𝑤𝑙 4
Using the relation: 𝛿 = , we get
384 𝐸𝐼
5 × (40 × 103 ) × 𝑙 4
0.01 =
384 × 210 × 109 × 99.41 × 10−4
4
0.01 × 384 × 210 × 99.41 × 10−4
∴ 𝑙 =
5 × 40 × 103
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑙 = 14.15 𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Safe load, the beam can carry as a column:
End condition: Both ends fixed
𝑙 14.15
𝑙𝑒 = = = 7.07 𝑚
2 2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 =
𝑙𝑒2
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑌 − 𝑌 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠,

2 −4
𝜋 × 210 × 2.25 × 10 5 × 303 100 × 23
= × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 2 × [ ]+
7.072 12 12
[ = 22 5647 𝑐𝑚4 = 2.25 × 10−4 𝑚4 ]
= 9 330 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 9 330
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = = 2 332.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔
𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 4
Worked Example 6
A bar of length 4 𝑚 when used as a simply supported beam and subjected to a 𝑢. 𝑑. 𝑙.
of30 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚 over the whole span deflects 15 𝑚𝑚 at the centre. Determine the crippling loads
when it is used as a column with following end conditions:
i. Both ends pin-jointed
ii. One end fixed and other end hinged
iii. Both ends fixed
Solution
Length of the bar, 𝑙 = 4 𝑚
Uniformly distributed load, 𝑤 = 30 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Deflection, 𝛿 = 15 𝑚𝑚 = 0.015 𝑚
We know that,
5 𝑤𝑙 4 5 × (30 × 103 ) × 44
𝛿= , 0.015 =
384 𝐸𝐼 384 𝐸𝐼
5 × (30 × 103 ) × 44
𝐸𝐼 = = 6.66 × 106 𝑁𝑚2
384 × 0.015
i.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 (𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙 = 4 𝑚)
𝑙𝑒
𝜋 2 × 6.66 × 106
= × 10−3 = 4 108 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
42
ii.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 4
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 [𝑙𝑒 = = = 2.83 𝑚]
𝑙𝑒 √2 √2
𝜋 2 × 6.66 × 106
= × 10−3 = 8 207 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
2.832
iii.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 4
[𝑙𝑒 = = = 2 𝑚]
𝑙𝑒 2 2
𝜋 2 × 6.66 × 106
= × 10−3 = 16 432 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
22
Worked Example 7
Calculate the critical load of a strut which is made of a bar circular in section and 5 𝑚 long and
which is pin-jointed at both ends. The same bar when freely supported gives mid-span deflection
of 10 𝑚𝑚 with a load of 80 𝑁 at the centre.
Solution
We know that,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 = 2
𝑙𝑒 𝑙
And, deflection,
𝑊𝑙 3
𝛿= [∵ 𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒]
48 𝐸𝐼
𝑊𝑙 3 𝐸𝐼 𝑊𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐼 = , ∴ =
48 𝛿 𝑙 2 48 𝛿
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 × 80 × 5
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = = × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 8.22 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
48 𝛿 48 × (10 × 10−3 )
4.8 RANKINE’S HYPOTHESIS FOR STRUTS/COLUMNS
Acceptable theoretical expressions are available for both very short and very lons struts. The
Rankine hypotheis is designed to link these two known results to obtain expression applicable to
strust/columns of all dimensions.
Now, for very short strut, collapse will result from direct crushing and cripping load is
𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴
Where,𝜎𝑐 is the maximum possible compressive stress and A is the sectional area.
For a long strut the Euler formula applies,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑘 2 2
𝑘 2
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 = = 𝜋 𝐸𝐴 ( )
𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒2 𝑙𝑒
The Rankine hypothesis is
1 1 1 1
=( )= +
𝑃 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟
Where, 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 is the the actual crippling load for a strut.
If the strut is very short, 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 becomes very large and , 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 0, so that 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐 which is in
fact true.
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡,
Similary:
1
For a very long strut, becomes very large so that, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 , which is also true.
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟
Then it may be assumed that if the Rankine hypothesis is true for both very long and very short
struts, it will also be true for struts of other dimensions.
Substituting, we have
1 1 1 𝐴 1 1
= + or = +
𝑃 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 𝑘 2 𝑃 𝜎𝑐 𝑘 2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴 (𝑙 ) 𝜋 2 𝐸 (𝑙 )
𝑒 𝑒
𝑃 1 𝑃 𝜎𝑐
∴ = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, =
𝐴 1
+
1
2
𝐴 1 + 𝜎𝑐 2
𝜎𝑐 𝑙 𝑙
𝜋 2 𝐸( 𝑒 ) 𝜋 2 𝐸( 𝑒 )
𝑘 𝑘
𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴
∴ 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2 … (1)
𝑙
1 + 𝑎 ( 𝑘𝑒)
This is Rankine formula for the mean breaking stress of a strut/column, where
𝜎𝑐
𝑎=
𝜋2𝐸
expression′𝑎′ must in practice be obtained empirically.
In Rankine’s formula both 𝜎𝑐 and 𝑎 are constants for given column materials. The Table 16.2
shows the vales for different strut/column materials.
Table 1
Material 𝝈𝒄 (𝑴𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 ) 𝝈𝒄
𝒂=
𝝅𝟐 𝑬
1
Mild steel 320
7500
1
Cast-iron 550
1600
1
Wrought iron 250
9000
1
Strong timber 50
750
Studying Rankine’s formula,

𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2
𝑙
1 + 𝑎 ( 𝑘𝑒)
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
We find, 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2
𝑙
1 + 𝑎 ( 𝑘𝑒 )
𝑙 2
The factor 1 + 𝑎 ( 𝑘𝑒) has thus been introduced to take into account the buckling effect.
Sometimes it is required to find out the length of a column which shall give the same value of
buckling load by Euler and Rankine formulae. This is obtained as follows:
Equating the two formulae, we get
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴
= 2
𝑙𝑒2 𝑙
1 + 𝑎 ( 𝑘𝑒 )
𝑙𝑒2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑒2
𝑜𝑟 𝜋 𝐸𝐼 × (1 + 𝑎 2 ) = 𝜎𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑙𝑒2
2
𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑐 𝐴𝑙𝑒2 − = 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑘 𝑘2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑎𝑘𝑒2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑒2 (𝜎𝑐 𝐴 − ) = 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑘 2 (∵ 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑘 2 )
𝑘2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝑘 2
𝑙𝑒2 =
𝜎𝑐 − 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑎
2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝑘 2
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = ( ) … (2)
𝜎𝑐 − 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑎
It may be noted that the value of ′𝑎′ in this equation should be substituted for hinged ends only
and the length so obtained will be for hinged ends only. If the problem pertains to end conditions
other than the hinged ends, and ′𝑎′ substituted is for the hinged ends, the value of 𝑙𝑒 so obtained
will be the equivalent length for the given case, and it can be converted into the actual length of
the column.
Worked Example 1
A hollow C.I. column whose outside diameter is 200 𝑚𝑚 has a thickness of 20 𝑚𝑚. It is 4.5 𝑚
long and is fixed at both ends. Calculate the safe load by Rankine-Gordon formula using a factor
of safety of 4. Take:𝜎𝑐 = 550 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 ; 𝑎 = 1⁄1600.
Solution
Outside diameter of the column, 𝐷 = 0.2 𝑚
Thickness of the column, 𝑡 = 20 𝑚𝑚
Internal diameter of the column, 𝑡 = 𝐷 − 2𝑡 = 200 − (2 × 20)𝑚𝑚 = 0.16 𝑚
Length of the column, 𝑙 = 4.5 𝑚
Factor of safety, (F.O.S) = 4
𝜋
Area of the column, 𝐴= (0.22 − 0.162 ) = 0.0113 𝑚2
4
𝜋
Moment of inertia, 𝐼= (0.24 − 0.164 ) = 4.637 × 10−5 𝑚4
64
2
𝐼 4.637 × 10−5
𝑘 = = = 0.0041 𝑚2
𝐴 0.0113
End conditions: Both ends fixed
4.5
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑙𝑒 = = 2.25 m
2
𝜎𝑐 𝐴
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙2
, we get
1 + 𝑎 (𝑘𝑒2 )
550 × 0.0113
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 2.252
= 3.51 𝑀𝑁,
1 + 1600 × 0.0041
3.51
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟕 𝑴𝑵 𝐴𝑛𝑠
4
Worked Example 2
Compare the crippling loads given by Rankine’s and Euler’s formulae for tubular strut 2.25 𝑚
long outer and inner diameter of 37.5 𝑚𝑚 and 32.5 𝑚𝑚 loaded through pin-joint at both ends.
1
Take: 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 315 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 ; 𝑎 = ; and 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
700
If elastic limit for the material is taken as 200 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , then for what length of the strut does the
Euler formula cease to apply?
Solution
Outer diameter of strut, 𝐷 = 0.0375 𝑚
Internal diameter of the strut, 𝑑 = 32.5 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0325 𝑚
Length of the strut, 𝑙 = 2.25 𝑚
End conditions: Both ends pin-jointed, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙 = 2.25 𝑚
Yield stress𝜎𝑐 = 315 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
1
Rankine constant, 𝑎=
700
𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Comparison of loads:
Euler’s crippling load, 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 :
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
Using the relation, 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = , we get
𝑙𝑒2
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 ) = (0.03754 − 0.03254 ) = 4.23 × 10−8 𝑚4
64 64
𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 4.23 × 10−8
∴ 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 16.493 𝑘𝑁
2.252
Rankine’s crippling load, 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒′𝑠 :
𝜎𝑐 𝐴
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙2
1 + 𝑎 (𝑘𝑒2 )
𝜋 4 4
2
𝐼 64 (0.0375 − 0.0325 ) 0.03752 + 0.03252
𝑘 = = 𝜋 = = 1.539 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴 (0.03752 − 0.03252 ) 16
4
𝜋
315 × 106 × 4 (0.03752 − 0.03252 )
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 2.252
× 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 16.078 𝑘𝑁
1 + 7500 × 1.539×10−4
∴ = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝐴𝑛𝑠
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 16.078
Length of strut:
Now, Euler’s stress= 200 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
= 200 × 106
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
= 200 × 106
𝐴 𝑙𝑒2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑘 2
= 200 × 106 (∵ 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑘 2 )
𝐴 𝑙𝑒2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝑘 2
= 200 × 106
𝑙𝑒2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝑘 2 𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 1.539 × 10−4
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑙𝑒2 = = = 1.5189 𝑚2
200 × 106 200 × 106
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = 1.232 𝑚,
∴ 𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝟐 𝒎 𝐴𝑛𝑠
Worked Example 3
A1.5 𝑚 long C.I. column has a circular cross-section of 5 𝑐𝑚 diameter. One end of the column is
fixed in direction and position and the other is free. Taking factor of safety as 3, calculate the
safe load, using:
i. Rankine-Gordon formula; take yied stress 560 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , and 𝑎 = 1⁄1600 for pinned
ends
ii. Euler’s formula
Youngs modulus for C.I. = 120 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Solution
𝜋
Area, 𝐴 =× 52 = 19.64 𝑐𝑚2 = 19.64 × 10−4 𝑚2
4
𝜋
Moment of inertia, 𝐼 = × 54 = 19.64 𝑐𝑚2 = 30.7 𝑐𝑚4 = 30.7 × 10−8 𝑚4
64
Factor of safety, 𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆. = 3
i. Safe load by Rankine-Gordon formula:

Yield stress, 𝜎𝑐 = 560 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
1
Rankine′ s constant, 𝑎 =
1600
End condition: One end fixed in direction and position and the other free.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑙𝑒 = 2𝑙 = 2 × 1.5 = 3 𝑚
4 𝜋
2
𝐼 64 × 5
𝑘 = = 𝜋 = 1.5625 𝑐𝑚2 = 1.5625 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴 × 52 4
Using the relation,

𝜎𝑐 𝐴 560 × 19.64 × 10−4 1.09984
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙𝑒2
= 1 32
= × 103 = 29.72 𝑘𝑁
1+𝑎 1 + 1600 × 1.5625×10−4 37
𝑘2
29.72
∴ 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 𝟗. 𝟗 𝒌𝑵 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
ii. Safe load by Euler’s formula:
Young’s modulus, 𝐸 = 120 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Using the relation,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 × 120 × 109 × 30.7 × 10−8
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 2 = 2
× 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 40.4 𝑘𝑁
𝑙𝑒 3
40.4
∴ 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑵 𝐴𝑛𝑠
3
Worked Example 4
A column is made up of two rolled steel joists of I-section, 16 𝑐𝑚 × 8 𝑐𝑚 × 1 𝑐𝑚 thick with
plate20 𝑐𝑚 × 1 𝑐𝑚 riveted with flanges one each on the top and on the bottom. The edges of the
plates being flush with the outside edges of joists’ flanges. Determine, by Rankine’s formula the
safe load the column of 4 𝑚 length, with both ends fixed, can carry with factor of safety 3.
Take: 𝑎 = 1⁄750 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑐 = 320 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
Fig. 4.8
Area of cross-section of the column,
𝐴 = 2[(8 × 1 × 2) + (14 × 1)] + (2 × 20 × 1)
= 2 × 30 + 2 × 20 = 100 𝑐𝑚2 = 100 × 10−4 𝑚2
As the section is symmetrical, the 𝑐. 𝑔. will lie at the point of intersection of the two axes of
symmetry
𝑏𝑑 3 𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = + 𝑏𝑑𝑦̅ 2 = + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2
12 12
8 × 13 1 × 144 20 × 13
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 4 [ + 8 × 1 × (8 − 0.5)2 ] + 2 [ ] + 2[ + 20 × 1 × (8 + 0.5)2 ]
12 12 12
= 1 802.6 + 457.3 + 2893.3 = 5153.2 𝑐𝑚4 = 5153.2 × 10−8 𝑚4
1 × 83 14 × 13
𝐼𝑌𝑌 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐼 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 = 2 [ ]+ = 85.33 + 1.16 = 86.49 × 10−8 𝑚4
12 12
= 86.49 𝑐𝑚4
Moment of inertia for the whole section about YY axis,
1 × 203
𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 2[86.49 + 30 × 62 ] + 2 × = 2 332.98 + 1 333.33
12
= 3 666.31 𝑐𝑚4 = 3 666.31 × 10−4 𝑚4
As 𝐼𝑌𝑌 is less than 𝐼𝑋𝑋 so column will tend to buckle in YY direction.
End conditions: Both ends fixed
𝑙 4
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑙𝑒 = = =2𝑚
2 2
𝐼 3 666.31
𝑘2 = = = 36.66 𝑐𝑚2 = 36.66 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴 100
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴 320 × 106 × 100 × 10−4
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼2
= 1 22
1 + 𝑎 𝑘𝑐2 1 + 7500 × 36.66×10−4
3 200 000
= = 2794.7 × 103 𝑁 = 2794.7 𝑘𝑁
1.145
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 2794.7
Safe load = = = 931.56 𝑘𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔
𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 3
4.9 COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO ECCENTRIC LOADING
a. Rankine’s Method:
Let,
𝑃 = An eccentric load to which a short column is subjected
𝑒 = Eccentricity from the geometric axis,
𝐴 = Area of cross-section of member
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum compressive stress
𝜎 = Safe stress of the column
𝑙𝑒 =Effective length of the column
Now,
𝑃 𝑃∙𝑒
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + ∙𝑦
𝐴 𝐼
𝑃 𝑃∙𝑒 𝑃 𝑒𝑦
= + 2
∙ 𝑦 = (1 + 2 )
𝐴 𝐴𝑘 𝐴 𝑘
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝐴
∴ 𝑃= 𝑒𝑦
1 + 𝑘2
Safe load for the column at the eccentricity 𝑒 is given by,
𝜎𝐶 ∙ 𝐴
𝑃= 𝑒𝑦
1 + 𝑘2
𝜎𝐶 ∙ 𝐴
and, 𝑃= 𝑒𝑦 𝑙2
, when the effect of buckling is also included
(1 + 𝑘 2 ) (1 + 𝑎 𝑘𝑒2 )
I-section bar being lifted by a crane
b. Euler’s Method:
Refer to Fig. 4.9AB is a column of length 𝑙 subjected to an eccentric load 𝑃 at eccentricity 𝑒. Let
us assume that top of the column is free and the bottom of the column fixed.
Fig. 4.9
Let, 𝑦 = Deflection at any section 𝑋 distant 𝑥 from the fixed end 𝐵, and 𝛿 = Deflection at 𝐴
The bending moment at the section is given by,
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑃(𝛿 + 𝑒 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃(𝛿 + 𝑒)
∴ 2
+ 𝑦=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The solution to the above differential equation is given by,
𝑃 𝑃
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 √ + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥 √ + (𝛿 + 𝑒)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The slope at any section is given by,
= −𝐶1 √ sin 𝑥√ + 𝐶2 √ cos 𝑥 √
𝑑𝑦
At 𝐵, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0, and =0
𝑑𝑥
∴ 0 = 𝐶1 + (𝛿 + 𝑒)
𝑃
and 0 = 𝐶2 √
𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝐶2 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝐶1 = −(𝛿 + 𝑒)
At 𝐴, 𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦 = 𝛿
𝑃
∴ 𝛿 = −(𝛿 + 𝑒) cos 𝑙 √ + (𝛿 + 𝑒)
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ 𝛿 = (𝛿 + 𝑒) [1 − cos 𝑙 √ ]
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ (𝛿 + 𝑒) cos 𝑙 √ = 𝑒
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
𝛿 + 𝑒 = 𝑒 sec 𝑙 √
𝐸𝐼
The maximum bending moment for the column occurs at B and is equal to 𝑃(𝛿 + 𝑒)
𝑃
∴ Max. B. M = 𝑀 = 𝑃. 𝑒. sec 𝑙 √
𝐸𝐼
Hence the maximum compressive stress for the column section at B,
𝑃
𝑃 𝑃𝑒. sec 𝑙√𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎𝑏 = + … (1)
𝐴 𝑍
(Where, Z = section modulus)
If both the ends are hinged the eqn. (1) can be modified as
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
𝑃 𝑃. 𝑒. sec 2 √𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎𝑏 = + … (2)
𝐴 𝑍
Because for a column with one end fixed and the other end free, equivalent length𝑙𝑒 = 2𝑙.
Formula in general for any end condition can be written as
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝐴 𝑍
where, 𝑙𝑒 = Equivalent length depending upon the end conditions.
From above it may be noted that in the case of short columns (with no buckling) maximum
𝑙 𝑃
bending moment is 𝑃. 𝑒. which is increased to 𝑃. 𝑒. sec 2𝑒 √𝐸𝐼in the case of long columns.
Worked Example
From the following data of a column of circular section calculate the extreme stresses on the
column section. Also, find the maximum eccentricity in order that there may be no tension
anywhere on the section.
External diameter = 20 𝑐𝑚
Internal diameter = 16 𝑐𝑚
Length of the column = 4 𝑚
Load carried by the column = 200 𝑘𝑁
Eccentricity of the load = 2.5 𝑐𝑚 (from the axis of the column)
End conditions =Both ends fixed
Young’s modulus = 94 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Solution
Area of the column
𝜋
𝐴 = (202 − 162 ) = 113.1 𝑐𝑚2 = 113.1 × 10−4 m2
4
Moment of inertia of the section (about a diameter)
𝜋
𝐼= (204 − 164 ) = 4637 𝑐𝑚4 = 4637 × 10−8 𝑚4
64
Equivalent or effective length of the column,
𝑙 4
𝑙𝑒 = = =2𝑚
2 2
Maximum bending moment,
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
𝑀 = 𝑃. 𝑒. sec √
2 𝐸𝐼
Let us calculate the angle
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
√
2 𝐸𝐼
𝑙𝑒 𝑃 2 200 × 103
√ = √
2 𝐸𝐼 2 94 × 109 × 4637 × 10−8
= 0.2142 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 12.27° = 12° 16′
sec 12° 16′ = 1.02

∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200 × 2.5 × 10−2 × 1.02 = 5.1 𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝑃 𝑀 200 5.1
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = +
𝐴 𝑍 113.1 × 10−4 463.7 × 10−6
𝐼 4637 × 10−8
2 2 ∵𝑍= =
= 17 683 + 10 998 = 28 681 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚 = 28.7 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚 [ 𝑦 10 × 10−2 ]
= 463.7 × 10−6 𝑚2
For no tension (corresponding to maximum eccentricity)
𝑃 𝑀
=
𝐴 𝑍
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
=
𝐴 𝑍
200 200 × 𝑒 × 1.02
=
113.1 × 10−4 463.7 × 10−6
463.7 × 10−6
∴ 𝑒=
113.1 × 10−4 × 1.02
𝑒 = 0.0402 𝑚 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎𝒎 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
Worked Example
Fig. 4.10 shows a compound stanchion made up of two channels ISJC 200 weighing 139 𝑁 per
metre channel and two 25 𝑐𝑚 × 1𝑐𝑚 plates riveted one to each flange. If the maximum
eccentricity of a 300 𝑘𝑁 load from the YY-axis of the column. The load line lies in the vertical
plane through the XX-axis. Take 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2, the effective length of the column being 3
metres. Properties for the channel: 𝐴 = 17.77𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 1161.2𝑐𝑚4 , 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 84.2 𝑐𝑚4
Fig. 4.10
Solution
Area of the section = 85.54 𝑐𝑚2 = 85.54 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴 = 2(17.77 + 25 × 1) = 85.54 𝑐𝑚2 = 85.54 × 10−4 𝑚2
Moment of Inertia of the composite section about YY-axis,
1 × 253
𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 2[84.2 + 17.77 × 6.972 ] + 2 ×
12
= 1888.2 + 2604.1 = 4 492.3 𝑐𝑚4 = 4 492.3 × 10−8 𝑚4
Stress due to direct load,

300
𝜎𝑑 = × 10−3 = 35.07 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
85.54 × 10−4
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 70 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 … (𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑏 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑑 = 70 − 35.07 = 34.93 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
Section modulus about the YY-axis,

4 492.3
𝑍𝑌𝑌 = = 359.4 𝑐𝑚3 = 359.4 × 10−6 m3
12.5
∴ Maximum bending moment,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 34.93 × 106 × 359.4 × 10−6 × 10−3 𝑘𝑁𝑚 = 12.55 𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
∴ 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑒 sec √
2 𝐸𝐼
Now,
𝑙𝑒 𝑃 3 300 × 103
√ = √
2 𝐸𝐼 2 200 × 109 × 4 492.3 × 10−8
𝑙𝑒 𝑃
∴ sec √ = sec 15.7° = 1.03
2 𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃. 𝑒 × 1.038 = 12.55

12.55
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑒 = × 1000 𝑚𝑚 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎𝒎 𝐴𝑛𝑠
300 × 1.038
4.10 COLUMNS WITH INITIAL CURVETURE (AXIAL LOADING)

Refer to Fig. 4.11which shows a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙 with both ends pinned.It has an initial
curveture (𝐴𝐶’𝐵) having a central deflection 𝛿 ′ . Let 𝑦 ′ be the initial deflection at a distance 𝑥
from from the end 𝐵.
For the purpose for analysis let us assume a sine curve for the initial profile of the centre line of
the column, so that,
𝜋𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 𝛿 ′ sin … (1)
𝑙
𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝜋𝛿 ′ 𝜋𝑥
∴ = ∙ cos … (2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑙 𝑙
′
𝑑2𝑦 ′ 𝜋2𝛿 𝜋𝑥
∴ = − ∙ sin
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑙2 𝑙
Fig. 4.11
As the load on the column reaches the critical value P, the column will deflect to the form 𝐴𝐶 ′′ 𝐵,
so that the deflection at 𝑥 changes from 𝑦 ′ to 𝑦. This happens due to the bending moment 𝑃𝑦.
𝑑 2 (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ )
∴ 𝐸𝐼 = −𝑃𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
[𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ ) = change in deflection]
𝑑 2 (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ ) 𝑃𝑦
Or, 2
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
′
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑃𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 , 𝜋2𝛿 𝜋𝑥
∴ + = = − ∙ sin … (3)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑙2 𝑙
Let the solution to the above differential equation be given by
𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶𝛿 ′ sin
𝑙
(where, 𝐶 is a constant of integration)
𝑑𝑦 𝜋2 𝜋𝑥
∴ = 𝐶𝛿 ′ 2 cos
𝑑𝑥 𝑙 𝑙
𝑑2𝑦 ′
𝜋2 𝜋𝑥
and, 2
= −𝐶. 𝛿 2
sin
𝑑𝑥 𝑙 𝑙
𝑑2𝑦
Inserting the values of 𝑦 and in eqn. 3, we get,
𝑑𝑥 2
𝜋2
′
𝜋𝑥 𝑃 ′
𝜋𝑥 𝜋2𝛿 ′ 𝜋𝑥
−𝐶. 𝛿 2 sin + 𝐶. 𝛿 sin = − 2 sin
𝑙 𝑙 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝜋2 𝑃 𝜋2
∴ 𝐶[ 2 − ]= 2
𝑙 𝐸𝐼 𝑙
𝜋2
𝑙2 1
𝐶= 𝜋2 𝑃
= 𝑃
− 𝐸𝐼 1−𝑃
𝑙2 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟
𝐶=
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃
Hence, the equation to the deflected from of the column is given by:
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝜋𝑥
𝑦= 𝛿 ′ sin … (4)
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃 𝑙
The deflection will be maximum at the mid-point 𝐶 and let its (central deflection) value be 𝛿
𝑙
∴ 𝐴𝑡, 𝑥= , 𝑦=𝛿
2
∴ 𝛿= ∙ 𝛿′
Maximum bending moment,
𝑀 = 𝑃 × 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃. 𝛿 (bending moment at the mid − section)
[∵ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)]
𝑃. 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟
= ∙ 𝛿′
𝑃 𝑀 𝑃 𝑀𝑦𝑐
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎𝑏 = + = +
𝐴 𝑍 𝐴 𝐴𝑘 2
(where, 𝑦𝑐 =distance of the extreme layer in compression from the neutral axis)
𝑃 𝑃. 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑐 𝑃 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝛿 ′ 𝑦𝑐
= + ∙ 𝛿 ′ ∙ 2 = [1 + ∙ 2 ]
𝐴 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃 𝐴𝑘 𝐴 𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃 𝑘
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝛿 ′ 𝑦𝑐
= 𝜎𝑑 [1 + ∙ ]
𝑃𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃 𝑘 2
On rearranging, we get
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑑 𝛿 ′ 𝑦𝑐
[ − 1] [1 − ]= 2 … (5)
𝜎𝑑 𝜎𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑘
Worked Example
A steel strut has an outside diameter of180 𝑚𝑚 and inside diameter of 120 𝑚𝑚 and is 6 𝑚 long.
It is hinged at both ends and is initially bent. Assuming the centre line of the strut as sinusoidal
with maximum deviation of9 𝑚𝑚, determine the maximum stress developed due to an axial load
of 150 𝑘𝑁. Take: 𝐸 = 208 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Solution
Outside diameter of the strut, 𝐷 = 0.18 𝑚
Inside diameter of the strut, 𝑑 = 0.12 𝑚
Length of the struct, 𝑙 = 6 𝑚
Maximum deviation at the centre, 𝛿 , = 9𝑚𝑚 = 0.009 𝑚
Axial load, 𝑃 = 150 𝑘𝑁
Maximum stress developed, 𝜎𝑚𝑥 :
Area of cross-section,
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑2 ) = (0.182 − 0.122 ) = 0.01414 𝑚2
4 4
Moment of inertia,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷4 − 𝑑4 ) = (0.184 − 0.124 ) = 4.135 × 10−5 𝑚4
64 64
𝐼 4.135 × 10−5
𝑘2 = = = 2.924 × 10−3 𝑚2
𝐴 0.01414
(where, 𝑘 = radius of gyration)
Euler load,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑙𝑐
𝜋 2 × 208 × 109 × 4.135 × 10−5
= × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 2 357.9 𝑘𝑁
62
[𝑙𝑒 = 𝑙 = 6 𝑚 because strut is hinged at both the ends]
Stress,
𝜎𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 = = × 10−3 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 = 166.75 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐴 0.01414
Direct stress,
𝑃 150
𝜎𝑑 = = × 10−3 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 = 10.6 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐴 0.01414
Distance of the exreme later in compression from the neutral axis,
180
𝑦𝑐 = = 90 𝑚𝑚 = 0.09 𝑚
2
We know that,
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑑 𝛿 ′ 𝑦𝑐
( − 1) (1 − )= 2 … (5)
𝜎𝑑 𝜎𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑘
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 10.6 0.009 × 0.09
( − 1) (1 − )=
10.6 166.75 2.924 × 10−3
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
( − 1) × 0.936 = 0.277, ∴ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 13.74 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
10.6
4.11 BEAMS COLUMNS

Columns having transverse load in addition to the axial compressive load are termed as beam
columns.
Case I: Strut pinned at both ends and subjected to an axial thrust P and a transverse point
load W at the centre
Refer to Fig. 4.12. Consider any section at a distance 𝑥 from the end in AC. The bending moment
at the section is given by,
Fig. 4.12
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑊
𝐸𝐼 2
= −𝑃𝑦 − ∙ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑊
2
+ 𝑦=− ∙𝑥 … (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
The solution to the above differential equation is,
𝑃 𝑃 𝑊𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 √ + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥 √ − … (2)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2𝑃
The slope at any section in AC, is given by

𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑊
= −𝐶1 √ sin 𝑥 √ + 𝐶2 √ cos 𝑥 √ − … (3)
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2𝑃
𝐴𝑡, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝐶1 = 0
𝑙 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡, 𝑥 = , =0
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 𝑙 𝑃 𝑊
0 = 𝐶2 √ cos √ −
𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 2𝑃
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝐸𝐼
𝐶2 = ∙ √ sec √
2𝑃 𝑃 2 𝑃
𝑾 𝑬𝑰 𝒍 𝑬𝑰 𝑬𝑰 𝑾 ∙ 𝒙
𝒚= √ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 √ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 √ −
𝟐𝑷 𝑷 𝟐 𝑷 𝑷 𝟐𝑷
Maximum deflection:
The maximum deflection will occur at the centre
𝑙
𝐴𝑡, 𝑥 = , 𝑦=𝛿
2
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑙 𝑃 𝑊𝑙
∴ 𝛿= √ sec √ sin √ −
2𝑃 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 4𝑃
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑊𝑙
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝛿 = √ tan √ −
2𝑃 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 4𝑃
Maximum bending moment:
𝑊 𝑙
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝛿 + ∙
2 2
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑊𝑙 𝑊𝑙
= 𝑃[ √ tan √ − ]+
2𝑃 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 4𝑃 4
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑊𝑙 𝑊𝑙
= √ tan √ − +
2 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 4 4
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃
∴ 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ tan √ … (4)
2 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
We know that,
𝜃3
tan 𝜃 = 𝜃 + +⋯
3
When 𝜃 is small,
𝜃3
tan 𝜃 = 𝜃 +
3
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑙 𝑙 3 𝑃 𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − √ [ √ + √ ]
2 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 3 8 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝑾𝒍 𝑾𝒍𝟑
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = − [ + ∙ 𝑷]
𝟒 𝟒𝟖𝑬𝑰
Maximum stress:
Stress due to bending,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑐 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑐
𝜎𝑏 = = =
𝑍 𝐼 𝐴𝑘 2
(where, 𝑦𝑐 = distance of the extreme layer in compression from the neutral axis)
𝑊 𝑦𝑐 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = ∙ 2 √ tan √
2 𝐴𝑘 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
Direct stress,
𝑃
𝜎𝑑 =
𝐴
∴ Maximum stress,
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎𝑏
𝑃 𝑊 𝑦𝑐 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + ∙ 2 √ tan √ … (5)
𝐴 2 𝐴𝑘 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
Worked Example
A steel strut, 1 𝑚 long is 30 𝑚𝑚 in diameter. It is subjected to an axial thrust of 18 𝑘𝑁. In
addition, a lateral load 𝑊 acts at the centre of the strut. If the strut fails at a maximum stress
of 350 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , determine the magnitude of 𝑊. Take 𝐸 = 210 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2.
Solution
Diameter of the strut, 𝑑 = 0.03 𝑚
Axial load, 𝑃 = 18 𝑘𝑁
Maximum stress, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 350 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
Young’s modulus, 𝐸 = 350 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
Magnitude of W:
Area of strut,
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= 𝑑 = × 0.032 = 7.068 × 10−4 𝑚2
4 4
Moment of inertia,
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐼= 𝑑 = × 0.034 = 3.976 × 10−8 𝑚2
64 64
𝐼 3.976 × 10−8
𝑘2 = = = 5.625 × 10−5 𝑚2
𝐴 7.068 × 10−4
(where, 𝑘= radius of gyration)
Direct stress,
𝑃 158
𝜎𝑑 = = × 10−3 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 = 25.47 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐴 7.068 × 10−4
Also,
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎𝑏 , ∴ 350 = 25.47 + 𝜎𝑏 , 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜎𝑏 = 324.53 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
Now,
𝑃 18 × 103
= = 2.155
𝐸𝐼 210 × 109 × 3.976 × 10−8
𝑃 𝐸𝐼
√ = √2.155 = 1.468, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √ = 0.681
𝐸𝐼 𝑃
Moreover,
𝑙 𝑃 1
√ = × 1.468 = 0.734 rad
2 𝐸𝐼 2
𝑙 𝑃
∴ tan √ = tan 40° = 0.9
2 𝐸𝐼
Also,
𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ tan √
2 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
∴ Bending stress,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑦
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝑍 𝐼
𝑊 𝑦𝑐 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝜎𝑏 = ∙ 2 √ tan √
2 𝐴𝑘 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
(where, 𝑦𝑐 = 0.015 𝑚 = distance of the extreme layer in compression from the neutral axis)
𝑊 × 0.015
324.53 × 106 = × 0.681 × 0.9
2 × 7.068 × 10−4 × 5.625 × 10−5
324.53 × 106 × 2 × 7.068 × 10−4 × 5.625 × 10−5

𝑊= × 10−3 𝑘𝑁 = 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝐴𝑛𝑠
0.015 × 0.681 × 0.9
Case II: Strut pinned at both ends and subjected to an axial thrust 𝑷 and a lateral
uniformly distributed load of intensity 𝒘 per unit run
Refer to Fig. 4.13. Consider any section distant x from the end 𝐴. The bending moment at section
is given by,
𝑑2𝑦 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑤𝑙
𝐸𝐼 2 = −𝑃𝑦 + − 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑃 𝑤𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑥)
∴ + 𝑦 = −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
Fig. 4.13
The solution to the above differential equation is,
𝑃 𝑃 𝑤𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) 𝑤 𝐸𝐼
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 √ + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥 √ − − 2 … (1)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑤𝑥 𝑤𝑙
∴ = −𝐶1 √ sin 𝑥 √ + 𝐶2 √ cos 𝑥 √ + −
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 2𝑃
At 𝐴, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
𝑤 𝐸𝐼
∴ 0 = 𝐶1 −
𝑃2
𝑤 𝐸𝐼
𝐶1 =
𝑃2
𝑙 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑡, 𝑥 = , =0
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑤 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑙 𝑃 𝑃 𝑙 𝑃
∴ 0=− √ sin √ + 𝐶2 √ cos √
𝑃2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑙 𝑃
∴ 𝐶2 = 𝐶1 tan √
2 𝐸𝐼
Inserting the values of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in deflection eqn. 1, we get
𝑤 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑙 𝑃 𝑃 𝑤𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) 𝑤 𝐸𝐼
𝑦= 2
[cos 𝑥 √ + tan √ sin 𝑥 √ ] − − 2
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2𝑃 𝑃
Deflection at the centre:

Let 𝛿 be the deflection at the centre.
𝑙
At, 𝑥= , 𝑦=𝛿
2
𝑤 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑙 𝑃 𝑙 𝑃 𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤𝐸𝐼
∴ 𝛿= [cos √ + tan √ sin √ ] − − 2
𝑃2 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 8𝑃 𝑃
𝑤 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑤𝑙 2
∴ 𝛿 = 2 [sec √ − 1] − … (2)
𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 8𝑃
Maximum bending moment which will occur at 𝐶 is given by
𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤 𝐸𝐼 𝑙 𝑃 𝑤𝑙 2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − − 𝑃𝛿 = − − 𝑃 [ 2 (sec √ − 1) − ]
8 8 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼 8
𝑤𝑙 2 𝑙 𝑃
=− [sec √ − 1]
8 2 𝐸𝐼
We know that,
𝜃 2 5𝜃 2 61𝜃 2
sec 𝜃 = 1 + + + +⋯
∟2 ∟4 ∟6
When 𝜃 is small,
𝜃 2 5𝜃 2 𝜃 2 5𝜃 2
sec 𝜃 = 1 + + =1+ +
∟2 ∟4 2 24
𝑤 𝐸𝐼 1 𝑙 2 𝑃 5 𝑙 4 𝑃2
=− [ ∙ + ∙ ∙ ]
𝑃 2 4 𝐸𝐼 24 16 𝐸 2 𝐼 2
𝑤𝑙 2 5 𝑤𝑙 4
= −[ + 𝑃]
8 384 𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝑙 2 5 𝑤𝑙 4
∴ 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −[ + ] … (16.33)
8 384 𝐸𝐼
Maximum stress:
Now maximum stress,
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎𝑏
𝑃 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑐
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝜎𝑑 = and𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴 𝑍 𝐴𝑘 2
𝑃 𝑤 𝐸𝑦𝑐 𝑙 𝑃
∴ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + [sec √ − 1] … (16.34)(∵ 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑘 2 )
𝐴 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
(where, 𝑦𝑐 =distance of extreme layer in compression from the neural axis)

Worked Example
A rod, 2 𝑚 in length and of rectangular cross-section 88 𝑚𝑚 × 44 𝑚𝑚 is supported horizontally
through pin joints. It carries a vertical load of 3.3 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚 length and an axial thrust of 110 𝑘𝑁.
If 𝐸 = 208 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 , calculate the maximum stress induced.
Solution
Length of the rod, 𝑙 = 2 𝑚
Cross-section of the rod, 𝐴 = 88 × 44 = 3872 𝑚𝑚2
88 × 443
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝐼 = = 62.47 × 104 𝑚𝑚4
12
Axial thrust, 𝑃 = 110 𝑘𝑁
Vertical load, 𝑊 = 3.3 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚 = 3.3 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚
Young’s modulus, 𝐸 = 208 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 110 × 103
√ =√ = 9.2 × 10−4
𝐸𝐼 208 × 103 × 62.47 × 104
𝑙 𝑃 2 × 1000
√ = × 9.2 × 10−4 = 0.92 radian = 52.7°
2 𝐸𝐼 2
∴ sec 52.7° = 1.65

Maximum stress, 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 :
Maximum stress is given by (Eqn. 16.34)
𝑃 𝑃 𝑤 𝐸𝑦𝑐 𝑙 𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + + [sec √ − 1]
𝐴 𝐴 𝑃 2 𝐸𝐼
(where, 𝑦𝑐 = 44⁄2 = 22 𝑚𝑚 = distance of extreme layer in compression from the neutral axis)
110 × 103 3.3 × 208 × 103 × 22
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + (1.65 − 1) = 28.41 + 89.23 = 117.64 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
3872 110 × 103
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟒 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐 (117.64 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 ) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
5 CHAPTER 5
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
In MPE 222 (Bending stresses), while using the well known bending equation
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
it is assumed that the neutral axis of the cross-section o the beam is perpendicular to the plane of
loading. This condition implies that the plane of loading or plane of bending, is coincident with,
or parallel to, a plane containing a principal centroidal axis of inertia of the cross-section of the
beam. If, however, the plane of loading or that of bending, does not lie in (or parallel to) a plane
that contains the principal centridal axis of the cross-section, the bending is called unsymmetrial
bending.
In the case of unsymmetrical bending, the direction of neutral axis is not perpendicular to the
plane of bending.
Following are the two reasons of unsymmetrical bending:

i. The section is symmetrial (viz. rectangualr, circular, I sections) but the load line is
inclined to both the principal axes.
ii. The section itself is unsymmetrical (viz. angle section or channnel section vertical
web) and the load line is along any centroidal axis.
5.1 STRESSES DUE TO UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

Fig. 5.1 shows the cross-section of a beam under the action of a bending moment M acting in
plane 𝑌𝑌.
Also,
𝐺 = Centroid of the section,
𝑋𝑋, 𝑌𝑌= Co-ordinate axes passing through G, and
𝑈𝑈, 𝑉𝑉 = Principal axes inclined at an angle 𝜃 to XX and YY axes respectively.
Let us determine the stress distribution over the section.

The moment M in the plane YY can be resolved into its components in the planes UU and VV as
follows:
Moment in the plane, 𝑈𝑈, 𝑀′ = 𝑀 sin 𝜃 … (5.1)
Moment in the plane, 𝑈𝑈, 𝑀′′ = 𝑀 cos 𝜃 … (5.2)
Fig. 5.1
The components 𝑀′ and 𝑀" have their axes along VV and UU respectively.
The resultant bending stress at the point 𝑃(𝑢, 𝑣) is given by,
𝑀′𝑢 𝑀"𝑣 𝑀 sin 𝜃 ∙ 𝑢 𝑀 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑣
𝜎𝑏 = + = +
𝐼𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝑈𝑈 𝐼𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝑈𝑈
𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝑢 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝝈𝒃 = 𝑀 [ + ] … (5.3)
𝐼𝑈𝑈 𝐼𝑉𝑉
At any point the nature of 𝜎𝑏 will depend upon the quadrant in which it lies. In other words the
signs of u and v will have to be taken into account while determining the resultant bending stress.
The equation of the neutral axis (N.A) can be found by finding the locus of the points on which
the resultant stress is zero. Thus, the points lying on neutral axis will satisfy the condition that
𝜎𝑏 = 0.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑀[ + ]=0 … [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5.3]
𝑜𝑟, + =0
𝐼𝑈𝑈 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝑣 = −[ × ]𝑢
𝐼𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜃
𝐼𝑈𝑈
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣 = −[ tan 𝜃] 𝑢 … (5.4)
𝐼𝑉𝑉
This is an equation of a straight line passing through the centroid C of the section and inclined at
an angle 𝛼 with UU where,
𝐼𝑈𝑈
tan 𝛼 = − [ tan 𝜃] … (5.5)
𝐼𝑉𝑉
Following points are worth noting:
i. The maximum stress will occur at a point which is at the greatest distance from the
neutral axis
ii. All the points of the section on one side of the neutral axis will carry stresses of the
same nature and on the other side of its axis, of opposite nature.
iii. In the case where there is direct stress in addition to the bending stress, the neutral
axis will still be a straight line but will not pass through G (centroid of the section).
Bridges have members having both symmetrical and unsymmetrical cross-section
5.2 DEFLECTION O BEAMS DUE TO UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

Fig. 5.2 shows the transverse section of the beam with centroid 𝐺. 𝑋𝑋and𝑌𝑌 are two set of co-
ordinate axes. 𝑊is the load acting along line 𝑌𝑌 on the section of the beam. The load 𝑊 can be
resolved into the following two components:
i. 𝑊 sin 𝜃 … 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑈𝐺
ii. 𝑊 cos 𝜃 … 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝐺
Fig. 5.2
Let,
𝛿𝑢 = Deflection caused by component 𝑊 sin 𝜃 along the line GU for its bending about 𝑉𝑉 axis
𝛿𝑣 = Deflection caused by component 𝑊 cos 𝜃 along the line GV due to bending about 𝑈𝑈 axis
Then, depending upon the end conditions of the beam, the values of 𝛿𝑢 and 𝛿𝑣 are given by:
𝐾 (𝑊 sin 𝜃)𝑙 3
𝛿𝑢 = … (5.6)
𝐸 𝑙𝑉𝑉
And
𝐾 (𝑊 cos 𝜃)𝑙 3
𝛿𝑣 = … (5.7)
𝐸 𝑙𝑈𝑈
Where,
𝐾 = A constant depending on the end conditions of the beam and position of the load along the
beam
𝑙 = Length of the beam
The total or resultant deflection 𝛿 can then be found as follows:
𝛿 = √(𝛿𝑢)2 + (𝛿𝑣)2
𝐾𝑙 3 𝑊 sin 𝜃 2 𝑊 cos 𝜃 2
= √( ) +( )
𝐸 𝐼𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝑈𝑈
Or
𝐾𝑊𝑙 3 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃
𝛿= √ 2 + 2 … (5.8)
The inclination 𝛽 of the deflection 𝛿, with the line 𝐺𝑉 is given by:

𝛿𝑢 𝐼𝑈𝑈
tan 𝛽 = = tan 𝜃 … (5.9)
𝛿𝑢 𝐼𝑉𝑉
From eqns. (5.5) and (5.9) it is evident that the magnitudes of 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the same and are
measured from perpendicular lines (𝐺𝑈 and 𝐺𝑉) in same direction as shown in Figs. 5.1 and
5.2.
Thus the deflection 𝛿 will be in a direction perpendicular to the neutral axis.
Worked Example 1
A cantilever, of I-section, 2.4 𝑚 long is subjected to a load of 200 𝑁 at the free end as shown in
Fig. 5.3. Determine the resulting bending stresses at corners 𝐴 and 𝐵, on the fixed section of the
cantilever.
Solution
Refer Fig. 5.3.
Fig. 5.3
Length of the cantilever, 𝑙 = 2.4 𝑚
Load, 𝑊 = 600 𝑁
Since I-section is symmetrical about 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 axes, therefore 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 are the principal axes
𝑈𝑈and 𝑉𝑉.
30 × 503 28 × 453
Moment of inertia, 𝐼𝑈𝑈 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = − = 99 875 𝑚𝑚4 = 9.99 × 10−8 𝑚4
12 12
2.5 × 303 45 × 23
𝐼𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 =2× + = 1.128 × 10−8 𝑚4
12 12
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑀 = 𝑊 × 𝑙 = 200 × 2.4 = 480 𝑁𝑚
Components of 𝑀 are:
𝑀′ = 𝑀 sin 20° = 480 × sin 20° = 164.17 𝑁𝑚
𝑀′′ = 𝑀 cos 20° = 480 × cos 20° = 451 𝑁𝑚
𝑀′will cause tensile stresses at points A and C and compressive stresses at points B and D
𝑀′′will cause tensile stresses at points A and B and compressive stresses at points C and D
Now, resultant bending stresses on A and B are as follows:
𝑀′′ × (25 × 10−3 ) 𝑀′ × (15 × 10−3 )
𝜎𝐴 = +
𝐼𝑋𝑋 𝐼𝑌𝑌
451 × (25 × 10−3 ) 164.17 × (15 × 10−3 )
=[ + ] × 10−6 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
9.99 × 10−8 1.128 × 10−8
= 112.86 + 218.31 = 331.17 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
∴ 𝝈𝑨 = 331.17 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝑀′′ × (2.5 × 10−3 ) 𝑀′ × (1.5 × 10−3 )

𝜎𝐵 = −
𝐼𝑋𝑋 𝐼𝑌𝑌
451 × (2.5 × 10−3 ) 164.17 × (1.5 × 10−3 )
=[ − ] × 10−6 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
9.99 × 10−8 1.128 × 10−8
= 112.86 − 218.31 = −105.45 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
∴ 𝝈𝑩 = −105.45 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
Worked Example 2
Fig. 5.4 shows a80 𝑚𝑚 × 80 𝑚𝑚 angle having 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 87.36 × 10−8 𝑚4. It is used as a
freely supported beam with one leg vertical. On the application of the bending moment in the
vertical plane 𝑌𝑌 the mid-section of the beam deflects in the direction 𝐴𝐴′ at 30° 15′ to the
vertical.
i. Calculate the second moment of area of the section about its principal axis
ii. What is the bending stress at the corner 𝐵 if the bending moment is 1.5 𝑘𝑁𝑚
Bridge
Fig. 5.4
Solution
Given: 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 87.36 × 10−8 𝑚4
Bending moment, 𝑀 = 1.5 𝑘𝑁𝑚
i. Second moment of area about the princial axes, 𝐼𝑈𝑈 , 𝐼𝑌𝑌 :
We know, 𝐼𝑈𝑈 + 𝐼𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 + 𝐼𝑌𝑌
= 2 × 87.36 × 10−8 = 174.72 × 10−8 𝑚4 … (𝑖)
Also,
𝐼𝑈𝑈
tan 𝛽 = × tan 𝜃
𝐼𝑉𝑉
Here,𝜃 = 45° (legs of the section being equal)
and, 𝛽 = Inclination of 𝐺𝐴′ with 𝐺𝑉 ′ = 45° + 30° 15′ = 75° 15′
𝐼𝑈𝑈
∴ tan(75° 15′ ) = tan 45°
𝐼𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝑈𝑈
𝑜𝑟 = 3.79 … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐼𝑉𝑉
Solving eqns. (i) and (ii), we get
𝐼𝑉𝑉 = 36.5 × 10−8 𝑚4 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝐼𝑈𝑈 = 138.2 × 10−8 𝑚4 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
ii. Bending stress at B:

Co-ordinates of 𝐵(𝑢, 𝑣):
234
𝑢 = 80 cos 45° − = 23.47 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0235 𝑚
cos 45°
𝑣 = 80 sin 45° = 56.57 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0566 𝑚
Now, bending stress at B,
𝜎𝐵 = 𝑀 [ + ] 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (21.3)
0.0566 × cos 45° 0.0235 × sin 45°

= 15 [ + ] × 10−3 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
138.2 × 10−8 36.5 × 10−8
15 0.0566 × cos 45° 0.0235 × sin 45°

= [ + ] 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
10−5 138.2 × 10−8 36.5 × 10−8
= 1.5 × 105 (2.895 × 10−4 + 4.552 × 10−4 ) = 111.7 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
∴ 𝝈𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕 𝑴𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐
Worked Example 3
A beam of T-section (flange:100 𝑚𝑚 × 20 𝑚𝑚; 𝑤𝑒𝑏: 150 𝑚𝑚 × 10 𝑚𝑚) is 2.5 𝑚 in length
and is simply supported at the ends. It carries a load of 3.2 𝑘𝑁 inclined at 20° to the vertical and
passing through the centroid of the section. If 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2; calculate:
i. Maximum tensile stress;
ii. Maximum compressive stress
iii. Deflection due to the load and
iv. Position of the neutral axis
Fig. 5.5
Solution
Length of the beam, 𝑙 = 2.5 𝑚, Load, 𝑊 = 3.2 𝑘𝑁
Inclination of the load with the vertical = 20°
To find centroid of the T-section taking moments about the top of the flange, we get
150
100 × 20 × 10 + 150 × 10 × ( + 20)
2
𝑦̅ =
100 × 20 + 150 × 10
20 000 + 142 500

= = 46.2 𝑚𝑚
2000 + 1500
Since the section is symmetrical about the vertical axis, therefore, the principal axes pass through
the centroid 𝐺 and are along 𝑈𝑈 and 𝑉𝑉 axes shown.
100 + 203 10 × 1503
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑈𝑈 = [ + 100 × (464 − 10)2 ] + [ + 150 × 10 × (123.6 − 75)2 ]
12 12
= [66 666.67 + 2 649 920] + [2 812 500 + 3 542 940]
= 9.07 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 = 9.07 × 10−6 𝑚4
20 × 103 150 × 103

𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 𝐼𝑉𝑉 =[ + ]
12 12
= 1.679 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 = 1.679 × 10−6 𝑚4

Components of 𝑊:
𝑊𝑢 = 𝑊 sin 20° = 3.2 × sin 20° = 1.094 𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑣 = 𝑊 cos 20° = 3.2 × cos 20° = 3.007 𝑘𝑁

Bending moments:
𝑊𝑢 × 𝑙 1.094 × 2.5
𝑀𝑢 = = = 0.0684 𝑘𝑁𝑚
4 4
𝑊𝑣 × 𝑙 1.093.007 × 2.5
𝑀𝑣 = = = 1.879 𝑘𝑁𝑚
4 4
𝑀𝑢 will cause maximum compressive stress at B and D and maximum tensile at A and C
𝑀𝑣 will cause maximum compressive stress at A and B and maximum tensile at C and D
i. Maximum tensile stress:

Maximum tensile stress at 𝐶,
𝑀𝑢 × (5 × 10−3 ) 𝑀𝑣 × (123.6 × 10−3 )
𝜎𝐶 = +
𝐼𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝑈𝑈
0.684 × 5 × 10−3 −3
1.879 × 123.6 × 10−3
=[ × 10 + × 10−3 ] 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
1.679 × 10−6 9.07 × 10−6
= 2.04 + 25.6 = 27.64 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
∴ 𝜎𝐶 = 27.64 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
ii. Maximum compressive stress:
Maximum compressive stress at B,
𝑀𝑢 × (50 × 10−3 ) 𝑀𝑣 × (46.4 × 10−3 )
𝜎𝐵 = +
𝐼𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝑈𝑈
0.684 × 50 × 10−3 −3
1.879 × 46.4 × 10−3
=[ −6
× 10 + −6
× 10−3 ] 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
1.679 × 10 9.07 × 10
= 20.37 + 9.61 = 29.98 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
∴ 𝜎𝐵 = 29.98 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
iii. Deflection due to the load, 𝜹:
We know that
𝐾𝑊𝑙 3 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃

𝛿= √ 2 + 2
where,
1
𝐾= for a beam with simply supported ends, and carrying a point load at its centre.
48
2
𝐾𝑊𝑙 3 𝐼
𝛿= √sin2 𝜃 × ( 𝑈𝑈 ) + cos 2 𝜃
𝐸𝐼𝑈𝑈 𝐼𝑉𝑉
2
1 3.2 × 103 × 2.53 9.07 × 10−6
= × √(sin 20°)2 × ( ) + (cos 20°)2
48 200 × 109 × 9.07 × 10−6 1.679 × 10−6
= 5.742 × 10−4 √3.414 + 0.883 = 11.9 × 10−4 𝑚 = 1.19 mm

∴ 𝛿 = 1.19 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
i. Position of the neutral axis:
We know that,
𝐼𝑈𝑈 9.07 × 10−6
tan 𝛽 = tan 𝜃 = × tan 20° = 1.966 [𝐸𝑞𝑛. 21.8]
𝐼𝑉𝑉 1.679 × 10−6
∴ 𝛽 = 63° 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
Chapter 6
Thermostat and their design, strip deflection constant and strip force concepts, minimum volume
concepts.

MPEN 322 Solid Mechanics III - 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MPEN 322 Solid Mechanics III - 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MPEN 322 Solid Mechanics III - 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2021 / 2022 Academic Year

MPEN 322: SOLID MECHANICS III

Stephen Talai, PhD

Bridges have members having both symmetrical and unsymmetrical cross-section

Email address: [email protected]

Moi University, School of Engineering

Fig. 1.1: Steel-reinforced timber beam

Fig. 1.3:Steel-reinforced timber beam

The maximum stress in timber is given by

The maximum stress in steel is given by

1.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

Taking moments of areas about the neutral axis we have

𝑚𝐴𝑠 2𝑏𝑑1 15 × 628.3 2 × 200 × 350

Now using Eqn.(12)

𝑚𝐴𝑠 2𝑏𝑑1 15 × 942.5 2 × 250 × 400

2.2 STRAIN ENERGY IN SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION

𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝑙 ∵ 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

2.3.3 Falling or impact loads

[Taking +𝑣𝑒 sign only (max. value)]

If𝛿𝑙𝑖 is negligible as compared to ℎ,

Now, static deflection 𝛿𝑙 due to load 𝑊 is given by

Energy stored in the bar during elongation, U:

2.4 STRAIN ENERGY IN PURE SHEARING

2.6 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING

∫ 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = Sum of second moments of areas 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦

= 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠- 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼

i. The instantaneous stress developed, 𝜎𝑖 :

Consider a section 𝑋𝑋 at a distance 𝑥 from 𝐵. Then

Let 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 be the loads acting at points B and D respectively.

𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑊1 = 𝑊2 = 140𝑁 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

Portion CB (origin at C):

Total strain energy = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2

64𝑅 64 64 256 256

= 21.33𝑅 + [149.33𝑅 − 266.67 − 149.33]

21.33𝑅 + 149.33𝑅 − 416 = 0

170.66𝑅 = 416, ∴ 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟕 𝒌𝑵 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Mechanical digger’s Hydraulic arms partly behaves as column and struts

i. Both ends pin jointed or hinged or free

EQUIVALENT LENGTH (𝐼𝑒 )

iii. One end fixed and other pin jointed:

4.4 EULER’S THEORY FOR LONG COLUMNS

4.5 SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR BENDING MOMENTS

4.7 DERIVATIONS OF EULER'S FORMULA (FOR DIFFERENT END

Where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

At 𝐴 also, the deflection is zero.

Since 𝐶1 = 0, we conclude that 𝐶2 cannot be be zero.

where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

At 𝐵 the slope is zero.

The solution to above differential equation is,

where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

At 𝐴, the deflection is zero

The solution to this equation is

Where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration.

∴ At 𝐴, the deflection is zero.

Considering the first practical value

𝑑 4 = 6.25 × 10−6 − 2.6 × 10−6 = 3.65 × 10−6

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑙 = 14.15 𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑌 − 𝑌 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠,

Studying Rankine’s formula,

End conditions: Both ends fixed