Experiment One

practical procedure on demonstration of S and P orbitals using rubber balloon

Demonstrating S and P orbitals using a rubber balloon can be an engaging and effective way
to visualize these concepts. Here's a practical procedure to demonstrate S and P orbitals using
a rubber balloon:
Materials Needed:
Rubber balloons (preferably in different colors, e.g., red for S and blue for P)
Small, lightweight objects (such as beads or small pieces of paper)
String or thread
Marker pen
Procedure:
Prepare the Balloons: Blow up two balloons, one for representing the S orbital and another
for the P orbital. You can use different colors to differentiate between them.
Tie a string or thread to the end of each balloon to make them easy to handle.
Label the Balloons:
Use a marker pen to label each balloon. Label the S orbital balloon as "S" and the P orbital
balloon as "P". This helps in identifying them during the demonstration.
Explain Orbital Shape:
Begin by explaining the concept of atomic orbitals to your audience. Briefly describe how
different orbitals have different shapes.
Explain that the S orbital is spherical in shape, while the P orbital has a dumbbell shape with
two lobes.
Demonstration of S Orbital:
Hold up the balloon representing the S orbital. Explain that the balloon represents the region
in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron in an S orbital.
Show how the balloon looks spherical from all angles, illustrating the spherical shape of the S
orbital.
Demonstration of P Orbital:
Hold up the balloon representing the P orbital. Explain that the balloon represents one of the
lobes of the P orbital.
To demonstrate the dumbbell shape, attach a small, lightweight object (such as a bead or a
small piece of paper) to the center of the balloon using tape or glue. This represents the
nucleus.

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Ask someone to gently press the balloon from the sides, causing it to bulge outwards,
resembling the lobes of the P orbital.
Rotate the balloon to show the two lobes of the P orbital.
Comparison:
Hold both balloons side by side and compare their shapes. Emphasize the differences
between the spherical S orbital and the dumbbell-shaped P orbital.
Interactive Session:
Encourage your audience to ask questions and participate in the demonstration.
You can also discuss the significance of different orbitals in forming chemical bonds and
their role in determining the shape of molecules.

QUESTIONS and Answers

1. what is the maximum number of elements that can be accommodated by p orbital:
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated by a single p orbital is 2. This
is in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons in an
atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. Since each electron in an orbital must
have opposite spins (represented as "up" and "down"), a single p orbital can accommodate a
maximum of two electrons, each with opposite spins. Therefore, if we consider all three p
orbitals (px, py, and pz) in a given energy level, the total maximum number of electrons that
can be accommodated by p orbitals would be 6 (2 electrons per p orbital × 3 p orbitals).
2. Some examples each of elements found in S and P block of periodic table:
S Block Elements:
Lithium (Li): Lithium is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal located in Group 1 (IA) of the
periodic table. It has an atomic number of 3 and is commonly used in rechargeable lithium-
ion batteries, pharmaceuticals, and various industrial applications.
Potassium (K): Potassium is another alkali metal found in Group 1 (IA) of the periodic table.
It has an atomic number of 19 and is essential for the functioning of living cells. Potassium
compounds are used in fertilizers, food additives, and various industrial processes.
Beryllium (Be): Beryllium is an alkaline earth metal located in Group 2 (IIA) of the periodic
table. It has an atomic number of 4 and is known for its stiffness, lightness, and excellent
thermal conductivity. Beryllium is used in aerospace components, X-ray windows, and
nuclear reactors.
Calcium (Ca): Calcium is an alkaline earth metal found in Group 2 (IIA) of the periodic table.
It has an atomic number of 20 and plays a crucial role in bone health, muscle contraction, and
nerve signaling. Calcium compounds are also used in construction materials and as dietary
supplements.

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Rubidium (Rb): Rubidium is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal located in Group 1 (IA) of the
periodic table. It has an atomic number of 37 and is used in specialized glasses, atomic
clocks, and research applications in physics and chemistry.
P Block Elements:
Carbon (C): Carbon is a non-metal located in Group 14 (IVA) of the periodic table. It has an
atomic number of 6 and is known for its versatility in forming compounds. Carbon is the
basis of organic chemistry and is found in various forms, including graphite, diamond, and
carbon nanotubes.
Nitrogen (N): Nitrogen is a non-metal located in Group 15 (VA) of the periodic table. It has
an atomic number of 7 and is the most abundant element in Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen is
essential for plant growth, the manufacture of ammonia, and various industrial processes.
Oxygen (O): Oxygen is a non-metal located in Group 16 (VIA) of the periodic table. It has an
atomic number of 8 and is essential for respiration in animals and the combustion of fuels.
Oxygen is also used in medical therapies, water treatment, and the production of steel.
Sulfur (S): Sulfur is a non-metal located in Group 16 (VIA) of the periodic table. It has an
atomic number of 16 and is commonly found in minerals such as gypsum and pyrite. Sulfur is
used in the production of fertilizers, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.
Chlorine (Cl): Chlorine is a non-metal located in Group 17 (VIIA) of the periodic table. It has
an atomic number of 17 and is a highly reactive halogen gas. Chlorine is widely used in
disinfectants, bleaches, plastics, and the production of PVC.
3a. Give reactions equation of any metal of S block with Cold water
Sodium (Na):
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Potassium (K):
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Lithium (Li):
2Li + 2H2O → 2LiOH + H2
Rubidium (Rb):
2Rb + 2H2O → 2RbH + H2
3b. Reaction of any metal of P block with water
2Al + 6H2O → 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2
This reaction produces aluminum hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Aluminum's reaction with hot
water is relatively slow compared to alkali metals like sodium or potassium but is still
observable.

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Magnesium (Mg):
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2
Magnesium reacts with hot water to produce magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The
reaction is relatively slow compared to alkali metals.
Zinc (Zn):
Zn + 2H2O → Zn(OH)2 + H2
Zinc reacts with hot water to produce zinc hydroxide and hydrogen gas. This reaction occurs
slowly.
Bismuth (Bi):
2Bi + 6H2O → 2Bi(OH)3 + 3H2
Bismuth reacts with hot water to produce bismuth hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The reaction
is relatively slow, and bismuth is not as reactive as other metals in the p-block.
4a. Give four reaction equations of any metal of S block with dilute HCl
Sodium (Na):
2Na + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2
This reaction produces sodium chloride (common salt) and hydrogen gas.
Potassium (K):
2K + 2HCl → 2KCl + H2
Potassium reacts similarly to sodium, producing potassium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Calcium (Ca):
Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2
Calcium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium (Mg):
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride and
hydrogen gas.
4b. Give four reaction equations of any metal of P block with dilute HCl
2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2
This reaction produces aluminum chloride and hydrogen gas. However, aluminum's reaction
with dilute hydrochloric acid is relatively slow compared to its reaction with stronger acids or
with bases.

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 Experiment Two
Demonstration of the reactivity of Li, Na and K in water
Demonstrating the reactivity of lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K) with water can
be an engaging experiment to showcase the trends in reactivity of alkali metals in Group 1
(IA) of the periodic table. Here's a practical procedure to demonstrate this:
Materials Needed:
Lithium metal (Li), Sodium metal (Na), Potassium metal (K), Distilled water
Beakers or clear containers
Safety goggles
Tongs or forceps
Safety gloves
pH paper or universal indicator paper (optional)
Procedure:
Preparation:
Set up a well-ventilated area for the experiment.
Wear appropriate safety gear such as goggles and gloves to protect yourself from potential
splashes or spills.
Prepare three separate beakers or clear containers, each filled with distilled water.
Demonstration Setup:
Place a small piece of lithium metal in one beaker, sodium metal in another, and potassium
metal in the third beaker.
Ensure that each piece of metal is relatively small and manageable for the demonstration.
Observation:
Observe the appearance of each metal before it is placed in water. Note their metallic luster
and any specific characteristics.
Lithium, Sodium and Potassium metal is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. It is highly
reactive and has a shiny metallic luster when freshly cut. Lithium is the lightest metal,
Sodium is relatively soft while Potassium is even softer than sodium and can be easily cut
with a knife.
Reactivity with Water:

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Using tongs or forceps, carefully drop the lithium metal into the first beaker containing
distilled water.
Repeat the process with sodium metal in the second beaker and potassium metal in the third
beaker.
Note any immediate reactions, such as fizzing, bubbling, or the release of gas.
Observe any changes in the appearance of the metals as they react with water. For example,
you may notice the formation of a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Reactions with Water:
Lithium (Li):
2Li + 2H2O → 2LiOH + H2
Lithium reacts slowly with water to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The reaction
is less vigorous compared to sodium and potassium.
Sodium (Na):
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Sodium reacts vigorously with water, producing sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The
reaction is exothermic and may release enough heat to ignite the hydrogen gas formed.
Potassium (K):
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Potassium reacts even more vigorously with water than sodium, producing potassium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The reaction is highly exothermic and may generate enough
heat to ignite the hydrogen gas.

Safety Precautions:
Handle the alkali metals with extreme care, as they can react violently with water and
produce flammable hydrogen gas.
Keep a safe distance from the containers during the demonstration to avoid potential splashes.
Do not attempt to touch the metals or the reaction mixture with bare hands.
Optional pH Measurement:
If available, you can use pH paper or universal indicator paper to test the pH of the solution
after the reaction. Alkali metals react with water to form alkaline solutions, so you should
observe a rise in pH.

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Since lithium, sodium, and potassium all react with water to form hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH,
and KOH, respectively), the litmus paper would likely turn blue when in contact with the
resulting solution. This color change indicates that the solution is basic or alkaline.
So, in summary, the litmus paper would likely turn blue when in contact with lithium metal,
sodium metal, or potassium metal due to the formation of a basic solution as a result of their
reaction with water.
Assignment and Answers
After the demonstration, discuss the observations and results with your audience.

Observations Results
Lithium metal with When a piece of lithium metal is Lithium reacts with water to
water placed in water, it reacts slowly. form lithium hydroxide
Bubbles of hydrogen gas (H2) are (LiOH) and hydrogen gas
observed forming on the surface of (H2).
the lithium metal. The reaction is less vigorous
The metal may also float and move compared to sodium and
around on the surface of the water. potassium, but hydrogen gas
is still produced.
Sodium metal with When a piece of sodium metal is Sodium reacts with water to
water placed in water, it reacts form sodium hydroxide
vigorously. (NaOH) and hydrogen gas
Fizzing or effervescence is (H2).
observed as bubbles of hydrogen The reaction is more
gas (H2) are rapidly released. vigorous compared to
The metal may move around lithium, with the release of
quickly on the surface of the heat and rapid evolution of
water, producing a hissing sound. hydrogen gas.
The water may become warm or
even hot due to the exothermic
nature of the reaction.
Potassium metal with When a piece of potassium metal Potassium reacts with water
water is placed in water, it reacts very to form potassium hydroxide
vigorously. (KOH) and hydrogen gas
Sparks or flames may be observed (H2).
as the potassium metal ignites due The reaction is extremely
to the heat generated by the vigorous, often resulting in
reaction. sparks, flames, and even
The metal may skitter or move explosions.
around violently on the surface of
the water.
There may be an explosive release
of hydrogen gas (H2) and

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 formation of a purple flame.

Highlight the trend in reactivity among the alkali metals: as you move down Group 1 of the
periodic table from lithium to potassium, the reactivity with water increases.
Trend in Reactivity:

As you move down Group 1 of the periodic table from lithium to potassium, the reactivity of
the alkali metals increases.
This trend is due to the increasing ease with which the outermost electron can be lost as you
move down the group.
Since the outermost electron is further away from the nucleus in larger atoms (such as
potassium), it is less strongly attracted and thus more easily lost, leading to increased
reactivity.
Overall, the trend in reactivity among lithium, sodium, and potassium demonstrates the
predictable behavior of elements within the same group of the periodic table.

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 Experiment Three
Determination of the reactivity of Group 2 metal
To determine the reactivity of Group 2 metals, typically magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), or
zinc (Zn) are used as representative metals. Here's a practical procedure for such an
experiment:

Materials:
Magnesium ribbon or Calcium metal or Zinc metal
Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Safety goggles and gloves
Test tubes
Graduated cylinder
Stopwatch or timer
pH paper or universal indicator solution
Water
Bunsen burner or other heat source (if necessary)
Procedure:
Preparation: Set up a clean and dry working area. Wear safety goggles and gloves throughout
the experiment.
Preparing the Reactants: Measure out a specific volume (e.g., 10 mL) of dilute hydrochloric
acid (usually around 1 M concentration) using a graduated cylinder and pour it into a clean
test tube. Label this test tube appropriately.
Observation Setup: If using magnesium or calcium, cut a small piece of the metal ribbon. If
using zinc, weigh a small piece of the metal (about 0.1 g) using a balance. Label the test tube
containing the metal appropriately.
Reaction: Carefully drop the piece of metal (magnesium ribbon, calcium, or zinc) into the test
tube containing the hydrochloric acid. Observe and record the reaction that takes place. If
necessary, gently swirl the test tube to ensure thorough mixing.
Observations: Note the observations carefully. These may include:
Effervescence (bubbles) indicating the release of gas (hydrogen).
Temperature change (which you can detect by touching the test tube if safe or by using a
thermometer).
Changes in color or appearance of the metal (e.g., dissolution or formation of a precipitate).
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Time taken for the reaction to reach completion.
Measuring pH: After the reaction has completed, dip a piece of pH paper into the solution or
add a few drops of universal indicator solution. Record the pH of the solution.
Repeat: If necessary, repeat the experiment with the other Group 2 metals to compare their
reactivities.
Results:
The reactivity of Group 2 metals generally increases down the group, with magnesium being
the most reactive and barium being the least reactive.
Magnesium reacts rapidly with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing effervescence and a rapid
increase in temperature.
Calcium also reacts vigorously but relatively slower compared to magnesium.
Zinc shows less reactivity, often producing slower effervescence and a milder increase in
temperature compared to magnesium and calcium.
The pH of the resulting solution will be acidic due to the formation of hydrogen ions.
Safety Precautions:
Handle all chemicals with care, especially acids.
Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including safety goggles and gloves.
Perform the experiment in a well-ventilated area.
Dispose of chemicals properly according to local regulations.

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 Experiment Four
Reaction of Zinc Metals with Acids
practical procedure for observing the reaction of zinc metal with acids, particularly
hydrochloric acid:
Materials:
Zinc metal (granules or strips)
Dilute Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Safety goggles and gloves
Test tubes
Graduated cylinder
Stopwatch or timer
pH paper or universal indicator solution
Water
Bunsen burner or other heat source (if necessary)
Procedure:
Preparation: Set up a clean and dry working area. Wear safety goggles and gloves throughout
the experiment.
Preparing the Reactants: Measure out a specific volume (e.g., 10 mL) of dilute sulphuric acid
(usually around 1 M concentration) using a graduated cylinder and pour it into a clean test
tube. Label this test tube appropriately.
Preparing the Zinc Metal: If using zinc granules, measure out a small amount (e.g., 0.5
grams) using a balance. If using zinc strips, cut a small piece of the strip. Label the test tube
containing the zinc appropriately.
Reaction: Carefully drop the piece of zinc metal (granules or strip) into the test tube
containing the sulphuric acid. Observe and record the reaction that takes place. If necessary,
gently swirl the test tube to ensure thorough mixing.
Observations: Note the observations carefully. These may include:
Effervescence (bubbles) indicating the release of gas (hydrogen).
Temperature change (which you can detect by touching the test tube if safe or by using a
thermometer).
Changes in appearance of the zinc metal (e.g., dissolution or formation of a precipitate).
Time taken for the reaction to reach completion.

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Measuring pH: After the reaction has completed, dip a piece of pH paper into the solution or
add a few drops of universal indicator solution. Record the pH of the solution.
Repeat: If necessary, repeat the experiment with different concentrations of sulphuric acid or
different forms of zinc (granules vs. strips) to observe any variations in the reaction.
Results:
The reaction between zinc metal and hydrochloric acid produces zinc chloride and hydrogen
gas according to the following equation:
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The reaction proceeds rapidly, with effervescence observed due to the evolution of hydrogen
gas.
The resulting solution will be acidic due to the presence of sulphuric acid.
Zinc metal undergoes single displacement reaction, displacing hydrogen from sulphuric acid
to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Safety Precautions:
Handle all chemicals with care, especially acids.
Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including safety goggles and gloves.
Perform the experiment in a well-ventilated area.
Dispose of chemicals properly according to local regulations.
Questions:
Word equation for the reaction between Zinc and Sulphuric acid
Zinc + Sulphuric Acid → Zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen gas
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Word equation for the reaction between Zinc and Hydrochloric acid
Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid → Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen gas
This can be further represented by the balanced chemical equation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
In this reaction, zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Word equation for the reaction between Magnesium and Sulphuric acid

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 Experiment Five
Performing an acid-base titration using a pH meter allows for precise determination of the
equivalence point, where the moles of acid are equal to the moles of base (or vice versa).
Here's a procedure for conducting an acid-base titration using a pH meter, along with the
expected results:
Materials:
pH meter
Burette
Acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid)
Base (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide)
Distilled water
Indicator (optional, but not necessary when using a pH meter)
Stirring rod
Beakers
Pipettes
Safety goggles and gloves
Procedure:
Preparation of Solutions:
Prepare a standard solution of the base in a clean beaker using a known concentration and
volume. This will be the titrant.
Fill the burette with the standard base solution.
Prepare a solution of the acid in another clean beaker. This will be the analyte.
Measure out a known volume of the acid solution into a clean flask using a pipette.
Setup and Calibration:
Calibrate the pH meter according to the manufacturer's instructions using standard buffer
solutions at pH 4, 7, and 10.
Rinse the pH meter electrode with distilled water and place it into the acid solution in the
flask.
Titration:
Start adding the base solution from the burette into the flask containing the acid solution
while stirring continuously.

13
Record the pH reading after each small addition of base. The pH will initially be low and
gradually increase as more base is added.
As you approach the equivalence point, the pH changes per drop of base added will become
more gradual.
Continue titrating until the pH stabilizes, indicating that the equivalence point has been
reached. Record the final volume of base added from the burette.
Data Analysis:
Plot a graph of pH against volume of base added. The equivalence point will be the point of
inflection on the pH curve.
Calculate the volume of base required to reach the equivalence point.
Use stoichiometry to determine the concentration of the acid solution if the concentration and
volume of the base solution are known.
Results:
The equivalence point is reached when the pH stabilizes, indicating that the moles of acid are
equal to the moles of base.
The pH at the equivalence point depends on the strength of the acid and base being titrated.
For a strong acid-strong base titration, the equivalence point will be around pH 7 (neutral).
The titration curve will show a gradual increase in pH followed by a sharp increase near the
equivalence point and then a gradual increase again as excess base is added.
The volume of base required to reach the equivalence point can be used to calculate the
concentration of the acid solution.

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 Experiment Six
Reaction between a metal oxide and Dilute acid
Materials:
Metal oxide (e.g., copper(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide)
Dilute acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid)
Safety goggles and gloves
Test tubes
Graduated cylinder
Stirring rod
Bunsen burner or other heat source (if necessary)
pH paper or universal indicator solution (optional)
Procedure:
Preparation: Set up a clean and dry working area. Wear safety goggles and gloves throughout
the experiment.
Preparing the Reactants: Measure out a specific volume (e.g., 10 mL) of dilute acid (usually
around 1 M concentration) using a graduated cylinder and pour it into a clean test tube. Label
this test tube appropriately.
Adding Metal Oxide: Add a small amount (about 0.5 grams) of metal oxide into the test tube
containing the dilute acid. The amount of metal oxide used should be sufficient to observe a
noticeable reaction.
Observation Setup: If necessary, gently heat the test tube using a Bunsen burner or other heat
source. This may help accelerate the reaction. Use caution while heating and avoid
overheating.
Stirring and Observation: Use a stirring rod to mix the contents of the test tube. Observe and
record any changes that occur during the reaction. These may include:
Effervescence (bubbles) indicating the release of gas (usually carbon dioxide).
Changes in color or appearance of the mixture.
Temperature changes (if you have a thermometer available).
Continued Observation: If the reaction is slow, continue to observe the test tube over time to
see if any further changes occur.
Measuring pH: After the reaction has completed, you can measure the pH of the resulting
solution using pH paper or universal indicator solution. Record the pH of the solution.

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Safety Precautions: Handle all chemicals with care, especially acids. Wear appropriate
personal protective equipment, including safety goggles and gloves. Perform the experiment
in a well-ventilated area.
Results:
The reaction between a metal oxide and dilute acid typically produces a salt and water.
If the metal oxide is basic, it will react with the acid to form a salt and water. For example,
copper(II) oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce copper(II) chloride and water:
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
If the metal oxide is amphoteric, it may react with the acid or simply dissolve in it, depending
on its nature and the concentration of the acid.
The pH of the resulting solution may vary depending on the specific metal oxide and acid
used.
Note: The specific metal oxide and acid chosen will determine the exact reaction and
observations. Adjustments may be needed based on the specific experiment and materials
available.

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 Experiment Seven
Testing of Water Hardness
Testing water hardness typically involves determining the concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions present in the water. Here's a practical procedure for testing water hardness:

Materials:
Water sample
Soap solution
Erlenmeyer flask or beaker
EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) solution (standardized)
Buffer solution (pH 10)
Indicator solution (Eriochrome Black T or similar)
Burette
Pipettes
Graduated cylinder
Safety goggles and gloves
Procedure:
Preparation of Reagents:
Prepare a standardized EDTA solution by dissolving a known mass of EDTA in distilled
water and then standardizing it against a known concentration of calcium or magnesium ions.
Prepare the buffer solution by dissolving the buffer substance in distilled water and adjusting
the pH to 10 using a pH meter or pH indicator.
Prepare the indicator solution by dissolving Eriochrome Black T or similar indicator in
distilled water.
Sample Collection:
Collect a sample of the water to be tested in a clean container. Ensure that the sample is
representative of the water source being tested.
Titration:
Measure out a known volume (e.g., 50 mL) of the water sample into an Erlenmeyer flask or
beaker using a graduated cylinder.
Add a few drops of the indicator solution to the water sample. The water will turn from pink
to blue as the indicator binds to the calcium and magnesium ions.
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Add a small volume (e.g., 1 mL) of the buffer solution to the water sample to maintain a
constant pH.
Titrate the water sample with the standardized EDTA solution from the burette while swirling
the flask or beaker continuously.
Continue titrating until the color changes from blue to pink. This color change indicates that
all calcium and magnesium ions in the water sample have reacted with the EDTA.
Calculation:
Note the volume of EDTA solution used during the titration.
Calculate the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water sample based on the
volume and concentration of the EDTA solution used.
Results:
The hardness of water is typically expressed in terms of calcium carbonate (CaCO ₃)
concentration, measured in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L).
The higher the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water sample, the harder
the water.
Based on the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions, water hardness can be classified
as soft (0-60 mg/L CaCO₃), moderately hard (61-120 mg/L CaCO₃), hard (121-180 mg/L
CaCO₃), or very hard (>180 mg/L CaCO₃).
Safety Precautions:
Wear safety goggles and gloves to protect against chemical splashes.
Handle chemicals with care and follow proper laboratory safety procedures.
Dispose of chemicals properly according to local regulations.

18
 Experiment Eight
Reaction of iodine with Zinc
To prepare a zinc salt using zinc and iodide as materials, we'll be synthesizing zinc iodide.
Here's a practical procedure for its preparation:

Materials:
Zinc metal (zinc granules or zinc strips)
Iodine (solid or solution of potassium iodide, KI)
Distilled water
Beaker or flask
Stirring rod
Bunsen burner or hot plate (if necessary)
Filter paper (if necessary)
Safety goggles and gloves
Procedure:
Preparation of Iodine Solution:
If using solid iodine, prepare a solution of iodine by dissolving iodine crystals in distilled
water. The solution should be dilute but saturated.
Alternatively, if using potassium iodide (KI), dissolve it in distilled water to prepare a
solution.
Reaction Setup:
Place a small amount of zinc metal (granules or strips) into a clean beaker or flask.
Addition of Iodine Solution:
Slowly add the iodine solution (prepared in step 1) to the beaker or flask containing the zinc
metal. Ensure that the zinc is fully covered by the iodine solution.
Stirring and Reaction:
Stir the reaction mixture gently using a stirring rod to ensure thorough mixing and to
facilitate the reaction. The zinc metal will react with iodine to form zinc iodide.
The reaction can be represented by the following equation:
Zn(s) + I2(aq) → ZnI2(aq)
Optional: Heating (if necessary):

19
If the reaction is slow, you may gently heat the mixture using a Bunsen burner or hot plate.
Take care not to overheat or boil the solution.
Filtration (if necessary):
If any undissolved zinc metal or impurities are present, you can filter the solution using filter
paper to obtain a clear solution of zinc iodide.
Cooling and Storage:
Allow the solution to cool to room temperature before transferring it to a suitable storage
container. Store the zinc iodide solution in a labeled, tightly sealed container away from
moisture and direct sunlight.
Safety Precautions:
Wear safety goggles and gloves to protect against chemical splashes.
Handle iodine with care as it can irritate the skin and mucous membranes. Avoid direct
contact with skin or clothing.
Perform the experiment in a well-ventilated area to avoid inhaling any vapors produced
during the reaction.
Dispose of chemicals properly according to local regulations.
Note: The concentration of the zinc iodide solution can be adjusted by varying the amount of
zinc metal and iodine used or by diluting the resulting solution with distilled water.

20
 Experiment Nine
Quality Assessment of Analgesic drug
Aim: To Assess the quality of analgesic drug
Quality assessment of an analgesic drug involves various tests to ensure its safety, efficacy,
and compliance with regulatory standards. Here's a practical procedure for conducting quality
assessment of an analgesic drug:

Materials:
Samples of the analgesic drug (tablets, capsules, or liquid formulation)
Analytical balance
pH meter
Dissolution tester
UV-Vis spectrophotometer or HPLC system
Reference standards (if available)
Disintegration tester (for tablets and capsules)
Friability tester (for tablets)
Hardness tester (for tablets)
Water bath
Thermometer
Safety goggles and gloves
Laboratory glassware and equipment
Procedure:
Visual Inspection:
Inspect the appearance of the drug samples for any signs of discoloration, foreign particles, or
physical defects. Ensure that the packaging is intact and properly labeled.
Identity Test:
Perform a preliminary identity test such as color, odor, and taste to verify that the drug
matches its description.
Assay of Active Ingredient:
Quantify the active ingredient(s) in the drug formulation using an appropriate analytical
technique such as UV-Vis spectrophotometry or HPLC.

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Prepare standard solutions of the active ingredient(s) and measure the absorbance or
chromatographic peaks to determine the concentration.
pH Measurement:
Measure the pH of the drug formulation using a pH meter. The pH should be within the
specified range for the intended route of administration.
Dissolution Test:
Conduct a dissolution test to evaluate the rate at which the active ingredient(s) dissolve from
the drug formulation.
Use a dissolution tester equipped with suitable dissolution media and apparatus according to
pharmacopeia standards.
Collect samples at specified time intervals and analyze them for the concentration of the
active ingredient using UV-Vis spectrophotometry or HPLC.
Disintegration Test (for tablets and capsules):
Determine the disintegration time of tablets or capsules using a disintegration tester.
Immerse the dosage units in the specified dissolution medium maintained at a specified
temperature, and observe the time taken for complete disintegration.
Friability Test (for tablets):
Assess the friability of tablets using a friability tester.
Subject a sample of tablets to repeated tumbling in a drum apparatus and measure the
percentage weight loss.
Hardness Test (for tablets):
Measure the hardness of tablets using a tablet hardness tester.
Apply increasing pressure until the tablet fractures and record the force required.
Microbiological Testing (if applicable):
Perform microbiological testing to assess the microbial load and sterility of the drug
formulation.
Use suitable microbiological methods such as total viable count, microbial limit tests, and
sterility testing.
Storage Stability Testing (if applicable):
Conduct stability studies to evaluate the shelf-life and storage conditions of the drug
formulation.
Store samples under accelerated and long-term conditions and monitor their physical and
chemical properties over time.

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Documentation and Reporting:
Record all test results, observations, and calculations accurately in a comprehensive report.
Compare the results with established specifications and regulatory requirements.
Document any deviations or out-of-specification results and initiate corrective actions as
necessary.
Safety Precautions:
Handle all drug samples and chemicals with care, following appropriate safety protocols.
Wear safety goggles and gloves when handling potentially hazardous substances.
Adhere to good laboratory practices and standard operating procedures.
Dispose of all waste materials according to established guidelines and regulations.
By following this comprehensive procedure, you can effectively assess the quality of an
analgesic drug and ensure its safety and efficacy for clinical use.

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 Experiment Ten
Mass spectrophotometric analysis of paracetamol
Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique used for the identification and
quantification of compounds based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Here's a practical procedure
for the mass spectrophotometric analysis of paracetamol:
Materials:
Paracetamol standard solution
Solvent (e.g., methanol, acetonitrile)
Mass spectrometer (LC-MS or GC-MS system)
HPLC system (optional)
Glass vials or microcentrifuge tubes
Micropipettes and pipette tips
Analytical balance
LC or GC columns (depending on the mass spectrometer)
Mobile phase (for HPLC)
Safety goggles and gloves
Laboratory glassware and equipment
Procedure:
Preparation of Paracetamol Standard Solution:
Prepare a stock solution of paracetamol in a suitable solvent at a known concentration (e.g., 1
mg/mL).
Dilute the stock solution to obtain working solutions with desired concentrations for
calibration.
Instrument Setup:
Turn on the mass spectrometer and allow it to warm up according to the manufacturer's
instructions.
Set the instrument parameters, including ionization mode (e.g., positive or negative), scan
range, and resolution.
Calibration:
Inject the paracetamol standard solutions into the mass spectrometer.
Acquire mass spectra for each standard solution to generate a calibration curve.

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Plot the peak area or peak intensity of paracetamol ions against their concentration to
establish the calibration curve.
Sample Preparation:
Prepare the sample solutions by dissolving or extracting paracetamol from the sample matrix
using a suitable solvent.
Filter the sample solutions if necessary to remove particulates.
Analysis:
Inject the sample solutions into the mass spectrometer using an autosampler.
Acquire mass spectra of the sample solutions under the same conditions used for calibration.
Monitor the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) corresponding to the molecular ion of paracetamol
and any characteristic fragment ions.
Data Analysis:
Quantify the concentration of paracetamol in the samples using the calibration curve
generated from the standard solutions.
Calculate the peak area or peak intensity of paracetamol ions in the sample spectra and
interpolate the concentration from the calibration curve.
Optional: HPLC Separation (if applicable):
Perform HPLC separation of the sample solutions prior to mass spectrometric analysis if
complex matrices are present.
Use an appropriate LC column and mobile phase to separate paracetamol from interfering
compounds.
Reporting:
Document the analytical results, including the concentration of paracetamol in the samples
and any relevant data such as retention time and peak shape.
Report any deviations from expected values and perform data validation checks.
Safety Precautions:
Handle paracetamol and all chemicals with care, following appropriate safety protocols.
Use proper personal protective equipment, including safety goggles and gloves.
Adhere to laboratory safety guidelines and standard operating procedures.
Dispose of all waste materials according to established guidelines and regulations.
By following this procedure, you can effectively analyze the concentration of paracetamol in
samples using mass spectrometry, providing accurate and reliable results for quality control
and research purposes.
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