LONGITUDINAL DYNAMICS

by

Joël Le DuFF

(LAL-Orsay)

CAS on Intermediate Accelerator Physics Course

Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 1

 summary

Radio-Frequency Acceleration and Synchronism Condition

Principle of Phase Stability and Consequences
The Synchrotron
Dispersion Effects in Synchrotron
Energy-Phase Equations
Longitudinal Phase Space Motion
Particularities of the electron Synchrotron
From Synchrotron to Linac
Adiabatic Damping
Dynamics in the vicinity of transition energy
Stationnary Bucket

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 2

 Bibliography : Old Books

M. Stanley Livingston High Energy Accelerators

(Interscience Publishers, 1954)
J.J. Livingood Principles of cyclic Particle Accelerators
(D. Van Nostrand Co Ltd , 1961)
M. Stanley Livingston and J. B. Blewett Particle Accelerators
(Mc Graw Hill Book Company, Inc 1962)
K.G. Steffen High Energy optics
(Interscience Publisher, J. Wiley & sons, 1965)
H. Bruck Accelerateurs circulaires de particules
(PUF, Paris 1966)
M. Stanley Livingston (editor) The development of High Energy Accelerators
(Dover Publications, Inc, N. Y. 1966)
A.A. Kolomensky & A.W. Lebedev Theory of cyclic Accelerators
(North Holland Publihers Company, Amst. 1966)
E. Persico, E. Ferrari, S.E. Segre Principles of Particles Accelerators
(W.A. Benjamin, Inc. 1968)
P.M. Lapostolle & A.L. Septier Linear Accelerators
(North Holland Publihers Company, Amst. 1970)
A.D. Vlasov Theory of Linear Accelerators
(Programm for scientific translations, Jerusalem 1968)

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 3

 Bibliography : New Books

M. Conte, W.W. Mac Kay An Introduction to the Physics of particle Accelerators

(World Scientific, 1991)
P. J. Bryant and K. Johnsen The Principles of Circular Accelerators and Storage Rings
(Cambridge University Press, 1993)
D. A. Edwards, M. J. Syphers An Introduction to the Physics of High Energy Accelerators
(J. Wiley & sons, Inc, 1993)
H. Wiedemann Particle Accelerator Physics
(Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993)
M. Reiser Theory and Design of Charged Particles Beams
(J. Wiley & sons, 1994)
A. Chao, M. Tigner Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering
(World Scientific 1998)
K. Wille The Physics of Particle Accelerators: An Introduction
(Oxford University Press, 2000)
E.J.N. Wilson An introduction to Particle Accelerators
(Oxford University Press, 2001)

And CERN Accelerator Schools (CAS) Proceedings

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 4

 Main Characteristics of an Accelerator
ACCELERATION is the main job of an accelerator.
•The accelerator provides kinetic energy to charged particles, hence increasing their
momentum. r
•In order to do so, it is necessary to have an electric field E , preferably along the
direction of the initial momentum.

dp
=eE
dt
BENDING is generated by a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the
particle trajectory. The bending radius ρ obeys to the relation :

p
= Bρ
e
FOCUSING is a second way of using a magnetic field, in which the bending
effect is used to bring the particles trajectory closer to the axis, hence
to increase the beam density.

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 5

 Radio-Frequency Acceleration

Cylindrical electrodes separated by gaps and

fed by a RF generator, as shown on the Figure,
lead to an alternating electric field polarity
Synchronism condition L = v T/2
(v = particle velocity)

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 6

 Radio-Frequency Acceleration (2)

L = vT/2 (π mode) L = vT (2π mode)

Single Gap Multi-Gap

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 7

 Energy Gain
r
dp r
Newton-Lorentz Force =eE
dt
Relativistics Dynamics RF Acceleration

E z = Eˆ z sinω RFt = Eˆ z sinφ (t )

2 2
E = E0 + p c dE = v dp
2 2

dE = v dp = dp = e E ∫ Eˆ z dz =Vˆ
z
dz dz dt
W = eVˆ sinφ
dE = dW = e E z dz W = e ∫ E z dz
(neglecting transit time factor)

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 8

 Principle of Phase Stability

Let’s consider a succession of accelerating gaps, operating in the 2π mode,

for which the synchronism condition is fulfilled for a phase Φs .

For a 2π mode,
the electric field
is the same in all
gaps at any given
time.

eVs = eVˆ sinΦs is the energy gain in one gap for the particle to reach the next
gap with the same RF phase: P1 ,P2, …… are fixed points.

If an increase in energy is transferred into an increase in velocity, M1 & N1

will move towards P1(stable), while M2 & N2 will go away from P2 (unstable).

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 9

 A Consequence of Phase Stability
Transverse Instability ∂V ∂E z
Longitudinal phase stability means : >0⇒ <0
∂t ∂z

defocusing
RF force

The divergence of the field is ∂E x ∂E z ∂E x

zero according to Maxwell : ∇.E = 0 ⇒ + =0 ⇒ >0
∂x ∂z ∂x

External focusing (solenoid, quadrupole) is then necessary

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 10

 The Synchrotron

The synchrotron is a synchronous accelerator since there is a synchronous RF

phase for which the energy gain fits the increase of the magnetic field at each
turn. That implies the following operating conditions:
^
e V sin Φ Energy gain per turn

Φ = Φ s = cte Synchronous particle

ω RF = hω r RF synchronism

ρ = cte R = cte Constant orbit

Variable magnetic field

Bρ = P ⇒ B
e
If v = c, ωr hence ωRF remain constant (ultra-relativistic e- )
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 11
 The Synchrotron (2)

Energy ramping is simply obtained by varying the B field:

dp 2 π e ρ R B′
p = eB ρ ⇒ = e ρ B′ ⇒ (∆ p )turn = eρ B′Tr =
dt v

Since: 2 2 2 2
E = E0 + p c ⇒ ∆E = v∆p

(∆E )turn = (∆W )s = 2π eρRB' = eVˆsinφ s

•The number of stable synchronous particles is equal to the harmonic

number h. They are equally spaced along the circumference.
•Each synchronous particle satifies the relation p=eBρ. They have the
nominal energy and follow the nominal trajectory.

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 12

 Dispersion Effects in a Synchrotron
cavity
If a particle is slightly shifted in
momentum it will have a different
orbit:
p dR
E α=
R dp
Circumference
E+δE This is the “momentum compaction”
2πR
generated by the bending field.

If the particle is shifted in momentum it will

have also a different velocity. As a result of
both effects the revolution frequency changes:

p=particle momentum p dfr

η=
R=synchrotron physical radius fr dp
fr=revolution frequency

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 13

 Dispersion Effects in a Synchrotron (2)

s p + dp
p ds0 = ρdθ
α = dR s0
p
ds = ( ρ + x )dθ
R dp x
dθ

The elementary path difference ρ x

from the two orbits is:
θ
ds − ds0 dl
= = x
ds0 ds0 ρ
leading to the total change in the circumference:
< >m means that
x ds = 1 xds ⇒ dR = x the average is
∫ dl = 2πdR = ∫ρ 0 ρ∫ 0 m
considered over
m the bending
dp Dx magnet only
Since: x = Dx we get: α= m
p R
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 14
 Dispersion Effects in a Synchrotron (3)

η=
p dfr βc df dβ dR
fr = ⇒ r= −
fr dp 2π R fr β R

dp dβ d(1 − β )
1
E0 2 −2 −1 dβ
p = mv = βγ
c
⇒
p
=
β
+ (
1 = 1− β
2 ) β
(1 − β 2 ) 2
−

=  2 − α 
dfr  1 dp η = 12 − α
fr  γ  p γ

η=0 at the transition energy γ tr = 1

α

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 15

 Phase Stability in a Synchrotron

From the definition of η it is clear that below transition an increase in

energy is followed by a higher revolution frequency (increase in velocity
dominates) while the reverse occurs above transition (v ≈ c and longer path)
where the momentum compaction (generally > 0) dominates.

Stable synchr. Particle

for η<0

η>0

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 16

 Longitudinal Dynamics

It is also often called “ synchrotron motion”.

The RF acceleration process clearly emphasizes two coupled
variables, the energy gained by the particle and the RF
phase experienced by the same particle. Since there is a
well defined synchronous particle which has always the same
phase φs, and the nominal energy Es, it is sufficient to follow
other particles with respect to that particle. So let’s
introduce the following reduced variables:
revolution frequency : ∆fr = fr – frs
particle RF phase : ∆φ = φ - φs
particle momentum : ∆p = p - ps
particle energy : ∆E = E – Es
azimuth angle : ∆θ = θ - θs
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 17
 First Energy-Phase Equation

fRF = hfr ⇒ ∆φ = −h∆θ with θ = ∫ ωrdt

R
θ For a given particle with respect to the reference one:

dφ
∆ωr = d (∆θ ) = − 1 d (∆φ ) = − 1
dt h dt h dt
2
=E 0+ p c
2 2 2
E
η =  dω r 
ps
Since: and
ω rs  dp s ∆E=vs∆p=ω rs Rs∆p

one gets:
∆E = − ps Rs d (∆φ )= − ps Rs φ&
ω rs hηωrs dt hηω rs

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 18

 Second Energy-Phase Equation

The rate of energy gained by a particle is: dE =eVˆ sinφ ω r

dt 2π
The rate of relative energy gain with respect to the reference
particle is then:
 & ˆ
E
2π ∆ =eV(sinφ −sinφs)
ωr 
Expanding the left hand side to first order:

∆(E& Tr )≅ E& ∆Tr +Trs ∆E& = ∆E T&r +Trs ∆E& = d (Trs ∆E )

dt
leads to the second energy-phase equation:

2π d  ∆E =eVˆ(sinφ −sinφ s )
dt  ω rs 

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 19

 Equations of Longitudinal Motion

∆E = − ps Rs d (∆φ )= − ps Rs φ& 2π d  ∆E =eVˆ(sinφ −sinφ s )

ω rs hηωrs dt hηω rs dt  ω rs 

deriving and combining

d  Rs ps dφ  + eVˆ (sinφ −sinφ s ) = 0

dt  hηωrs dt  2π

This second order equation is non linear. Moreover the parameters

within the bracket are in general slowly varying with time…………………

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 20

 Hamiltonian of Longitudinal Motion

Introducing a new convenient variable, W, leads to the 1th order

equations:
dφ 1 hηω rs
=− W
dt 2π ps Rs
W = 2π  ∆E = 2π Rs ∆p
 ω rs  dW =eVˆ(sinφ −sinφ s )
dt

These equations of motion derive from a hamiltonian H(φ,W,t):

dφ ∂H dW = − ∂H
= dt ∂φ
dt ∂W
hηω rs 2
H (φ,W, t )=eVˆ[cos φ −cos φ s + (φ −φ s )sin φ s ]− 1
4π Rs ps W

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 21

 Small Amplitude Oscillations
Let’s assume constant parameters Rs, ps, ωs and η:

2
hηωrs eVˆ cosφ s
φ&&+ Ω (sinφ −sinφ s ) = 0
s with Ω =
2
2πRs ps
cosφ s s

Consider now small phase deviations from the reference particle:

sinφ −sinφ s = sin (φ s + ∆φ )−sinφ s ≅ cosφ s ∆φ (for small ∆φ)

and the corresponding linearized motion reduces to a harmonic oscillation:

φ&& + Ω2s ∆φ = 0 stable for Ω2s > 0 and Ωs real

γ < γtr η > 0 0 < φs < π/2 sinφs > 0

γ > γtr η < 0 π/2 < φs < π sinφs > 0

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 22

 Large Amplitude Oscillations

For larger phase (or energy) deviations from the reference the
second order differential equation is non-linear:

Ω2s
&&
φ+
cos φs
(sin φ − sin φs ) = 0 (Ωs as previously defined)

Multiplying by φ& and integrating gives an invariant of the motion:

φ&2 Ω2s
(
− cos φ + φ sin φs ) = I
2 cos φs
which for small amplitudes reduces to:

φ&2
+ Ω2
( ∆φ )2
=I (the variable is ∆φ and φs is constant)
s
2 2
Similar equations exist for the second variable : ∆E∝dφ/dt

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 23

 Large Amplitude Oscillations (2)

When φ reaches π-φs the force goes

to zero and beyond it becomes non
restoring. Hence π-φs is an extreme
amplitude for a stable motion which
φ&
in the phase space( , ∆φ ) is shown
Ωs
as closed trajectories.

Equation of the separatrix:

φ&2Ω2s Ω2s
(cos φ + φ sin φs ) = − cos φ (cos(π − φs ) + (π − φs )sin φs )
−
2 cos φs s

Second value φm where the separatrix crosses the horizontal axis:

cos φm + φm sin φs = cos(π − φs ) + (π − φs )sin φs

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 24

 Energy Acceptance

From the equation of motion it is seen that φ& reaches an extremum

when φ&& = 0 , hence corresponding to φ = φs.
Introducing this value into the equation of the separatrix gives:

φ&max
2 = 2Ω2s{2 + (2φs − π ) tan φs }
That translates into an acceptance in energy:
1
 ∆E  = m β − eVˆ G(φ ) 2
   π hη s 
 s max
E  E s 
G(φ s)= [2cosφ s + (2φ s−π )sinφ s]
This “RF acceptance” depends strongly on φs and plays an important role
for the electron capture at injection, and the stored beam lifetime.

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 25

RF Acceptance versus Synchronous Phase

As the synchronous phase

gets closer to 90º the
area of stable motion
(closed trajectories) gets
smaller. These areas are
often called “BUCKET”.
The number of circulating
buckets is equal to “h”.
The phase extension of
the bucket is maximum
for φs =180º (or 0°) which
correspond to no
acceleration . The RF
acceptance increases with
the RF voltage.

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 26

 Potential Energy Function

The longitudinal motion is produced by a force that can be derived from

a scalar potential: 2
φ
d = F(φ ) F(φ )= − ∂U
dt
2
∂φ
2
U = − ∫0 F(φ )dφ = − Ωs (cosφ +φ sinφ s)− F 0
φ
cosφ s

The sum of the potential

energy and kinetic energy is
constant and by analogy
represents the total energy
of a non-dissipative system.

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 27

 From Synchrotron to Linac
In the linac there is no bending magnets, hence there is no
dispersion effects on the orbit and α=0 and η=1/ γ2.

cavity

C =2π Rs

Ez

s
C =2π Rs
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 28
 From Synchrotron to Linac (2)
In the linac there is no bending magnets, hence there is no
dispersion effects on the orbit and α=0 and η=1/ γ2.

cavity

C =2π Rs C=hβ λ RF

Ez
β λ RF

S or z
C =2π Rs
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 29
 From Synchrotron to Linac (3)
Since in the linac α=0 and η=1/ γ2, the longitudinal frequency becomes:

hγ −2
ω ˆ
rs eV cosφ s
Ωs =
2
2π R s p s
Moreover one has:

hω s =ω RF Vˆ = 2π Rs E0 ps =γ m0vs
leading to:
eE0ω RF cos φ s γ →∞ Ωs→0
Ω =
2
s
m0γ vs
3

Since in a linac the independant variable is z rather than t one gets:

2
 2π  eE0ω RF cos φ s
 =
λ
 s γ
m0 vs
3 3

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 30

 Adiabatic Damping

Though there are many physical processes that can damp the
longitudinal oscillation amplitudes, one is directly generated by the
acceleration process itself. It will happen in the synchrotron, even
ultra-relativistic, when ramping the energy but not in the ultra-
relativistic electron linac which does not show any oscillation.
As a matter of fact, when Es varies with time, one needs to be more
careful in combining the two first order energy-phase equations in
one second order equation:
The damping coefficient is
proportional to the rate of
( )
d E φ& = −Ω2E ∆φ
dt s s s

energy variation and from the

definition of Ωs one has:
Esφ&& + E&sφ& + Ω2s Es ∆φ = 0
&
E
E&s &
Ω φ&& + s φ& + Ω2s( Es )∆φ = 0
= −2 s Es
Es Ωs
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 31
 Adiabatic Damping (2)

So far it was assumed that parameters related to the acceleration

process were constant. Let’s consider now that they vary slowly with
respect to the period of longitudinal oscillation (adiabaticity).
For small amplitude oscillations the hamiltonian reduces to:

ˆ hηω rs 2 W =Wˆ cos Ωst

H(φ ,W,t) ≅ − cosφ s (∆φ )2 − 1
eV with
2 4π Rs ps W ( )
∆φ = ∆φˆ sin Ωst
Under adiabatic conditions the Boltzman-Ehrenfest theorem states
that the action integral remains constant:

I = ∫W dφ =const. (W, φ are canonical variables)

dφ ∂H hηω rs
Since: = =− 1 W
dt ∂W 2π R s p s
dφ hηω rs 2
the action integral becomes: I = ∫W dt = − 1 dt
dt 2π Rs ps ∫ W
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 32
 Adiabatic Damping (3)
2
ˆ
∫ dt = π W
2
Previous integral over one period: W
Ωs
hηω rs Wˆ
2
leads to: I =− = const.
2Rs ps Ωs
From the quadratic form of the hamiltonian one gets the relation:

2π ps RsΩs ˆ
Wˆ = ∆φ
hηω rs
Finally under adiabatic conditions the long term evolution of the
oscillation amplitudes is shown to be:
1/ 4
ˆ  η  −1/ 4
∆φ ∝  2 ˆ  ∝ Es Wˆ or ∆Eˆ ∝ E1s/4
 E s RsV cosφ s 
Wˆ .∆φˆ = invariant
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 33
 Dynamics in the Vicinity of Transition Energy

Introducing in the previous expressions: 1 −2 −2

η = 2 −α = γ − γ t
γ
one gets: 1/ 4
 γ −2
−γ −2

∆φˆ ∝  ˆ 1 t

V cosφ s
γ 
−1/ 4
 −2
γ −γ −2

∆Eˆ ∝  ˆ 1 t

V cosφ s
γ 
1/ 2
 γ −γ −2 −2

ˆ
Ωs ∝ V cosφ s γ
t

 
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 34
 Dynamics in the Vicinity of Transition Energy (2)

Ωs ∆φˆ

γt γ γt γ

∆Eˆ In fact close to transition,

Es
adiabatic solution are not
valid since parameters change
too fast. A proper treatment
would show that:
∆φ will not go to zero
γ ∆E will not go to infinity
γt

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 35

 Stationnary Bucket

This is the case sinφs=0 (no acceleration) which means φs=0 or π . The
equation of the separatrix for φs= π (above transition) becomes:
2 2
φ& φ& φ
+ Ω2s cos φ = Ω2s 2
= 2Ω2s sin2
2
2
Replacing the phase derivative by the canonical variable W:
W
∆E ps Rs &
Wbk W = 2π = − 2π φ
ω rs hηω rs
0 π 2π φ and introducing the expression
for Ωs leads to the following
equation for the separatrix:

C −eVˆ E s φ
W =±2 sin
c 2π hη 2
with C=2πRs
CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 36
 Stationnary Bucket (2)

Setting φ=π in the previous equation gives the height of the bucket:

C −eVˆ E s
W bk = 2 c 2π hη
The area of the bucket is:
2π
Abk = 2 ∫ W dφ
0

2π φ
Since: ∫ sin 2 dφ = 4
0

C −eVˆ E s W bk = A8bk
one gets: Abk = 16 c 2π hη

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 37

 Bunch Matching into a Stationnary Bucket

A particle trajectory inside the separatrix is described by the equation:

2 2
φ& 2
φ&
− Ωs (cosφ +φ sinφ s)= I
φs= π
+ Ω2s cosφ = I
2 cosφ s 2
W The points where the trajectory
crosses the axis are symmetric with
Wbk respect to φs= π
2
φ&
Wb + Ω2s cosφ = Ω2s cos φ m
2
0 ππ 2π φ
φ& = ± Ωs 2(cosφ m − cosφ )

φ φ
W = ± Abk cos2 m − cos2
φm 2π-φm 8 2 2

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 38

 Bunch Matching into a Stationnary Bucket (2)

Setting φ = π in the previous formula allows to calculate the bunch height:

A φm
W b = 8 cos 2
bk

or:
φm  ∆E  =  ∆E  cos φ m
W b =W bk cos 2     2
 E s b  E s RF

This formula shows that for a given bunch energy spread the proper
matching of a shorter bunch will require a bigger RF acceptance, hence a
higher voltage ( short bunch means φm close to π ).

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 39

 Effect of a Mismatch

Starting with an injected bunch with short lenght and large energy spread,
after a quarter of synchrotron period the bunch rotation shows a longer
bunch with a smaller energy spread.
W W

φ φ

For small oscillation amplitudes the equation of the ellipse reduces to:
2 2
 16W   ∆φ 
W = Abk
16
(∆φ )m2 −(∆φ )2  (∆φ )  +  (∆φ )  =1
 Abk m  m

Ellipse area is called longitudinal emittance = π

Ab 16 Abk (∆φ )2
m

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 40

Capture of a Debunched Beam with Adiabatic Turn-On

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 41

Capture of a Debunched Beam with Fast Turn-On

CAS Zeuthen 15-26 September 2003 42