Data Collection Methods

Yalemzewod A. (MPH)

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 Data
• Data are figures/numbers which can be obtained
from measurements or by counting
• The raw material for statistics
• Can be obtained from:
– Routinely kept records
– Surveys
– Counting
– Experiments
– Reports
• Raw data ?
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 Typical data sources:

Goal: choose the source that gives data closest to

the “gold standard” while being feasible to collect

• Survey/questionnaire • Databases/registries
• Interviews • Medical records
• Diaries • Physiologic measures
• Direct observation • Biomarkers (e.g., DNA, sera)
• Environmental measurements • Imaging tests
• Pathology

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 Source of Data

Source of data

Internal source External source

Primary source Secondary source

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 Types of data:

1. Primary data: collected from the items or individual

respondents directly by the researcher for the
purpose of certain study.

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 Method of Collecting Primary Data
1. Direct personal Investigation ( i.e. Interview
Method)
2. Indirect oral investigation ( i.e. through
enumerators)
3. Investigation through Local reporters
Questionnaire
4. Investigation through mailed Questionnaire
5. Investigation through Observation
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2. Secondary data: which had been collected by certain people
or agency, and statistically treated and the information
contained in it is used for other purpose

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 Method of Collecting Secondary Data
1. Published Sources
a) International Publication
b) Government Publications
c) Publication
d) Commercials Research, Educational Institute,
Unions, Organizations etc.
2. Unpublished Sources
 Secondary data

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Difference between Primary and Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

• Real time data. • Past data.
• Sure about sources of data. • Not sure about sources of
• Help to give results/finding data.
• Costly and Time consuming • Refining the problem.
process. • Cheap and No time
• Avoid biasness of response consuming process.
data • Can not know in data
• More flexible. biasness or not
• Less Flexible.

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 Sources of Data:
• We search for suitable data to serve as the raw
material for our investigation.

• Such data are available from one or more of the

following sources:
– Routinely Records
– External Source
– Survey
– Experiment

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 What is data collection?

- It is the process of which is going on after

proposal development and before analysis.
- Data Collection is obtaining useful
information. The issue is not: How do we
collect data? It is: How do we obtain useful
data ?
- Importance
- allow us to systematically collect information
- Haphazardly collected data will be difficult to answer
our research question

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 Data collection method cont…
Objective
• Understand differences between qualitative and
quantitative methods
• Decide which method is appropriate for your research
question
• Recognise different tools available for data collection
• Understand what measurement error is and its sources
• Design a survey questionnaire
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 Exercise
Discuss the difference between data collection
tools and techniques

 List tools and techniques of data collection

methods for qualitative and quantitative
research questions

 Discuss the difference between standardized

questionnaire /un standardized questionnaire
and structured and unstructured questionnaires
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 Data collection choice
• What you must ask yourself:
– Will the data answer my research question?

• To answer that
– You much first decide what your research question is

– Then you need to decide what data/variables are

needed to scientifically answer the question

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 Data collection choice
• If that data exist in secondary form, then use
them to the extent you can, keeping in mind
limitations.
• But if it does not, and you are able to fund
primary collection, then it is the method of
choice.

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 Data collection methods…
The choice of methods of data collection is based on:
♣ The accuracy of information they will yield

♣ Practical considerations, such as, the need for

personnel, time, equipment and other facilities,
in relation to what is available.

 Types of data/information to be collected

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 Data collection methods…
 Accuracy and “practicability” are often inversely
correlated. A method providing more satisfactory
information will often be a more expensive or
inconvenient one.

♣ Therefore, accuracy must be balanced against

practical considerations (resources and other
practical limitations)

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 Data collection methods…

 For quantitative data, we usually use questionnaires

(standard or structured).
- The questionnaire could be self-administered or
interviewer-administered (either face-to-face or
telephone, or other electronic media such as
online internet)

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 Data collection methods…

- Self-administered questionnaire is filled by the study

subjects themselves at spot or through mails.
- Self -administered questionnaires are suitable for
literate study subjects, simple questions that don't
need further clarifications and sensitive matters
(e.g. sexual issues, criminal activities, substance
abuse).

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 Data collection methods…

- Interviewer- administered questionnaires are suited

for illiterate study subjects, complex questions that
need further clarifications and non-private or
non-sensitive issues, and when information on
emotional reactions of study subjects is to be
recorded.

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 Data collection methods…

For qualitative data, the common methods of

collection are focus group discussion, in-depth
interview(unstructured/semi-structured) observation
(participant/non-participant), and case studies or
ethnographic analysis

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 Questionnaire Design
• How will it be administered?
• What are variables of interest?
• For each variable, what question will be
asked?
• Is there a standard question used in other
studies?
• Can you modify or adapt an existing measure?
• Make sure questions are not ambiguous
• Open-ended or closed questions?
• Cover all possible response options
• Sequencing and skipping
• Informed study participants?
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 Types of Questions
 Depending on how questions are asked and recorded we
can distinguish two major possibilities - open –ended
questions, and closed questions.
Open-ended questions
Open-ended questions permit free responses that
should be recorded in the respondent’s own words. The
respondent is not given any possible answers to choose
from.
Such questions are useful to obtain information on:
 Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar,
 Opinions, attitudes, and suggestions of informants, or
 Sensitive issues. Data collection methods
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 Open-ended questions…
For example
Can you describe exactly what the traditional birth
attendant did when your labor started?
What do you think are the reasons for a high drop-out
rate of village health committee members?
What would you do if you noticed that your daughter
(school girl) had a relationship with a teacher?

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 Closed Questions
 Closed questions offer a list of possible options or
answers from which the respondents must choose.
 When designing closed questions one should try to:
 Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and
mutually exclusive

 Keep the number of options as few as possible.

 Closed questions are useful if the range of possible

responses is known.

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 Closed Questions…
For example
 What is your marital status?
1. Single
2. Married/living together
3. Separated
4. divorced
5. widowed
 Have you ever gone to the local village health worker for
treatment?
1. Yes
2. No
Closed questions may also be used if one does not want
to waste the time of the respondent and interviewer by
obtaining more information
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than one needs.
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 Problems in gathering data
 It is important to recognize some of the main problems
that may be faced when collecting data so that they can be
addressed in the selection of appropriate collection
methods and in the training of the staff involved.
 Common problems might include:
 Language barriers
 Lack of adequate time
 Expense
 Inadequately trained and experienced staff
 Invasion of privacy
 Suspicion (mistrust)
 Bias:(Systematic error (not random) in a study that leads to
an incorrect estimate (RR) of the association between
exposure and disease)
 Cultural norms (e.g. which may preclude (prevent) men
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interviewing women) Data collection methods 27
 Requirements of questions
 Must have face validity – that is the question that we design
should be one that give an obviously valid and relevant
measurement for the variable.
 Must be clear and unambiguous – the way in which
questions are worded can ‘make or break’ a questionnaire.

They must be phrased in language that it is believed the

respondent will understand, and that all respondents will
understand in the same way.

To ensure clarity, each question should contain only one

idea; ‘double-barrelled’ questions like:
‘Do you take your child to a doctor when he has a cold or has
diarrhoea?’ are difficult to answer, and the answers are
difficult to interpret.
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 Requirements of questions …
 Must not be offensive – whenever possible it is wise
to avoid questions that may offend the respondent,
for example those that deal with intimate matters,
those which may seem to expose the respondent’s
ignorance, and those requiring him to give a socially
unacceptable answer.
 The questions should be fair - They should not be
phrased in a way that suggests a specific answer, and
should not be loaded.
Short questions are generally regarded as preferable
to long ones.

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 Requirements of questions …

 Sensitive questions - It may not be possible to avoid

asking ‘sensitive’ questions that may offend
respondents,
e.g. those that seem to expose the respondent’s
ignorance. In such situations the interviewer
(questioner) should do it very carefully and wisely

 For qualitative study ?

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 Which Data?
If you: Then Use:
- want to conduct statistical analysis
- want to be precise Quantitative
- know what you want to measure
- want to cover a large group
- want narrative or in-depth information
- are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative
- do not need to quantify the results

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Data collection methods
 Methods of data collection …
Types of data Data type by source Methods of data
collection

Qualitative Primary FGD

Primary In-depth – interview

primary Observation

Quantitative Primary / secondary Questionnaires

-open/closed
-Structured/unstructured
-Self/Interviewer
administered
Primary / secondary -Observation
-Use of documentary
sources
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 Data Collection Summary
Choose more than one data collection
technique
No “best” tool
Do not let the tool drive your work but rather
choose the right tool to address the
evaluation question

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 Pre – test Vs. pilot study
What is a pre-test or pilot study of the methodology?
• A PRE-TEST usually refers to a small-scale trial of
particular research components.

• A PILOT STUDY is the process of carrying out a

preliminary study, going through the entire research
procedure with a small sample.

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 Pre – test Vs. pilot study cont…
WHY do we carry out a pre-test or pilot study?
• A pre-test or pilot study serves as a trial run that
allows us to identify potential problems in the
proposed study.

• pre-test and/or pilot study enables us, if necessary,

to revise the methods and logistics of data collection
before starting the actual fieldwork. As a result, a
good deal of time, effort and money can be saved in
the long run.

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 Pre – test Vs. pilot study cont…
• Pre-testing is simpler and less time-
consuming and costly than conducting an
entire pilot study. Therefore we will
concentrate on pre-testing as an essential
step in the development of research
projects.

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 Pre – test Vs. pilot study cont…
WHAT aspects can be evaluated during pre-testing?
1. Reactions of the respondents to the research
procedures
2. The data-collection tools
– The sequence of questions is logical.
– The wording of the questions is clear.
– Translations are accurate.
– Space for answers is sufficient.
– There is a need to pre-categorise some answers or to
change closed questions into open-ended questions.

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 Pre – test Vs. pilot study cont…
3. Sampling procedures
- the instructions concerning how to select the sample
- time is needed to locate individuals to be included in the
study
4. Procedures for data processing and analysis
– Appropriateness of data master sheets and dummy
tables
– Effectiveness of the system for quality control of data
collection.
– Clarity and ease with which the collected data can be
interpreted.
5. The proposed work plan and budget for research activities
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 Pre – test Vs. pilot study cont…
• When do we carry out a pre-test?
– Pre-testing at least your data collection tools, either during the
workshop, or, if that is impossible, immediately thereafter, in
the actual field situation.
– Pre-testing the data collection and data-analysis process 1-2
weeks before starting the fieldwork.
• Who should be involved in the pre-test or pilot study?
– The research team, headed by the principal investigator.
– Any additional research assistants or data collectors that have
been recruited.
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 “I never guess. It is a capital mistake
to theorize before one has data.
Insensibly one begins to twist facts and theories,
instead of theories to suit facts.”
--Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

Questions?

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