SVG 305: Elements of Geoinformatics

(2 Units)

Lecture Notes

Prepared by Surv. A. O. Abiri &

Prof O. Kufoniyi
TOPICS
 Concept of Geoinformatics
 Real world environment and basic model of space: field-based versus object-based
concepts of real world
 Components of terrain object: spatial and non-spatial
 Databases as abstractions of the real world
 Metric and topologic dimensions of geospatial databases: 2D, 2.5D, 3D and 4D
 Equipment and procedures for data abstractions including Land Surveying,
Photogrammetric and Remote Sensing instruments and procedures
 Applications of geoinformation technology.

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TOPIC 1: CONCEPT OF GEOINFORMATICS

1.1 What is Geoinformatics?

It refers to the discipline that specialises in acquiring (using different methods), processing,
modelling, analysing and managing geospatial data. Thus, the understanding of the concepts and
use of various data acquisition techniques such as Land Surveying, Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing for acquiring geospatial data, and the processing, analysis and management of such data.
It is also referred to as Geomatics.

The Nigerian Geoinformation Policy simply defines it as the study of various methods of
production, analysis, management and display of Geospatial Information and their applications.

1.2 Geospatial data: From the above definition, geoinformatics has geospatial data as its main
focus. Geospatial data can be defined as any data which can be related to a location referenced to
the Earth (defined in terms of regular points or cells in raster domain or point, line, area or
volume in vector domain), particularly data on natural phenomena, cultural and human
resources. It is a special case of spatial data.

1.3 Spatial data: This is any data that includes a reference to a 2- or 3-D position in space (in a
broad sense, i.e. not necessarily referenced to the Earth) as one of its attributes. Thus, it includes
human anatomy in medicine; e.g. x-ray of part of human body after an accident compared to the
same part before the accident.

1.4 Relationship between Geoinformatics and GIS:

It is necessary from the onset to understand the relationship between geoinformatics and
geographic (or geospatial) information system (GIS). GIS can be defined as an integrated
computerised system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and
displaying information which are spatially referenced to the Earth. It is normally considered to
involve a spatially referenced computer database and the appropriate application software. It
normally consists of three sub-systems, namely data acquisition, database management and
analysis, and information presentation/visualisation. Figure 1 shows the configuration of the
three subsystems.

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Figure 1: GIS Subsystems

We will note from Figure 1 that there are various methods of acquiring data for input into the
database management and analysis subsystem of a GIS. Geoinformatics deals with the
understanding of the science, principle and application of the various methods of acquiring
geospatial data, the input of such that into a GIS or other relevant application software and the
management, analysis and presentation of the data. On the other hand, the use of just one or
combination of the data acquisition methods without necessarily understanding the science and
principles behind the method (e.g. use of GPS receiver to determine location of a health facility,
combined with enquiries/social survey to obtain its attribute data), the input of such data into a
GIS software and the management, analysis and presentation of the data for an application (e.g.
management of health facilities) is qualified to be a GIS. This means that GIS is a subset of
Geoinformatics.

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TOPIC 2: REAL WORLD ENVIRONMENT AND BASIC MODEL OF SPACE: FIELD-
BASED VERSUS OBJECT-BASED CONCEPTS OF REAL WORLD

2.1 Aspects of a Real World Geospatial Phenomenon:

A real world geospatial phenomenon can be natural (e.g. soil type, geologic unit...), man-made
(e.g. road, building...) or a mixture of both (e.g. water pollution). The key aspects of any real
world phenomenon that are essential to be measured for any geospatial application are what,
where and when as shown in Figure 2. “What” refers to the phenomenon to be measured, e.g.
road, river, soil type, building, vegetation, etc; “where” refers to the location of the phenomenon;
“when” refers to the time the phenomenon was or is being measured.
This means that we may define a geospatial phenomenon as something of interest that can be:
(i) named or described (what)
(ii) be georeferenced (where)
(iii) be assigned a time (interval) at which it is/was present (when)

when
(time)

what where
(object/ (location)
attribute)
Figure 2: Aspects of real world phenomenon for measurement in Geoinformatics

2.2 Basic Model of Space:

All geospatial phenomena in the real world can be modelled or conceptualised using two basic
models of space, namely field-based or object-based.

2.2.1 Field-based Model

In field-based conceptualisation, every geospatial phenomenon is viewed as geographic field

which manifests itself essentially everywhere in the study area. Thus, a (geographic) field is a
geospatial phenomenon for which, for every point in the study area, a value can be determined
e.g. temperature, barometric pressure, elevation, land use classification, geological units etc.
Geographic fields are usually natural phenomena. They can be discrete or continuous.
Continuous fields do not have distinct boundary. The underlying function is assumed to be

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continuous Continuity means that all changes in field values are gradual. Continuous fields can
even be differentiable. The examples of continuous fields are temperature, elevation, barometric
pressure etc. In a differentiable field we can determine a measure of change per unit of distance
anywhere (e.g. for elevation, this measure would be slope). Discrete fields have identifiable
boundary. They cut up the study space in mutually exclusive, bounded parts, with all locations in
one part having the same field value (e.g. land use classification, geological units). In field-based
model, what is measured, where is pre-determined (assumed to be known) and when is often held
constant (unless the database management system or GIS software is based on spatio-temporal
data model, i.e. includes time dimension in the data structure). Geospatial fields are usually
represented by tessellation (commonly called raster) data structure in the computer.

2.2.2 Object-based Model

In this model, geospatial phenomenon is modelled as a geographic object. The geographic

objects populate the study area, and are usually well distinguishable, discrete, bounded entities
(e.g., building, road, river, telecommunication mast, etc). The space between them is potentially
empty and they are mainly man-made. Thus, a geographic object occurs essentially in certain
localities. In this model, what is known and where is measured when is held constant (except
when spatio-temporal data model is used). Vector data structure is often used to represent
geographic objects in a GIS application.

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TOPIC 3: COMPONENTS OF TERRAIN OBJECT: SPATIAL AND NON-SPATIAL

3.1 Components of a Geographic Phenomenon (Terrain object)

An entity object is the digital representation of the geographic phenomenon. A terrain object has
three important components that are expected to be measured in geoinformatics, namely:
 geometric data,
 attribute data, and
 time
However, due to limitation of database systems, time (when) is usually assumed constant.

Figure 3: Components of a terrain object

3.1.1 Geometric data

As shown in Figure 3, the geometric data of a spatial (terrain) object consist of:
 the object’s location
 the spatial relationships between pairs of objects
 the shape and size of the objects.

Location: The object’s location data can be given in vector or in raster form. In vector form we
represent a spatial object as point, line, area or solid (3D) object with X, Y (,Z) or f, l (,h) while
in raster form we represent a spatial object with an assigned value (e.g. the object’s brightness
value) in cells or pixels arranged in rows and columns.

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Shape and Size: Shape and size can be determined from the object’s location data so it is not
necessary to represent them explicitly in a database, i.e., once co-ordinates or cells are stored,
shape and size are implicitly stored.

Spatial Relationships between Pairs of Objects:

These consist of:

 metric relationships
 spatial order relationships
 topologic relationships

Metric relationships concern the representation of distance and direction between pairs of
objects; they can be determined from the object’s location data so it is not necessary to represent
them explicitly, i.e., once co-ordinates or cells are stored, metric relationships are implicitly
stored

Spatial order relationships concern the representation of the concepts of inclusion and
containment of spatial objects using partially ordered sets and lattices based on mathematical
order theory. Features are presented as they are located in space. (e.g from left to right, from top
to bottom, this precedes that, this is before that, above, behind etc)

Topologic relationships are those relationships that remain invariant under certain topologic
transformations like rotation, shift and scaling. Basic topologic relationships must be stored
explicitly in vector structure but they are implicit in raster format. Co-ordinate information is not
required for their analysis (spatial analysis) in a topologic structure. Topologic relationships are
derived using mathematical topology and they are richer in semantics and more detailed than
spatial order relationships thus topologic relationship is universally preferred & implemented in
geospatial database systems. (e.g. adjacent, contains and intersects)

3.1.2 Attribute (non-spatial data)

Attribute data are the observed facts about the object i.e. non-spatial attributes. They are usually
derived through social surveys (e.g. Questionnaire administration) or observation. Attribute data
depend on the application e.g. attributes for land parcel may include owner, user, value and area
of a parcel while road’s attribute may include name, nature, hierarchy, etc. The values of the
attributes are themselves known only during implementation. They must be stored explicitly in a
spatial database.

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Topic 4: Databases as abstractions of the real world
4.1 What is a Database?

• A database is an organised, integrated collection of non-redundant data stored so as to be

capable of use by relevant applications with the data being accessed by different logical
paths. [Database containing DoB & Age as example of redundancy]
• It is theoretically application-independent but rarely so in practice.
• Thus, there are different types of databases depending on the content and application of
interest, e.g. Vehicle registration, Population, Students, Topographic, Cadastral, Patients,
etc.
• However, for a database to qualify as an abstraction of real world objects, the database
must be geospatial because it should include the where (geometric) component of the
phenomena

4.2 Geospatial Database

• In traditional, analogue era, real world objects are represented in (analogue) maps of
different types and scales

• But in the digital era, real world objects are abstracted & modelled as geospatial
databases

• A geospatial database is the heart of a GIS & it contains structured real world objects
pertaining to one or more applications.

• Examples of a geospatial database are: cadastral, topographic, land use/land cover, soil,
road, utility and agricultural databases

• Irrespective of the application, we usually do not study geographic objects in isolation but
the whole collection of objects that are relevant to that application

• For any application, a geospatial database should contain

• Geometric & attribute data of the objects of interest to the application. The
sources, method and instrument used to acquire the data must be carefully chosen
to meet the requirements of the application

• Metadata of the data – i.e.data about the data

• Conventions: user-defined set of rules & constraints governing the creation,

content, structure & integrity of the database

• Operations: computerised actions (user-defined program routines) that create,

manipulate, maintain and display the objects.

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Exercise/Assignment:

• If you are engaged to implement a cadastral database:

 Identify the essential objects to be abstracted from the real world

 Indicate the components of the geometric data of the objects stating those to be
explicitly represented as well as the implicit ones

 Recommend the methods and instruments that can be used to acquire the
(geometric) data and justify your recommendations

 Give examples of the attribute data and how they can be collected

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Topic 5: Metric and topologic dimensions of geospatial databases
A major challenge that confronts geospatial users is how to best represent the geographical
phenomenon of interest within the digital domain (Peuquet 1988).

5.1 Geoinformatics-Relevant Mathematical Spaces

Two mathematical spaces are taken into consideration in geoinformatics, namely:

– Metric space and

– Topological space

5.1.1 Metric Space

A metric space is a set X together with a function d (called a metric or "distance function")
which assigns a real number d(x, y) to every pair x, y X satisfying the properties (or axioms):

1. d(x, y) 0 and d(x, y) = 0 x = y,

2. d(x, y) = d(y, x),
3. d(x, y) + d(y, z) d(x, z).

 Metric space provides the basis for the coordinate reference systems/frames used for
georeferencing and metric operations

• It is realised through a coordinate system defined by orthogonal X, Y and Z or ϕ, λ and h

axes based on a defined datum

• For example, the datum for Nigeria consists of Minna datum for planimetry (X & Y) and
Lagos datum for vertical (Z)

• The default datum for geographical coordinates (ϕ, λ and h) measured with a GNSS
receiver is the centre of the mass of Earth.

5.1.2 Topologic Space

• Topology is concerned with the properties of space that are preserved under continuous
deformations, such as stretching, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing. This
can be studied by considering a collection of subsets, called open sets, which satisfy
certain properties, turning the given set into what is known as a topological space.

• A topological space may be defined as a set of points, along with a set of

neighbourhoods for each point, satisfying a set of axioms relating points and
neighbourhoods. Intuitively speaking, a neighbourhood of a point is a set of points

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 containing that point where one can move some amount away from that point without
leaving the set

Fig. 6.1 Point and neighbourhood in a topological space

As shown in Figure 6.1, a set V in the plane is a neighbourhood of a point p if a small disc
around p is contained in V.

• The definition of a topological space relies only upon set theory and is the most general
notion of a mathematical space that allows for the definition of concepts such as
continuity, connectedness, and convergence.
• The branch of mathematics that studies topological spaces in their own right is called
point-set topology or general topology.
• Spatial relationships that are based on topological space are called topologic (or
topological) relationships
• They (topologic relationships, e.g. adjacent, contains, inside, intersects,...) are those
relationships that remain invariant under certain topologic transformations like rotation,
shift and scaling
• Topologic dimension provides the basis for spatial analysis in geoinformatics in general
and GIS in particular

5.2 Spatial Dimensions (Combined Metric and Topological Spaces)

5.2.1 Two-dimensional Space

• 2D in Metric space: X, Y or ϕ, λ coordinates are determined for every point

• Also 2D in Topologic space i.e. planar topology
• Used for geometric representation of 0, 1 and 2D objects
• Supports planar topologic relationships between objects, e.g., intersects, adjacent
(left/right), inside, touches

5.2. 2.5D Space

• 3D in Metric space: X, Y & Z or ϕ, λ & h coordinates are determined for every point

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 • 2D in Topologic space i.e. planar topology
• Every point i has xi, yi, zi but not allowed to have two points i and j with xi, yi = xj, yj but
zi ≠ zj i.e., it supports surface representation only: 3D coordinates, planar topology;
• Used for representation of 0, 1 and 2D objects
• Supports planar topologic relationships between objects, e.g., intersects, adjacent
(left/right), inside, touches but not ‘above’ or ‘below’.

5.3 Three-dimensional (3D) Space

• 3D in Metric space : X,Y & Z or ϕ, λ & h coordinates are determined for every point
• Also 3D in Topologic space
• Thus two points can have same planimetric coordinates (x & y) but different elevation
values
• Used for representation of 0, 1,2 and 3D objects
• Supports 3-dimensional topologic relationships between objects, e.g., intersects, adjacent
(left/right), inside, touches, above, below.

5.4 Four-dimensional (4D) Space

• 3D in Metric space
• Also 3D in Topologic space
• 3D Metric, 3D Topologic + Time
• Every point has X,Y, Z & T or ϕ, λ, h & T
• Used for representation of 0, 1,2 and 3D objects + temporal data (time)
• Supports 3-dimensional topologic relationships between objects (e.g., intersects, adjacent
(left/right), inside, touches, above, below) + Time

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Topic 6: Equipment and procedures for data abstractions in
Geoinformatics
6.1 Broad Areas of Geoinformatics

The following four broad specialised areas can be identified in Geoinformatics, all in the digital
domain; depending on the application and scope of the project, the equipment and procedure
used will be guided by the four broad areas.
(a) Spatial data acquisition (instrumentation & methods)
(i) Computer-aided (Digital) Surveying (land and hydrographic)
(ii) Digital Photogrammetry
(iii) Remote sensing
(iv) Conversion of analogue map and other geospatial data into digital form using
manual digitizing and scanning
(v) Attribute data collection methods (e.g. social survey)

(b) Spatial data management (instrumentation and methods) which requires knowledge of
database design and creation, database management systems, data transfer and exchange,
spatial query development, spatial statistics, etc.

(c) Cartography and Geoinformation Visualisation, dealing with data formats and information
presentation; and

(d) Geospatial data infrastructure and management, dealing with aspects such as spatial data
standard, GIS policy, implementation issues, etc.

6.2 General Geoinformatics Processes

Figure 6.1 Geoinformatics Processes

As indicated in Figure 6.1, irrespective of application and after an appropriate user-requirement
(feasibility) study;
The process starts with data acquisition using data acquisition methods and equipment that are
appropriate for the application (See Table 6.1).
The data collected may require transformation/conversion (e.g. transformation from geographical
to rectangular coordinates, raster-to-vector conversion, etc.) before their input into the spatial
data management phase where the data are structured for analysis.

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It is often necessary to also transform/convert the retrieved data (e.g., preparing in standard map
format before printing, etc.) before presentation.
To present the data in usable information format.

6.2.1 Spatial Data Acquisition Equipment Types

Some examples of the data acquisition equipment used in geoinformatics are given in Table 6.1
including a summary of their uses.

Table 6.1 Examples of Data Acquisition Equipment Types and Their Uses
Data acquisition Equipment Uses
Process
1. Computer-aided
(Digital) Surveying (land
and hydrographic)
1.1 Land surveying GNSS Receiver 2/3D Position determination for
cadastral, large scale, engineering &
topographic mapping; control
establishment, densification &
extension; and various applications of
GIS
Total station 2/3D Position determination for
cadastral, large scale, engineering &
topographic mapping; control station
establishment, densification &
extension; and various applications of
GIS
Digital theodolite + (Usually) 2D Position determination for
EDM cadastral, large scale & engineering
mapping; establishment of minor
control points; and GIS applications
covering small area
Digital level Elevation determination for DEM,
engineering construction and
establishment of vertical controls
Mobile devices Cadastral, ground truthing, large scale
mapping
1.2 Marine/ Digital echo-sounder & Determination of under-water elevation
hydrographic surveying Bathymetric LiDAR (depth) for oceanography and
coastal/marine applications
2 Digital Unmanned Aerial Unmanned aerial vehicle with airborne
Photogrammetry System (UAS) sensor for digital aerial photography
Airborne digital camera Airborne digital aerial photography
Airborne Light Active form of remote sensing that
Detection and Ranging measures distance to a target by
(LiDAR) illuminating that target with a pulsed
laser light, and measuring the reflected

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 pulses with a sensor. For as-built,
topographic, detail, and engineering
surveys
Airborne Light 3D surveying of objects and buildings
Amplification by for as-built, topographic, detail, and
Stimulated Emission of engineering surveys; a component of
Radiation (LASER) LiDAR
Scanner + Laser
Scanning Software
Terrestrial LiDAR/LASER Terrestrial images for archaeology,
Scanners building information management
(BIM), heritage mapping, etc
Digital photo-theodolite Terrestrial photography for archaeology,
building information management
(BIM), heritage mapping, etc
3 Remote sensing Satellite-based Optical Acquisition of satellite images e.g.
sensors NigeriaSat-2 imagery for mapping
and/or GIS applications
Satellite-based Active Acquisition of RADAR satellite images
Sensors (RADAR) e.g. RadarSat-2 for mapping and/or GIS
applications
Spectrometer Reflectance value (spectral signature) of
a terrain feature for image classification
purpose
4 Conversion of A Scanner Converting analogue map to raster
analogue maps image (e.g. tiff format)
A Digitizer Converting analogue map to vector
(point, line, polygon, solid) e.g. in DXF
format
5 Collection of (non- Mobile devices, Collection of non-spatial (attribute) data
spatial) attribute data Questionnaire, focused for GIS and other applications
interview, observation,
relevant measuring
equipment e.g. auger
(for soil sample)

6.2.2 Relevant Hardware/Software:

Data Acquisition Systems:

(a) Digital Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Hardware
(i) Digital Photogrammetric Workstation (DPW) e.g. Leica/Helava DPW 600 series,
DVP, etc.
(ii) Digital scanner (calibrated), A size
(iii) ≥ 21” Graphic monitor
(iv) Relevant computer hardware platform
Software

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 (i) Digital Mapping Software or Vector GIS e.g. ArcGIS, MapInfo, QGIS
(ii) Raster GIS or Image processing software e.g. ERMapper, ILWIS, etc.
(iii) Digital photogrammetry software
(iv) Laser scanning/LiDAR (Point cloud) processing software
(v) Relevant Operating System (OS)

(b) Digital Land and Hydrographic surveying

Hardware
(i) Appropriate (with sufficient HD and RAM) Computer hardware
Software
(i) Survey computation software
(ii) Operating System
(iii) Hydrographic software e.g. Multi-Beam software (Leica)

(c) Map Digitizing Module

Hardware
(i) Computer hardware
Software
(i) CAD e.g. AutoCAD, MicroStation, etc. or Vector GIS e.g. ArcGIS
(ii) Relevant Operating System

(d) Map Scanning

Hardware
(i) Computer hardware
Software
(i) Raster-based graphic package e.g. Paintbrush, or Raster GIS e.g. ILWIS
(ii) Relevant Operating System

Spatial Data Management:

Hardware
(i) High-end Desktop Computer, full multimedia, etc. (as host computer for all the process
phases if integrated) and other peripherals
Software
(i) Appropriate OS (consideration for the platforms of other application software so that
only one OS will be used)
(ii) Database Management System (DBMS) e.g. Oracle, Ingres, dBase, Access, etc.
(iii) Appropriate GIS software
(iv) Spreadsheet e.g. Excel

Cartography and Geoinformation Visualisation

Hardware
(i) One A Plotter (colour)
(ii) One Laser Printer
(iii) One Ink-jet Printer
(iv) Computer hardware
Software
(i) CAD e.g. AutoCAD, MicroStation, etc.
(ii) Appropriate GIS Software (same as in Spatial data management)

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(iii) Relevant Operating System

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Topic 7: Applications of geoinformation technology

• Refer to applications of surveying, photogrammetry and remote sensing in Parts I & II courses

• Including any of the following applications of GIS not covered in those courses

Common Applications of GIS:

• Route selection of highways/pipelines)

• Subdivision design (cut/fill, street layout, parcel layout)

• Tax mapping (cadastral mapping)

• Utility/facility mapping and management

• Site selection (e.g. Waste management site, siting of school, hospital, etc.)

• Event mapping (accidents, crime, fire, facility breakages, etc.)

• Census and related statistical mapping

• Land use planning and management

• Security

• Environmental impact studies

• Natural resource mapping & management (including forest management, agricultural

management, ecological & biological studies)

• Routing of buses and similar service vehicles

• Urban and regional planning

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Books/Materials for further Reading

Kufoniyi O. (1997a), “Basic Concepts in Geographic Information Systems (GIS)”, Chapter One,
Principles and Applications of Geographic Information Systems, Series in Surveying &
Geoinformatics, Ezeigbo, C.U. (Ed.), Department of Surveying, University of Lagos, Lagos (Nigeria),
p1-14.
Kufoniyi O.(1997b), “Database design and creation”, Chapter Five, Principles and Applications of
Geographic Information Systems, Series in Surveying & Geoinformatics, Ezeigbo, C.U. (Ed.),
University of Lagos, Lagos (Nigeria), p50-67.

Manual of Geospatial Science and Technology by Edited by Bossler J. D.

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