SVG 104: INTRODUCTION TO CARTOGRAPHY

LECTURE NOTES

COMPILED BY

MR A.I. ABIDOYE

AND

DR. C. OLUWADARE
COURSE CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL SKETCH TO DEV. IN THE CONCEPT OF

CARTOGRAPHY
2. INSTRUMENTATIONS AND METHODS
3. DEFINITION AND OBJECTIVES OF CARTOGRAPHY
4. ELEMENTS OF PLAN AND MAP CONSTRUCTION
5. DRAWING SURFACE AND TOOLS
6. MEDIA OF CARTOGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
7. SCALES AND RELATIONSHIPS
8. APPLICATIONS TO PLOTTING OF CHAIN SURVEYING AND COMPASS TRAVERSE.
Topic one: History of Cartography

1.1 Primitive Era

Mapping in early civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Egypt were linked to astronomy
and what we then knew about was the stars and about geometrical measurement for
purpose of land demarcation.

This information was vital to far more than mapping too; by observing the stella and solar
bodies, leaders could organize society around the growing seasons. Surveying permitted
the building of huge monuments, determination of much land people owned and charge
them tax; even at such primitive age, the most efficient document for governance was the
tax records and this is no less true now than it was then.

The discipline seemed to change little between then and the eras of Greek civilization and
Rome though the pinnacle of cartography during the Roman Empire was the map of the
Roman world produced by Claudius Ptolemaeus. He produced a map of what he called “The
Old World” (as it was then) and published a book called Geographike Hyphygesis (Guide to
Geography) which remained the primary authority in Europe for at least 1400 years

Cartography is one of the oldest of human graphical portrayal skills, arguably dating back
tens of thousands of years to Stone Age cave drawings, showing star maps and ways past
landmarks to good hunting locations. From there it progressed through Babylonian clay
tablet village plans; Polynesian stick charts for navigation; Egyptian, Greek and Chinese
papyrus and parchment maps; medieval Mappa Mundi and portolan navigation charts on
vellum; the introduction of paper and printing in the 15th century; to modern computer-
printed maps; and increasingly to ephemeral maps displayed on screens of computers and
mobile devices. On the way, we have accumulated a wealth of knowledge on best practice
of how to make maps of different types and each new advance in technology has brought
with it new ways of practicing cartography.
1.2 The Modern Era

Modern cartography as we would understand it today began in the late 18th century. Today,
national organisations produce a variety of maps for different reasons and there is a much
greater focus on accuracy and the transmittal of relevant information depending on the
type of map produced and the type of map needed. Cartography is a global discipline. At the
beginning of the 20th century, aerial photography changed the face of mapping once more
and we saw accurate measurements as a matter of course.

However, that is not to say that all maps in the modern era are entirely about accurate
portrayal of national boundaries or local topography; the Soviets, Fascist Italy and Nazi
Germany all used maps to foster a sense of national pride to justify their expansionism.
Mapping has been in the hands of authorities for several years - governments, religious
institutions, academics and others with the expertise and knowledge to produce them.

As with many other things, it is the internet, the open source approach of modern digital
data, lower cost of the software used to produce maps and courses to learn GIS (modern
digital mapping) means that we are seeing a growth of available information arguably not
seen since the advent of the printing press.

Some have hailed the end of traditional map making with open sourcing and outsourcing,
but local knowledge remains vital and people will always need maps. Cartography may
need to diversify, and GIS will arguably complement and not replace it . Amateur map
making compiling local data is easier than it has ever been, and may provide a useful source
in future, but digital media is unlikely to render paper maps obsolete.
Topic Two:

2.1 Definition of Cartography

Cartography is a special type of communication that does require training. But, attention
invested in learning the basics will pay off handsomely in the production of more effective
maps. Cartography is therefore a discipline that deals with the conception, production,
dissemination and study of maps (I.C.A. in Anonymous 1992); hence, Cartography can be
defined as the art and science of map making. Cartographers make a huge contribution in
making the maps more meaningful and understandable.

2.2 Cartography as art and science

From the prehistoric Lascaux Cave drawings of 15000 BC, to the Greek geographer,
mathematician and astronomer, Eratosthenes of 2200 BC, people have been exploring and
recording the world around them. Famous explorers and cartographers like James Cook
have left a legacy of geographical knowledge which, even today, influences the way we view
our world.

As times change so has the discipline of cartography. Advancements in technology have

sparked growth in the industry and, as the benefits of visual data analysis are recognized,
people are finding new ways to leverage these resources.

As we continue to move towards a data driven society, maps are playing a key role in
displaying data as useful and comprehensible information; they have become part of the
communication process, the sharing of information between the map maker and the map
user. Therefore, in order for cartographers to produce effective maps they must not only
focus on map making and design but also have an understanding of how maps are being
used.
TOPIC THREE

3.1 Map as a scientific document

A map is a scientific document that conveys geographical information and relationships.

The result of any field observation in surveying or analysis in GIS is communicated using
maps so as to help users/readers to better understand the geographical phenomenon.

Maps are perhaps as fundamental to society as language and the written word. They are the
preeminent means of recording and communicating information about the location and
spatial characteristics of the natural world and of society and culture. Some would say that
the use of maps distinguishes geography from all other disciplines.

The truth is that maps, though of special concern to geographers, are used throughout the
sciences and humanities and in virtually every aspect of day-to-day life. Millions of maps
are produced and used annually throughout the world by scientists, scholars, governments,
and businesses to meet environmental, economic, political, and social needs in the
following areas:

i. Recording and storing information

Governments, businesses, and society as large must store large quantities of information
about the environment and the location of natural resources, capital assets, and people
such as parcel, and cadastral maps to record property, maps of society's infrastructure or
utilities for water, power, telephone, transportation, and census maps of population.

ii. Analyzing locational distributions and spatial patterns

Maps let us recognize spatial distributions and relationships and make it possible for us
to visualize and hence conceptualize patterns and processes that operate through space.
 iii. Presenting information and communicating findings

Maps allow us to convey information and findings that are difficult to express verbally.
Maps can also be used to convince and persuade; it is widely used in the natural sciences,
social sciences, and humanities for analysis and communication, particularly now that
computers can be used as an aid to production.

However, to realize this potential of map as a means of cartographic communication, it is

useful to learn some basic principles of cartographic communication and map design. Any
cartographic project (map making operations) must consider the message to be conveyed
and the audience to be addressed. These are questions that must be addresses at the start
of a cartographic project:

a. What is the motive, intent, or goal of the map?

In effect, the question asks what the reader should gain from the map or how the reader
should respond. Motives vary greatly. Many maps are intended solely to convey accurate
information about spatial relationships, others to sway public debate. Obviously, the
motive will have a great bearing on the content of the map (the information included) and
its form (the cartographic strategies employed).

b. Who will read the map?

A cartographer must be able to identify the type of reader being addressed for two
principal reasons. First, it is important to have an idea about what the audience is likely to
know about the subject matter of the map. Second, it is useful to know how much
background the readers have in using maps. A map intended for specialists who have a
background in cartography might be organized far differently than one intended for use as
a prop in a public debate.
 c. Where will the map be used?

An audience is always addressed within a particular context or frame of reference which

has a bearing on map design. Maps may be published alone, or in newspapers, magazines,
journals, books, or atlases. They may appear in reports, term papers, theses, and
dissertations. They may be used in lectures, briefings, presentations, speeches, and
announcements. Some maps are used only once and then discarded. Others are intended to
use for reference for decades or centuries. For these reasons, context can influence both the
form and content of a map in ways both great and small.

d. What data is available for the composition of the map?

Decisions about map design are tempered greatly by source materials themselves, by what
is available and how easily it can be communicated. Sometimes our source materials have
limitations or are incomplete. They may present special problems of presentation because
of technical terminology or because of the quantities of detail required to make a point.
Some data needs to be qualified. These limitations must be considered from the very start
of a project so that they can be addressed in the design of the map.

e. What resources are available in terms of both time and equipment?

Finally, one must consider the twin questions of how much time to invest in a project and
what systems to use, whether manual or automated and, if automated, what type of
software. Both questions are, of course, best addressed with experience. However, it is
important to realize that production time drops dramatically with practice. Sometimes
scholars avoid using maps because of the time expense involved in their production. Yet
once a person has a learned a few basics, this expense is greatly reduced. Computer
systems have also made it much easier to produce maps, but, again, practice is required.
Situations remain where manual or semi-manual production remains time effective. One
must also remain aware of the strengths and weaknesses of various automated systems.
3.2 Elements of a Standard Map

Apart from the data, a map has certain other things that make map a package of effective
and clear communication. These provide critical information to users and are known as
map elements.

These elements are the layout specifies and it relates to the space and positions for
different map elements such as neat lines, title, North arrow, scale bar, legend etc.
Preparing an effective layout often requires experimentation with the available space.

1) Neat Line: These are lines used to frame a map to indicate where the map begins and

where it ends.

2) Title: A short suitable text that clearly defines the theme of the map.

3) Legend: Legend lists all the symbols used in a map and describes what they depict.

4) North Arrow: Direction: True north is the direction of North Pole and it differs from
the magnetic north. The magnetic north pole changes due to the changes in the geo-
physical condition of the earth. Many maps indicate both the true and the magnetic
north but the direction that is indicated on most of the maps is the true north.

5) Scale must be given in order to derive the actual size of an entity on the map or
distance between two geographical entities on a map.

6) Source: The age, accuracy and reliability of the data sources are critical in carrying
out any study. One can show the sources of data one has used in maps so that a user
can track them and check his analysis and interpretation.

7) Date of Production: A reference grid is a network of evenly spaced horizontal and

vertical lines used to create context on a map. The grid can be used to show unique
locations (control points) either in a geographic coordinate system or in a projected
coordinate system.

8) Projection:
 9) Author:

TOPIC FOUR: OBJECTIVE OF CARTOGRAPHY

4.1 Cartography as means of Communication

A map performs functions such as storage medium for information and as well provides a
picture of the world to help understand issues on spatial patterns, spatial relationships and
various environmental complexities.

Maps generally provide a vast resource of information; they are research tools to aide in
informed decision making and function as historical documents offering a window into the
past. One of the most useful approaches to the study of cartography is to view maps as a
form of visual communication or as a special-purpose language for describing spatial
relationships.

Cartographers seek to make use of visual resources such as color, shape and pattern to
communicate information about spatial relationships. The analogy with language also helps
explain why training in principles of effective cartography is so important. It allows us to
communicate more effectively. Without knowledge of some of these basic principles, the
beginning cartographer is likely to be misunderstood or cause confusion.

4.2 Relationship between Cartography and Graphical Communication

Cartography is related to, but different from other forms of visual communication.
Cartographers must pay special attention to coordinate systems, map projections, and
issues of scale and direction that are in most cases of relatively little concern to other
graphic designers or artists. But, because cartography is a type of graphical communication,
some insights to the demands of cartography can be explore from the literature of
graphical communication and statistical graphics.
Often cartographers are faced with some of the same challenges faced by graphical
designers and can learn much from their insights. As you begin to study cartographic
design, you may find it useful to consult some of the standard works on graphical
communication. Since maps are symbolic abstractions generalizations or representations
of reality of real world phenomenon and thus we can view cartography as a form of
communication; it thus imply that the world represented on a map has been greatly
simplified, or generalized, with symbols being used like words to stand for real things.
Some of the most important decisions cartographers make in the process of cartographic
design revolve around: 1) how much to simplify the situation being depicted; and 2)
how to symbolize the relationships being represented.

4.3 Relationship between Cartography and GIS

The word cartography was traditionally used to describe the whole map-making process
from survey through compilation to visualization and reproduction. However, in the
context of GIS, as a technology predicated on spatial data, cartography as a term is now
used more to cover the visualization and reproduction aspects starting from processed
data, excluding the earlier stages of building databases and carrying out analysis. As such,
GIS is about getting an answer to a geographic question through analyses, while
cartography is communicating that answer, particularly to a wider audience than the
author. GIS and cartography are complementary, and cartographic tools are now available
within GIS to perform visualization and map production tasks.

The relationship between GIS and cartography has not always been so good. In the early
days of GIS, with the excitement of the new technology, developers and users forged ahead
with computer tools for mapping, without learning from the historical skills of the
traditional cartographers, who in turn looked down on the GIS upstarts. The result of this
was to create a new breed of geospatial professionals who are more than capable at GIS
analysis but who possess little cartographic knowledge or training. This led to poor map
design from GIS environments which struggled to provide tools for high quality map work.
However, in recent years GIS can be seen as underpinning a re-birth in cartography. The
software tools are now capable and powerful and with a greater social appetite for
information about the world around us, map design and production has become relevant
and important once more. People demand high quality maps and GIS analysts have a
responsibility to ensure that they communicate their work effectively using the tools
available.

Topic five: Cartographic Drawing

5.1 Cartographic drawing and drafting materials

A well designed map is undoubtedly a well done map in terms of drawing and presentation.

Drawing or drafting of map requires artistic skills and artistic skills can be acquired only by
regular and patient practise. Those who do not possess patience cannot become a good
draftsmen; he should as well know the proper use of tools as appropriate to places and
conditions.

The following are the drawing materials and tools. Consumable materials needed in
drawing operations are refers to as drawing material such as drawing surface, ink, pencil,
plaster of Paris, stick up letterings, colours etc.

5.2 Drawing surface

May be a drawing paper, cardboard, plastic paper mounted on zinc or aluminum sheet,
walls etc. the selection of the surface is determined by a variety of factors, the important
factors are:

i. Stability: most drawing papers do shrink or expand with changes in temperature and
humidity. This makes it practically impossible to maintain the scale of the map
and to register several plates. For instance, we draw a map on the scale of 1 inch
to 4 mile. When we reduce it to half, it will show a scale of 1 inch to 8 mile. But if
the original drawing on the map has shrunk or expanded, the reduction of the
size of the map to half will not give the scale of 1 inch to 8 miles.
 ii. Ink adherence: quality of the drawing paper determines its capacity to take ink.
Some papers are porous and hence soak ink and diffuse it through fibers. Such
papers produce poor drawing. There are others that even hold inks to give a
iii. sharp image.
iv. Translucence: tis property is essential for making tracing and also for making
original for direct contact prints. Tracing papers and cloths are translucent. It is
easier to register original drawn on tracing paper
v. Surface quality: if the surface should have strength and durability. Also, if the
surface is rough the drawing cannot be smooth. The surface of the paper should
be smooth and strong enough to take erasing. Paper should also be good to
withstand repeatedly rolling and unrolling and Ease in correcting errors.
vi. Reactions to wetting: while drawing the originals we have to use wet inks or
colours. At times these inks have to be spread over large areas. There are papers
which curl with wetting. Such papers are not suitable for this type of drawing.
Most tracing papers as cloths get curls on wetting.
vii. Ease of use: a good drawing medium should be easy and pleasant to work on, that
is if it is for ink work, the ink should take to the surface easily (adherence), the
material should be easy on the eye. In addition to being easy to work on, it
should also be easy on the instruments and not cause excessive wear.

Before starting the drawing of a map, the cartographer must know well the materials with
which he has to work on. For most drawings, opaque paper of smooth surface with good
thickness and weight is good. In many advanced countries, plastic sheets specially meant
for this purpose are used. These sheets last longer. Moreover, they are stable and maintain
smooth surface. This disadvantage is that in some cases ordinary drawing ink does not
adhere to it. For pencil drawing, Ross boards (white foam board) are preferable. It has
grained surface which gives shades of colours while drawing with a lead or carbon pencil
or crayon.

There are three basic type of drawing surface namely:

1. Metal based
 2. Paper based
3. Plastic based

1. Metal based
a. Laminated or Mounted Papers

These are normally zinc or aluminum sheets on which a number of layers of white
enamel is applied to give an even surface. It is an excellent drawing surface on which
black waterproof ink is used. The enameled surface being slightly porous holds the ink
well. Despite this, erasures are fairly easy to carry out, erasure being possible several
times over the same area if care is taken. The black line on the white background
provides a very good contrast for photography. Dimensional stability is excellent with
only slight effects from temperature changes and no effect from changes in humidity.

b. Enameled metal plates

These consist of a metal plates on which smooth layer of white enamel are bonded. The
plates are normally of zinc or aluminum and thus have a high degree of stability. The
enamel surface is pleasant to work on, ink spread is less than for paper, and corrections can
relatively easily be made by scrapping off the top surface leaving a smooth surface for re-
drawing. The disadvantage of opacity still remains and weight and inflexibility may also be
considered as disadvantages.

2. Paper based

There are many types of papers still in use for cartographic work. They all however, have
their advantages and disadvantages while some suffer from humidity changes, expansion in
damp conditions and shrinks in hot, dry atmosphere; others relatively maintained their
stability under trying atmospheric conditions. Papers (e.g. cartridge papers) are used only
in map design layout. They are fairly easy to work on as for as drawing is concerned but
erasing lines or symbols tends to roughen up the surface causing ink spread and ragged
lines. Tracing papers have been improved such that they are useful or cartographers. Good
and quality lines can be drawn on a tracing paper. Being transparent, direct copies can be
made by contact.

3. Plastic based

5.3 Drawing equipment

Some of the equipment used in drawing maps are

1. Drawing board or table

2. Drafting machine
3. Tracing table
4. T-square
5. Straight edges- 12’’ scale and a slide rule
6. Curves of various type

Maps are usually drawn on drawing tables specially meant for drafting. Drawing table is
a board measuring 24’’ X 28’’. It has mechanism for adjusting the height as well as tilt.
The drawing paper should be affix to the board either with a tape or thumb tacks. There
must be a drafting machine in a drawing office. This machine is fixed to a drafting table
which can be adjusted in slant. It swings freely on an arm. It is designed to keep the
table in parallel position wherever it may be placed. The machine is very useful in
straight line drawing works.

Another kind of table is the tracing or light table. It differs from the drafting table
because the surface is made up of a glass material illuminated form beneath. However
we can have a customized table of both drafting and tracing functions.

5.4 Ink
The standard black ink for map drawing is the Indian ink. Modern Indian ink is a
permanent suspension of fine carbon in a liquid medium. It dries dense black which is very
important for reproduction and is water-proof. While using this ink, it should be kept in
mind that drawing surfaces easily pick up oily substances from the hand.

The ink will either not adhere or skip the oily surface. For photographic purpose all ink
work should be absolutely opaque back. For drawing to be reproduced photographically,
white opaque paint or ink can be used for corrections. This should not, however, be done
on drawings which are to be used for direct contact printing.

5.5 Tints and patterns

A number of patterns formed by lines and dots are printed on transparent film with
adhesive backing. The America brand of these pattern is known as ZIP-A-one and one of the
Indian brand is known as Pal-Tone. These printed patterns can be pasted at apprriate
places and thus the laborious process of drawing patterns can be avoided

5.6 Pencil

In the preparation of original drawings, pencil are indispensable. The Leads of the pencil
ranges from soft to hard. For most cartographic works 4 or 5H is the softest practicable.
Coloured pencils are very useful in preparing guide maps as well.

TOPIC SIX: Media of cartographic communication

6.1 Elements of cartographic communication

1. Map Symbol

The way in which we represent features and their attributes is through the design and
placement of graphical signs. These signs do not necessarily take on the appearance of the
object in reality but are used to represent the object. The signs should have meaning to
enable the map reader to interpret them accurately and appropriately relate them to the
real-world object.
The fundamental operations of generalization take care of many of the processes that apply
to depicting features graphically with specific reference to scale as a constraining factor.
Symbolization extends these processes by applying graphical treatments for representing
features on a map. Symbols are used in a variety of ways to imbibe the map with meaning
and to convey a message.

For instance, topographic maps identify land-use areas by using different colors of shading
to represent each type of area. Typically, these shadings are identified on the legend.

§ Areas shaded green usually represent vegetation, such as wooded cover (trees) or
bush.

§ Areas of blue and blue lines indicate bodies of water.

§ Areas that are white or pale in tone are usually areas with little or no vegetation, such
as desert or rocky alpine areas.

§ Wilderness, national park, and national forest boundaries are shown with black,
dashed-dotted lines tinted with colored bands.

6.1.1 Classification of
Cartographic symbols
 (Dimensionality)

Geographical phenomena exist in reality at different levels of dimensionalities; however,

cartographic symbols are adopted for several geographic phenomenon and are classified
according to their dimensional characteristics listed below.

1. Point (zero-dimensional) usually represent location (x, y, and z) and characteristics

of point shaped data, but may also be used to represent data belonging to an area.
E.g. village, bore-hole, physical structures like buildings etc.

2. Line (one-dimensional) used to represents linear features (spatial data) like roads,
rail lines, pipe lines, river courses etc.

3. Area (two-dimensional) represents areal features, regular or irregular features

whose total area can be determine on the space

4. Surface (2½-dimensional)

5. Volume (three-dimensional)

6. Space-time (four-dimensional)

However, classification can also be according to their shape in form of

1. Pictorial or descriptive or mimetic symbols. A form of classification where

symbols are realistically shapes of the features. For example, a tree symbols, a wind
mill. They are easy to understand by the map users without a legend, but specific
knowledge of the appearance of the features in reality is usually needed. Due to
their irregular shape, they are more difficult to position and may cover relatively
larger space.
Fish bond
Hospital or
church

2. Geometrical or abstraction symbols. This relates to symbols with regularly shaped

such as a circle, triangle, square etc. when we look at these symbols, it usually seems
as if there’s no specific or unique meaning that can be connected to them as there’s
 no resemblance with the features in reality. A circle may represents a town, a tower
or a well in different maps. Therefore, geometric symbols should always be
explained in a legend. They are easy to draw and ho not occupy large space in the
map.

3. Letter or number symbols: this is q combinations of letters and or combinations of

letters and numbers. Many of these can be found on the topographic and thematic
maps. E.g. trigonometric points, benchmarks, categorization of soil etc. the meaning
of this kind of symbols also needs to be explained in the legend.

4. Bivariate and Multivariate Symbology. Bivariate symbology is a type of thematic

map symbology to be used where a map portrays two variables at the same time for
each feature in a class. Multivariate symbology extends this to more than two
variables, but is much less used, as it is more difficult to keep the variables distinct
but readable. Bivariate mapping can be particularly useful to visually present the
correlation (or lack thereof) between the two variables (e.g. vegetation and rainfall;
or family income and ethnicity). Care must be taken to choose the cartographic
criteria carefully to ensure that both variables are distinctive. Examples of
appropriate ones might include:
5. Other groups of symbols are usually statistical base. Examples are pie chart, bar
charts, histogram, curves etc.
Each dimension of geography requires different handling for symbology. For instance, a
phenomenon that exists as a linear feature in reality (e.g. a road) may be equally
represented by a linear object in a cartographic sense.

However, if scale and the level of enquiry are altered, the spatial dimension of a feature
may also change. For instance, at a medium-scale, a city may be represented as an area with
two-dimensionality. However, at a small-scale the same city might be better represented as
a point feature with zero-dimensionality.

Map scale therefore plays an extremely important role in determining how the spatial
dimension of geographical phenomena are handled and will impact upon how they are
represented cartographically.

2. Colour
A key component of most maps is colour. Humans have an astonishingly broad perception of
colour although, there are good number of people faced with limits in distinguishing color
(color blind people) and thus usually lead to debates and disagreement on the name of specific
colors. However, colour is very important for maps and visualization and a good application
will greatly help for communication. Colour can be described according to a number of
characteristics like hue, value and saturation. Most times colours are misused in cartography
because they may not portray a good cartographic representation for communication because
map users may not be able to comprehend it easily, therefore sizes and shape may rather be
used. Issues on colour will be treated to depth in cartographic visual variables.

3 Text

The great majority of maps make use of cartographic text to convey information. Typical
uses of text on the map are to label places with names (this city is London) or numbers
(this Interstate is 10), label areas with values , to describe the terrain (‘swamp’), to locate a
feature without using symbology (‘Well’), or to give titles, legends, and notes panels.

6.1.2 Typeface, Case, Bold, Italics, Size

There are several ways to distinguish different kinds of labels on a map.

Text can be in any or combination of the following:

i. In a different font or face: (e.g. Impact or Lucida Calligraphy). However avoid using
too many fonts. Often a plain sans serif font like Ariel or Gill Sans is clearest. If the
map is dense, then using a compressed or condensed font such as Gill Sans
Condensed can help fit in more text. Use a serif font such as Times New Roman for
blocks of paragraphed text, as the serifs lead the eye through the flow of the text.

ii. UPPER CASE, Mixed Case, or lower case: UPPER CASE is more prominent (but if used
unnecessarily is seen as SHOUTING). Mixed Case (also known as Title Case) is used
for most labels on a map.
 iii. Normal, Bold, or italic (sometimes called oblique): Water features such as rivers are
often labeled in italic. More important features are shown in bold.

iv. Plain or underlined. For example those cities that are administrative centers may be
underlined.

v. Black or colored text – town names in black, water features are often blue, tourist
information in red, etc.

vi. Of differing size – 8 point, 11 point, 14 point, or 18 point. Text sizes traditionally are
measured in printer’s points – 72 to the inch.

vii. Normally spaced or ‘l e t t e r s p a c e d’. This technique is used to stretch names

across polygon areas, such as naming large countries.

In font characteristics, each font has a set of common elements that assist the description of
a typeface

6.1.3 Text legibility

On a map, letters are often spread out across different backgrounds, can be orientated in
many ways, might have different leading and are often interrupted by a range of other
marks and symbols. The criteria for choosing a typeface are fundamentally that individual
letters should be easily identifiable.
Lowercase characters are easier to read because they are less blocky in appearance and are
often more detailed than their uppercase counterparts which make the overall shapes
more visible on a map. The majority of lettering on a map is normally set in Title Case,
where each word is composed of an uppercase initial character and the remainder is
lowercase.

Placing text by hand is a slow and painstaking task. Most GIS software has labeling
capabilities that will generate text from attribute values and put it next to the feature
concerned.

6.1.4 Common rules for text placement

i. Label points to the right but slightly above the locating point (avoids confusing a dot
symbol with a letter of the label). If this location would cause conflict, then the
sequence to try is below right, above left, below left, centered above, centered
below.

ii. Label lines such as rivers above the line if possible (else below) and parallel to the
trend of the line in a section where the text can be read without turning the head too
far. Avoid text being upside down, or running right to left
iii. Label areas horizontally, unless the polygon is shaped to be much longer in another
axis. In this case think of curving the text along the long axis of the polygon and
possibly letter spacing it so that it stretches across the whole area.

viii. Where possible, avoid placing type over other graphical marks or map
components, particularly when black type is placed over the top of black line
work such that the type is difficult to read.
6.2 Cartographic Visual variables

Once we know how a feature is represented and what measurement is associated with it
then we design a symbol set appropriate for that particular combination. Visual variables
are used to provide a palette from which a cartographer can select in order to represent
perceived differences on a map. Many of the visual variables discussed here are particularly
appropriate for both thematic and topographic mapping.

1. Color

One of the major challenges for novice map-makers is to employ color in an effective
manner. However, modern computer systems allow 256 separate grades of color in each of
the red, green and blue additive colors that generates over 16 million possible colors.

In assigning colours to maps, the principles to remember is that the use of color should be
discrete, never garish, and cartographers should never use overly bright colours that many
people (especially elderly) have difficulties distinguishing.

Systems of colour mixing

6.2.1 Additive and Subtractive Color Mixing

There are two major systems for mixing color, depending on whether you are mixing light
sources (RGB), or ink pigments (CMY or CMYK). Figure below illustrates the RGB and CMY
systems.

The process of mixing colors using the primary (Red, Green, and Blue) colors is referred to
as additive mixing. If three lights have red, green and blue filters attached they create
beams of red, green and blue light. Where the three beams overlap this creates reflected
light perceived as white. Where only two beams overlap, the reflected light produces a mix
of color. Blue and green together form cyan. Blue and red form magenta, and red and green
produce yellow. By altering the intensity of each of the beams of light, different colors can
be created since RGB will be mixed in different ways.

6.2.2 Components of colour

i. Hue: the extent to which an area is similar to one, or a proportion of two of the
perceived colors red, yellow, green or blue;

ii. Lightness: the extent to which an area exhibits more or less light relative to white
(also called value);

iii. Saturation: the extent to which an area exhibits more or less of its hue (also called
Chroma).

The three components of color can be altered to provide a range of ways of applying color
to map symbolization. What we normally describe as color is, in fact, more correctly termed
hue. From the figure below, green is a different hue from blue and results from different
dominant wavelengths in visible light. The range of colors from white through to black (on
a grey scale) reflect equal amounts of light at all wavelengths and are, technically, hue-less
(or achromatic).

For
any

chosen hue, lightness can vary to provide light and dark versions of that hue (e.g. light blue
and dark blue). It must be remembered though that lightness is a relative concept. If we
shine a bright torch at a map then the amount of reflected light increases and the lightness
of all hues on the map will also increase in perception although the relative differences
between different values of the same hue will remain. This principle does not, however
work if the same light is shone at a computer screen where the increased light is added to
the light emitted by the monitor resulting in a decrease in the relative differences in
brightness in the screen image. This is one reason why designing color on a computer
monitor causes problems and why it is best to work in the same ambient light conditions at
all times.

Saturation describes the purity of a hue with the words vivid or dull often used to aid
description for high and low saturated hues respectively.

A Chroma scale, for a fixed hue, is created by taking a hue of high purity and a grey of the
same lightness and mixing them in different proportions. The lightness of the scale remains
constant across the chromatic scale but the saturation of color increases from grey to full
saturation (see the diagram below)

6.2.3 Color Choice on Maps

Some relationship should exist between the color chosen, the data it is portraying and the
meaning to be communicated. Conventions also apply, particularly in topographic mapping
such that blue is used for water features, green for forested areas, brown for contours and
red for main roads. Note that conventions can conflict, as when the use of green for
vegetation can conflict with conventional representations of relief on small scale maps
which layer varying greens.

Hue is used as a visual variable to identify map features and to differentiate between
features of a different type. To show related features, one would choose hues that are
related in some fashion, such as green hues to illustrate different vegetated landscapes.
Hue can also be used to provide perceptual distinction. Highly saturated colors provide the
greatest perceptual difference.
2. Space. Refers to alterations made in the distance between the various individual
marks that make up the symbol. For example decreasing the spacing between the
hatch lines of an area pattern, or increasing the dash spacing of a dashed line.
3. Size of graphical objects can be used in a number of different ways in cartography.
The actual size of the object itself can be altered which both the point and linear
examples in Figure below. Alternatively, the size of the marks that are used to create
the symbol can be altered. Changing the size of either the whole symbol or the
marks that make up a symbol is used to reflect quantifiable differences in the data
on ordinal and numerical scales. The visual impression is one of a measurable
difference in the magnitude of the underlying feature being mapped.
4. Perspective height refers to some sort of perspective view of the data being
mapped. With more map products being created in perspective form (tilted map
surfaces for instance) then perspective visual variables are becoming increasingly
important. For point features, each individual feature is given a raised stick (or
lollipop) where the length of the stick itself is relative to a quantifiable aspect of the
data on the ordinal or numerical scale. Linear and area features are depicted as
some form of extruded box-like structure to give the impression of magnitude. This
is most appropriately used to depict quantitative data on a numerical scale.
5. Orientation visual variable is defined by the angular arrangement of the marks that
make up the symbol. It is inherent in the symbolization for point features as the
whole symbol is oriented. Orientation best serves the display of qualitative data on a
nominal scale of measurement. Each of the symbols (per feature type) in Figure
 below is equal in visual perception so a change in orientation connotes difference as
opposed to quantitative difference.
6. Shape works in a very similar way to orientation. Again, it is best suited to point
phenomena (through the design of either geometric or mimetic symbols) as
opposed to linear, area or true 3-D. It is also used to show nominal difference in data
and cannot be effectively used to illustrate quantitative difference. Patterns created
for area features are sometimes mimetic and are commonly used e.g. on geological
maps to illustrate structural form.
7. Arrangement of the marks that make up symbols for area and true 3-D can vary
either geometrically or randomly. For linear features, arrangement of dots and
dashes can form certain sequences. For point phenomena, the position of a
particular graphical mark within the overall point symbol constitutes arrangement.
In practical terms, the use of arrangement is very similar to both shape and
orientation; it should be used for representing nominal difference but not numerical
data.
8. Value refers to the extent of darkness and lightness of a particular shade when other
dimensions, such as hue, remain constant. In the below the grey scale has been used
to illustrate change in value for all features. Lightness is most effective at
representing ordinal data since it connotes some measure of quantitative difference
between features. Darker values are seen visually as representing greater quantities
than features represented by lighter symbols.
9. Hue refers to the dominant wavelength of light that forms our color association.
What we commonly refer to as the colors of yellow, red, blue or green are more
accurately referred to as hues. In many ways, hues are distinct symbols and should
not be mixed in a scheme that is representing numerical data. Hue is not particularly
effective at displaying quantitative difference in its own right although it is often
used in combination with other visual variables to emphasize ordinal differences.
For instance, a road classification system might employ different line sizes to indic
ate order but combined with hue as a secondary visual variable to improve the
representation.
10. Lightness operates in exactly the same way as value but rather than using the grey
scale, a particular hue is held constant
11. Saturation is also referred to as chroma and is described as a mixture of grey and a
pure hue of a dominant wavelength. Saturation is, in fact, the intensity of a hue as
lightness is held constant. In Figure above a red hue has been used and lightness
held constant as intensity goes from a desaturated grayish-red to a fully saturated
red. Saturation can be used in a similar way to lightness for showing quantitative
differences in data although lightness is often preferred to saturation on the
grounds that it is more aesthetically pleasing.
Topic Seven

7.1

Scale

Each topographic map is drawn to a specific scale. A scale is the ratio of a distance between
two points on a map and the actual distance of the same two points on the ground. Scale is
the amount that an area or distance has been reduced in order to be included on a map. A
scale of 1:250,000 means that one inch on the map is equal to 250,000 inches on the
ground, or approximately four miles. The larger the scale, the smaller the area that is
covered.

7.2 Types of Scale:

Representative Fraction: On most maps, the map scale is represented by a simple fraction
or ratio. This type of description of a map's scale is called a representative fraction. For
example, a map where one unit (centimeter, meter, inch, kilometer, etc.) on the illustration
represents 1,000,000 of these same units on the actual surface of the Earth would have a
representative fraction of 1/1,000,000 (fraction) or 1:1,000,000 (ratio). Of these
mathematical representations of scale, the ratio form is most commonly found on maps.

Statement / Verbal statement scale: Scale can also be described on a map by a verbal
statement. For example, 1:1,000,000 could be verbally described as "1 centimeter on the
map equals 10 kilometers on the Earth's surface" or "1 inch represents approximately 16
miles".

Linear / graphic scale: Most maps also use graphic scale to describe the distance
relationships between the map and the real world. In a graphic scale, an illustration is used
to depict distances on the map in common units of measurement. Graphic scales are quite
useful because they can be used to measure distances on a map quickly.

7.3 How to Measure Distance on the Map

Distance on the map can be measured by means of the following:

1. the scale ration formula

2. The bar scale or linear scale measurement

The scale in the map legend provides the means for measuring distance. On Nigeria Topo
maps, the scale is given as a fraction for example we say 1:24,000 or 1:100,000. A useful
tool to find distances on a map is to convert the stated scale using the following
mathematical formulas.

Ground Distance
scale is expressed as
𝑀𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

2cm 2𝑐𝑚 1
= = =
1𝑘𝑚 100,000𝑐𝑚 100,000

scale
for instance could be Nos in centimeter X = 𝑐𝑚/𝑘𝑚
100,000

To use the bar scale, mark off along the edge of a piece of paper the map distance between
the two points for which you want to find the actual distance, then measure it against the
bar scale in the map The ground distance between two points is determined by measuring
between the same two points on the map and then multiplying the map measurement by
the denominator of the RF or scale legend. Or, make a ruler by copying the map’s bar scale
along the edge of a piece of paper.

Example:

The map scale is 1:50,000

RF = 1/50,000

The map distance from point A to point B is 5 units, what will be the GD

5 x 50,000 = 250,000 units of ground distance

Since the distance on most maps is marked in meters and the RF is expressed in this unit of
measurement in most cases, a brief description of the metric system is needed. In the
metric system, the standard unit of measurement is the meter.

1 meter contains 100 centimeters (cm).

1,000 meters is 1 kilometer (km).

10 kilometer is 10,000m. The situation may arise when a map or sketch has no RF or scale.
To be able to determine ground distance on such a map, the RF must be determined. There
are two ways to do this:

(1) Comparison with Ground Distance.

(a) Measure the distance between two points on the map (MD).

(b) Determine the horizontal distance between these same two points on the ground (GD).

(c) Use the RF formula and remember that RF must be in the general form

RF = 1/X = MD/GD

(d) Both the MD and the GD must be in the same unit of measure and the MD must be
reduced to 1

For example, If MD = 4.32 centimeters

GD = 2.16 kilometers (216,000 centimeters)

RF = 1/X = 4.32 / 216,000

OR

216,000 / 4.32 = 50,000 therefore

RF = 1 / 50,000

or 1: 50,000

Given that a ground distance = 2,200 meters

RF = 1: 50,000 find MD

Ans = 4.4 centimeters

7.4 Relationship between scale and Map accuracy

When determining ground distance from a map, the scale of the map affects the accuracy.
As the scale becomes smaller, the accuracy of measurement decreases because some of the
features on the map must be exaggerated so that they may be readily identified.

We obtain information in a variety of ways, but for most of us the largest share of our
knowledge of wide-area geographical relationship results from looking at the prepared
maps. Some of these are more or less mechanical images, such as air photos and satellite
imagery; while, others are created by arranging marks to form a usual representation of
selected spatial phenomenon in other to display the data, we employ an almost unlimited
variety of signs.

By relating identifiable graphics characteristics of the marks to chosen attributes of data,

we assign qualitative and quantitative meanings to the signs and they then becomes
designed symbols by arranging the symbols in the horizontal plane and hence we have a
geographic meaning and a map display.

In any graphical system of communication the various signs obviously must be

distinguishable, just as the latters of alphabets used in any language must appear different
so that we do not get mixed up as to that sound they represents.

The various signs must be carefully chosen and arranged so that they form an effective
presentation. Graphic designs is a vital part of cartography because effective
communication requires that the various signs, cones, tones ,colours, lettering and so on
must be carefully fitted together with due regard to the important elements of the map.

The three important component of cartographic design is colour, pattern, typography

requires individual treatment in map making. Therefore, cartographer must pay attention
to basic principles of graphic communication. The fundamental objectives of making maps
is to convey graphic information and the process of data gathering symbolization, choice of
scale and projection is all focused at the end.