SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Systems development is systematic process which

includes phases such as planning, analysis, design,
deployment, and maintenance. Here, we will primarily
focus on −
 Systems analysis
 Systems design
Systems Analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts,
identifying the problems, and decomposition of a system
into its components.
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying
a system or its parts in order to identify its objectives. It is
a problem solving technique that improves the system and
ensures that all the components of the system work
efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
Analysis specifies what the system should do.
Systems Design
It is a process of planning a new business system or
replacing an existing system by defining its components
or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before
planning, you need to understand the old system
thoroughly and determine how computers can best be
used in order to operate efficiently.
System Design focuses on how to accomplish the
objective of the system.
System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −
 Systems
 Processes
 Technology
What is a System?
The word System is derived from Greek word Systema,
which means an organized relationship between any set of
components to achieve some common cause or objective.
A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent
components linked together according to a plan to
achieve a specific goal.”
Constraints of a System
A system must have three basic constraints −
 A system must have some structure and behavior
which is designed to achieve a predefined objective.
 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist
among the system components.
  The objectives of the organization have a higher
priority than the objectives of its subsystems.
For example, traffic management system, payroll system,
automatic library system, human resources information
system.
Properties of a System
A system has the following properties −
Organization
Organization implies structure and order. It is the
arrangement of components that helps to achieve
predetermined objectives.
Interaction
It is defined by the manner in which the components
operate with each other.
For example, in an organization, purchasing department
must interact with production department and payroll with
personnel department.
Interdependence
Interdependence means how the components of a system
depend on one another. For proper functioning, the
components are coordinated and linked together
according to a specified plan. The output of one
subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input.
Integration
Integration is concerned with how a system components
are connected together. It means that the parts of the
system work together within the system even if each part
performs a unique function.
Central Objective
The objective of system must be central. It may be real or
stated. It is not uncommon for an organization to state an
objective and operate to achieve another.
The users must know the main objective of a computer
application early in the analysis for a successful design
and conversion.
Elements of a System
The following diagram shows the elements of a system −
Outputs and Inputs
 The main aim of a system is to produce an output
which is useful for its user.
 Inputs are the information that enters into the system
for processing.
 Output is the outcome of processing.
Processor(s)
 The processor is the element of a system that
involves the actual transformation of input into
output.
 It is the operational component of a system.
Processors may modify the input either totally or
partially, depending on the output specification.
  As the output specifications change, so does the
processing. In some cases, input is also modified to
enable the processor for handling the transformation.
Control
 The control element guides the system.
 It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the
pattern of activities governing input, processing, and
output.
 The behavior of a computer System is controlled by
the Operating System and software. In order to keep
system in balance, what and how much input is
needed is determined by Output Specifications.
Feedback
 Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.
 Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages
the performance of the system.
 Negative feedback is informational in nature that
provides the controller with information for action.
Environment
 The environment is the “supersystem” within which
an organization operates.
 It is the source of external elements that strike on the
system.
  It determines how a system must function. For
example, vendors and competitors of organization’s
environment, may provide constraints that affect the
actual performance of the business.
Boundaries and Interface
 A system should be defined by its boundaries.
Boundaries are the limits that identify its
components, processes, and interrelationship when it
interfaces with another system.
 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere
of influence and control.
 The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is
crucial in determining the nature of its interface with
other systems for successful design.
Types of Systems
The systems can be divided into the following types −
Physical or Abstract Systems
 Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch
and feel them.
 Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature.
For example, desks and chairs are the physical parts
of computer center which are static. A programmed
computer is a dynamic system in which programs,
 data, and applications can change according to the
user's needs.
 Abstract systems are non-physical entities or
conceptual that may be formulas, representation or
model of a real system.
Open or Closed Systems
 An open system must interact with its environment. It
receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the
outside of the system. For example, an information
system which must adapt to the changing
environmental conditions.
 A closed system does not interact with its
environment. It is isolated from environmental
influences. A completely closed system is rare in
reality.
Adaptive and Non Adaptive System
 Adaptive System responds to the change in the
environment in a way to improve their performance
and to survive. For example, human beings, animals.
 Non Adaptive System is the system which does not
respond to the environment. For example, machines.
Permanent or Temporary System
 Permanent System persists for long time. For
example, business policies.
  Temporary System is made for specified time and
after that they are demolished. For example, A DJ
system is set up for a program and it is dissembled
after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System
 Natural systems are created by the nature. For
example, Solar system, seasonal system.
 Manufactured System is the man-made system. For
example, Rockets, dams, trains.
Deterministic or Probabilistic System
 Deterministic system operates in a predictable
manner and the interaction between system
components is known with certainty. For example,
two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of
oxygen makes water.
 Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The
exact output is not known. For example, Weather
forecasting, mail delivery.
Social, Human-Machine, Machine System
 Social System is made up of people. For example,
social clubs, societies.
 In Human-Machine System, both human and
machines are involved to perform a particular task.
For example, Computer programming.
  Machine System is where human interference is
neglected. All the tasks are performed by the
machine. For example, an autonomous robot.
Man–Made Information Systems
 It is an interconnected set of information resources to
manage data for particular organization, under Direct
Management Control (DMC).
 This system includes hardware, software,
communication, data, and application for producing
information according to the need of an organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three
types −
 Formal Information System − It is based on the
flow of information in the form of memos,
instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of
management.
 Informal Information System − This is employee
based system which solves the day to day work
related problems.
 Computer Based System − This system is directly
dependent on the computer for managing business
applications. For example, automatic library system,
railway reservation system, banking system, etc.
Systems Models
Schematic Models
 A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system
elements and their linkages.
 Different arrows are used to show information flow,
material flow, and information feedback.
Flow System Models
 A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the
material, energy, and information that hold the
system together.
 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT),
for example, is used to abstract a real world system in
model form.
Static System Models
 They represent one pair of relationships such as
activity–time or cost–quantity.
 The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of
an activity-time relationship.
Dynamic System Models
 Business organizations are dynamic systems. A
dynamic model approximates the type of
organization or application that analysts deal with.
 It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of
the system. It consists of −
 o Inputs that enter the system
o The processor through which transformation
takes place
o The program(s) required for processing
o The output(s) that result from processing.
Categories of Information
There are three categories of information related to
managerial levels and the decision managers make.

Strategic Information
 This information is required by topmost management
for long range planning policies for next few years.
For example, trends in revenues, financial
investment, and human resources, and population
growth.
  This type of information is achieved with the aid of
Decision Support System (DSS).
Managerial Information
 This type of Information is required by middle
management for short and intermediate range
planning which is in terms of months. For example,
sales analysis, cash flow projection, and annual
financial statements.
 It is achieved with the aid of Management
Information Systems (MIS).
Operational information
 This type of information is required by low
management for daily and short term planning to
enforce day-to-day operational activities. For
example, keeping employee attendance records,
overdue purchase orders, and current stocks
available.
 It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing
Systems (DPS).
System Development Life Cycle
An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
should result in a high quality system that meets customer
expectations, reaches completion within time and cost
evaluations, and works effectively and efficiently in the
current and planned Information Technology
infrastructure.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual
model which includes policies and procedures for
developing or altering systems throughout their life
cycles.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information
system. SDLC includes the following activities −
 requirements
 design
 implementation
 testing
 deployment
 operations
 maintenance
Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic
approach which explicitly breaks down the work into
phases that are required to implement either new or
modified Information System.
Feasibility Study or Planning
 Define the problem and scope of existing system.
 Overview the new system and determine its
objectives.
 Confirm project feasibility and produce the project
Schedule.
 During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and
security of system are also considered.
  A feasibility report for the entire project is created at
the end of this phase.
Analysis and Specification
 Gather, analyze, and validate the information.
 Define the requirements and prototypes for new
system.
 Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the
requirements.
 Examine the information needs of end-user and
enhances the system goal.
 A Software Requirement Specification (SRS)
document, which specifies the software, hardware,
functional, and network requirements of the system is
prepared at the end of this phase.
System Design
 Includes the design of application, network,
databases, user interfaces, and system interfaces.
 Transform the SRS document into logical structure,
which contains detailed and complete set of
specifications that can be implemented in a
programming language.
 Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and
operation plan.
  Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final
design must meet the requirements stated in SRS
document.
 Finally, prepare a design document which will be
used during next phases.
Implementation
 Implement the design into source code through
coding.
 Combine all the modules together into training
environment that detects errors and defects.
 A test report which contains errors is prepared
through test plan that includes test related tasks such
as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource
allocation for testing.
 Integrate the information system into its environment
and install the new system.
Maintenance/Support
 Include all the activities such as phone support or
physical on-site support for users that is required
once the system is installing.
 Implement the changes that software might undergo
over a period of time, or implement any new
requirements after the software is deployed at the
customer location.
  It also includes handling the residual errors and
resolve any issues that may exist in the system even
after the testing phase.
 Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer
time for large systems and for a short time for smaller
systems.
Life Cycle of System Analysis and Design
The following diagram shows the complete life cycle of
the system during analysis and design phase.

Role of System Analyst

The system analyst is a person who is thoroughly aware
of the system and guides the system development project
by giving proper directions. He is an expert having
technical and interpersonal skills to carry out
development tasks required at each phase.
He pursues to match the objectives of information system
with the organization goal.
Main Roles
 Defining and understanding the requirement of user
through various Fact finding techniques.
 Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user
consensus.
 Gathering the facts or information and acquires the
opinions of users.
 Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at
appropriate system which is more user friendly.
 Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the
best solution, and quantify cost and benefits.
 Draw certain specifications which are easily
understood by users and programmer in precise and
detailed form.
 Implemented the logical design of system which must
be modular.
 Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been
used for some time, and modify the system as
needed.
Attributes of a Systems Analyst
The following figure shows the attributes a systems
analyst should possess −

Interpersonal Skills
 Interface with users and programmer.
 Facilitate groups and lead smaller teams.
 Managing expectations.
 Good understanding, communication, selling and
teaching abilities.
 Motivator having the confidence to solve queries.
Analytical Skills
 System study and organizational knowledge
 Problem identification, problem analysis, and
problem solving
 Sound commonsense
 Ability to access trade-off
 Curiosity to learn about new organization
Management Skills
 Understand users jargon and practices.
 Resource & project management.
 Change & risk management.
 Understand the management functions thoroughly.
Technical Skills
 Knowledge of computers and software.
 Keep abreast of modern development.
 Know of system design tools.
 Breadth knowledge about new technologies.
System Analysis & Design - System Planning
What is Requirements Determination?
A requirement is a vital feature of a new system which
may include processing or capturing of data, controlling
the activities of business, producing information and
supporting the management.
Requirements determination involves studying the
existing system and gathering details to find out what are
the requirements, how it works, and where improvements
should be made.
Major Activities in requirement Determination
Requirements Anticipation
 It predicts the characteristics of system based on
previous experience which include certain problems
or features and requirements for a new system.
 It can lead to analysis of areas that would otherwise
go unnoticed by inexperienced analyst. But if
shortcuts are taken and bias is introduced in
conducting the investigation, then requirement
Anticipation can be half-baked.
Requirements Investigation
 It is studying the current system and documenting its
features for further analysis.
 It is at the heart of system analysis where analyst
documenting and describing system features using
fact-finding techniques, prototyping, and computer
assisted tools.
Requirements Specifications
  It includes the analysis of data which determine the
requirement specification, description of features for
new system, and specifying what information
requirements will be provided.
 It includes analysis of factual data, identification of
essential requirements, and selection of Requirement-
fulfillment strategies.
Information Gathering Techniques
The main aim of fact finding techniques is to determine
the information requirements of an organization used by
analysts to prepare a precise SRS understood by user.
Ideal SRS Document should −
 be complete, Unambiguous, and Jargon-free.
 specify operational, tactical, and strategic information
requirements.
 solve possible disputes between users and analyst.
 use graphical aids which simplify understanding and
design.
There are various information gathering techniques −
Interviewing
Systems analyst collects information from individuals or
groups by interviewing. The analyst can be formal,
legalistic, play politics, or be informal; as the success of
an interview depends on the skill of analyst as
interviewer.
It can be done in two ways −
 Unstructured Interview − The system analyst
conducts question-answer session to acquire basic
information of the system.
 Structured Interview − It has standard questions
which user need to respond in either close (objective)
or open (descriptive) format.
Advantages of Interviewing
 This method is frequently the best source of
gathering qualitative information.
 It is useful for them, who do not communicate
effectively in writing or who may not have the time
to complete questionnaire.
 Information can easily be validated and cross
checked immediately.
 It can handle the complex subjects.
 It is easy to discover key problem by seeking
opinions.
 It bridges the gaps in the areas of misunderstandings
and minimizes future problems.
Questionnaires
This method is used by analyst to gather information
about various issues of system from large number of
persons.
There are two types of questionnaires −
 Open-ended Questionnaires − It consists of
questions that can be easily and correctly interpreted.
They can explore a problem and lead to a specific
direction of answer.
 Closed-ended Questionnaires − It consists of
questions that are used when the systems analyst
effectively lists all possible responses, which are
mutually exclusive.
Advantages of questionnaires
 It is very effective in surveying interests, attitudes,
feelings, and beliefs of users which are not co-
located.
 It is useful in situation to know what proportion of a
given group approves or disapproves of a particular
feature of the proposed system.
 It is useful to determine the overall opinion before
giving any specific direction to the system project.
 It is more reliable and provides high confidentiality
of honest responses.
  It is appropriate for electing factual information and
for statistical data collection which can be emailed
and sent by post.
Review of Records, Procedures, and Forms
Review of existing records, procedures, and forms helps
to seek insight into a system which describes the current
system capabilities, its operations, or activities.
Advantages
 It helps user to gain some knowledge about the
organization or operations by themselves before they
impose upon others.
 It helps in documenting current operations within
short span of time as the procedure manuals and
forms describe the format and functions of present
system.
 It can provide a clear understanding about the
transactions that are handled in the organization,
identifying input for processing, and evaluating
performance.
 It can help an analyst to understand the system in
terms of the operations that must be supported.
 It describes the problem, its affected parts, and the
proposed solution.
Observation
This is a method of gathering information by noticing and
observing the people, events, and objects. The analyst
visits the organization to observe the working of current
system and understands the requirements of the system.
Advantages
 It is a direct method for gleaning information.
 It is useful in situation where authenticity of data
collected is in question or when complexity of certain
aspects of system prevents clear explanation by end-
users.
 It produces more accurate and reliable data.
 It produces all the aspect of documentation that are
incomplete and outdated.
Joint Application Development (JAD)
It is a new technique developed by IBM which brings
owners, users, analysts, designers, and builders to define
and design the system using organized and intensive
workshops. JAD trained analyst act as facilitator for
workshop who has some specialized skills.
Advantages of JAD
 It saves time and cost by replacing months of
traditional interviews and follow-up meetings.
 It is useful in organizational culture which supports
joint problem solving.
  Fosters formal relationships among multiple levels of
employees.
 It can lead to development of design creatively.
 It Allows rapid development and improves ownership
of information system.
Secondary Research or Background Reading
This method is widely used for information gathering by
accessing the gleaned information. It includes any
previously gathered information used by the marketer
from any internal or external source.
Advantages
 It is more openly accessed with the availability of
internet.
 It provides valuable information with low cost and
time.
 It act as forerunner to primary research and aligns the
focus of primary research.
 It is used by the researcher to conclude if the research
is worth it as it is available with procedures used and
issues in collecting them.
Feasibility Study
Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary
investigation that helps the management to take decision
about whether study of system should be feasible for
development or not.
 It identifies the possibility of improving an existing
system, developing a new system, and produce
refined estimates for further development of system.
 It is used to obtain the outline of the problem and
decide whether feasible or appropriate solution exists
or not.
 The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire
problem scope instead of solving the problem.
 The output of a feasibility study is a formal system
proposal act as decision document which includes the
complete nature and scope of the proposed system.
Steps Involved in Feasibility Analysis
The following steps are to be followed while performing
feasibility analysis −
 Form a project team and appoint a project leader.
 Develop system flowcharts.
 Identify the deficiencies of current system and set
goals.
 Enumerate the alternative solution or potential
candidate system to meet goals.
 Determine the feasibility of each alternative such as
technical feasibility, operational feasibility, etc.
  Weight the performance and cost effectiveness of
each candidate system.
 Rank the other alternatives and select the best
candidate system.
 Prepare a system proposal of final project directive to
management for approval.

Types of Feasibilities
Economic Feasibility
 It is evaluating the effectiveness of candidate system
by using cost/benefit analysis method.
 It demonstrates the net benefit from the candidate
system in terms of benefits and costs to the
organization.
 The main aim of Economic Feasibility Analysis
(EFS) is to estimate the economic requirements of
candidate system before investments funds are
committed to proposal.
 It prefers the alternative which will maximize the net
worth of organization by earliest and highest return
 of funds along with lowest level of risk involved in
developing the candidate system.
Technical Feasibility
 It investigates the technical feasibility of each
implementation alternative.
 It analyzes and determines whether the solution can
be supported by existing technology or not.
 The analyst determines whether current technical
resources be upgraded or added it that fulfill the new
requirements.
 It ensures that the candidate system provides
appropriate responses to what extent it can support
the technical enhancement.
Operational Feasibility
 It determines whether the system is operating
effectively once it is developed and implemented.
 It ensures that the management should support the
proposed system and its working feasible in the
current organizational environment.
 It analyzes whether the users will be affected and
they accept the modified or new business methods
that affect the possible system benefits.
 It also ensures that the computer resources and
network architecture of candidate system are
workable.
Behavioral Feasibility
 It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or
behavior towards the development of new system.
 It helps in determining if the system requires special
effort to educate, retrain, transfer, and changes in
employee’s job status on new ways of conducting
business.
Schedule Feasibility
 It ensures that the project should be completed within
given time constraint or schedule.
 It also verifies and validates whether the deadlines of
project are reasonable or not.
Structured Analysis
Analysts use various tools to understand and describe the
information system. One of the ways is using structured
analysis.
What is Structured Analysis?
Structured Analysis is a development method that allows
the analyst to understand the system and its activities in a
logical way.
It is a systematic approach, which uses graphical tools
that analyze and refine the objectives of an existing
system and develop a new system specification which can
be easily understandable by user.
It has following attributes −
 It is graphic which specifies the presentation of
application.
 It divides the processes so that it gives a clear picture
of system flow.
 It is logical rather than physical i.e., the elements of
system do not depend on vendor or hardware.
 It is an approach that works from high-level
overviews to lower-level details.
Structured Analysis Tools
During Structured Analysis, various tools and techniques
are used for system development. They are −
 Data Flow Diagrams
 Data Dictionary
 Decision Trees
 Decision Tables
 Structured English
 Pseudocode
Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) or Bubble Chart
It is a technique developed by Larry Constantine to
express the requirements of system in a graphical form.
 It shows the flow of data between various functions
of system and specifies how the current system is
implemented.
 It is an initial stage of design phase that functionally
divides the requirement specifications down to the
lowest level of detail.
 Its graphical nature makes it a good communication
tool between user and analyst or analyst and system
designer.
 It gives an overview of what data a system processes,
what transformations are performed, what data are
 stored, what results are produced and where they
flow.
Basic Elements of DFD
DFD is easy to understand and quite effective when the
required design is not clear and the user wants a
notational language for communication. However, it
requires a large number of iterations for obtaining the
most accurate and complete solution.
The following table shows the symbols used in designing
a DFD and their significance −
Symbol Name Symbol Meaning
Square Source or Destination of Data
Arrow Data flow
Process transforming data
Circle
flow
Open
Data Store
Rectangle
Types of DFD
DFDs are of two types: Physical DFD and Logical DFD.
The following table lists the points that differentiate a
physical DFD from a logical DFD.
Physical DFD Logical DFD
It is implementation It is implementation
 independent. It focuses only
dependent. It shows which
on the flow of data between
functions are performed.
processes.
It provides low level details It explains events of systems
of hardware, software, files, and data required by each
and people. event.
It depicts how the current It shows how business
system operates and how a operates; not how the system
system will be implemented. can be implemented.
Context Diagram
A context diagram helps in understanding the entire
system by one DFD which gives the overview of a
system. It starts with mentioning major processes with
little details and then goes onto giving more details of the
processes with the top-down approach.
The context diagram of mess management is shown
below.
Data Dictionary
A data dictionary is a structured repository of data
elements in the system. It stores the descriptions of all
DFD data elements that is, details and definitions of data
flows, data stores, data stored in data stores, and the
processes.
A data dictionary improves the communication between
the analyst and the user. It plays an important role in
building a database. Most DBMSs have a data dictionary
as a standard feature. For example, refer the following
table −
Sr.No. Data Name Description No. of Characters
1 ISBN ISBN Number 10
2 TITLE title 60
3 SUB Book Subjects 80
 4 ANAME Author Name 15
Decision Trees
Decision trees are a method for defining complex
relationships by describing decisions and avoiding the
problems in communication. A decision tree is a diagram
that shows alternative actions and conditions within
horizontal tree framework. Thus, it depicts which
conditions to consider first, second, and so on.
Decision trees depict the relationship of each condition
and their permissible actions. A square node indicates an
action and a circle indicates a condition. It forces analysts
to consider the sequence of decisions and identifies the
actual decision that must be made.
The major limitation of a decision tree is that it lacks
information in its format to describe what other
combinations of conditions you can take for testing. It is a
single representation of the relationships between
conditions and actions.
For example, refer the following decision tree −

Decision Tables
Decision tables are a method of describing the complex
logical relationship in a precise manner which is easily
understandable.
 It is useful in situations where the resulting actions
depend on the occurrence of one or several
combinations of independent conditions.
 It is a matrix containing row or columns for defining
a problem and the actions.
Components of a Decision Table
  Condition Stub − It is in the upper left quadrant
which lists all the condition to be checked.
 Action Stub − It is in the lower left quadrant which
outlines all the action to be carried out to meet such
condition.
 Condition Entry − It is in upper right quadrant
which provides answers to questions asked in
condition stub quadrant.
 Action Entry − It is in lower right quadrant which
indicates the appropriate action resulting from the
answers to the conditions in the condition entry
quadrant.
The entries in decision table are given by Decision Rules
which define the relationships between combinations of
conditions and courses of action. In rules section,
 Y shows the existence of a condition.
 N represents the condition, which is not satisfied.
 A blank - against action states it is to be ignored.
 X (or a check mark will do) against action states it is
to be carried out.
For example, refer the following table −
CONDITIONS Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4
Advance
Y N N N
payment made
Purchase - Y Y N
 amount = Rs
10,000/-
Regular
- Y N -
Customer
ACTIONS
Give 5%
X X - -
discount
Give no
- - X X
discount
Structured English
Structure English is derived from structured programming
language which gives more understandable and precise
description of process. It is based on procedural logic that
uses construction and imperative sentences designed to
perform operation for action.
 It is best used when sequences and loops in a
program must be considered and the problem needs
sequences of actions with decisions.
 It does not have strict syntax rule. It expresses all
logic in terms of sequential decision structures and
iterations.
For example, see the following sequence of actions −
if customer pays advance
then
 Give 5% Discount
else
if purchase amount >=10,000
then
if the customer is a regular customer
then Give 5% Discount
else No Discount
end if
else No Discount
end if
end if
Pseudocode
A pseudocode does not conform to any programming
language and expresses logic in plain English.
 It may specify the physical programming logic
without actual coding during and after the physical
design.
 It is used in conjunction with structured
programming.
 It replaces the flowcharts of a program.
Guidelines for Selecting Appropriate Tools
Use the following guidelines for selecting the most
appropriate tool that would suit your requirements −
  Use DFD at high or low level analysis for providing
good system documentations.
 Use data dictionary to simplify the structure for
meeting the data requirement of the system.
 Use structured English if there are many loops and
actions are complex.
 Use decision tables when there are a large number of
conditions to check and logic is complex.
 Use decision trees when sequencing of conditions is
important and if there are few conditions to be tested.
System Analysis & Design - System Design
System design is the phase that bridges the gap between
problem domain and the existing system in a manageable
way. This phase focuses on the solution domain, i.e. “how
to implement?”
It is the phase where the SRS document is converted into
a format that can be implemented and decides how the
system will operate.
In this phase, the complex activity of system development
is divided into several smaller sub-activities, which
coordinate with each other to achieve the main objective
of system development.
Inputs to System Design
System design takes the following inputs −
 Statement of work
 Requirement determination plan
 Current situation analysis
 Proposed system requirements including a conceptual
data model, modified DFDs, and Metadata (data
about data).
Outputs for System Design
System design gives the following outputs −
 Infrastructure and organizational changes for the
proposed system.
  A data schema, often a relational schema.
 Metadata to define the tables/files and columns/data-
items.
 A function hierarchy diagram or web page map that
graphically describes the program structure.
 Actual or pseudocode for each module in the
program.
 A prototype for the proposed system.
Types of System Design
Logical Design
Logical design pertains to an abstract representation of the
data flow, inputs, and outputs of the system. It describes
the inputs (sources), outputs (destinations), databases
(data stores), procedures (data flows) all in a format that
meets the user requirements.
While preparing the logical design of a system, the system
analyst specifies the user needs at level of detail that
virtually determines the information flow into and out of
the system and the required data sources. Data flow
diagram, E-R diagram modeling are used.
Physical Design
Physical design relates to the actual input and output
processes of the system. It focuses on how data is entered
into a system, verified, processed, and displayed as
output.
It produces the working system by defining the design
specification that specifies exactly what the candidate
system does. It is concerned with user interface design,
process design, and data design.
It consists of the following steps −
 Specifying the input/output media, designing the
database, and specifying backup procedures.
 Planning system implementation.
 Devising a test and implementation plan, and
specifying any new hardware and software.
 Updating costs, benefits, conversion dates, and
system constraints.
Architectural Design
It is also known as high level design that focuses on the
design of system architecture. It describes the structure
and behavior of the system. It defines the structure and
relationship between various modules of system
development process.
Detailed Design
It follows Architectural design and focuses on
development of each module.
Conceptual Data Modeling
It is representation of organizational data which includes
all the major entities and relationship. System analysts
develop a conceptual data model for the current system
that supports the scope and requirement for the proposed
system.
The main aim of conceptual data modeling is to capture as
much meaning of data as possible. Most organization
today use conceptual data modeling using E-R model
which uses special notation to represent as much meaning
about data as possible.
Entity Relationship Model
It is a technique used in database design that helps
describe the relationship between various entities of an
organization.
Terms used in E-R model
 ENTITY − It specifies distinct real world items in an
application. For example: vendor, item, student,
course, teachers, etc.
 RELATIONSHIP − They are the meaningful
dependencies between entities. For example, vendor
supplies items, teacher teaches courses, then supplies
and course are relationship.
  ATTRIBUTES − It specifies the properties of
relationships. For example, vendor code, student
name. Symbols used in E-R model and their
respective meanings −
The following table shows the symbols used in E-R
model and their significance −
Symbol Meaning
Entity
Weak Entity

Relationship

Identity Relationship

Attributes

Key Attributes

Multivalued

Composite Attribute
 Derived Attributes

Total Participation of E2
in R

Cardinality Ratio 1:N for

E1:E2 in R

Three types of relationships can exist between two sets of

data: one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.
File Organization
It describes how records are stored within a file.
There are four file organization methods −
 Serial − Records are stored in chronological order (in
order as they are input or occur). Examples −
Recording of telephone charges, ATM transactions,
Telephone queues.
 Sequential − Records are stored in order based on a
key field which contains a value that uniquely
identifies a record. Examples − Phone directories.
 Direct (relative) − Each record is stored based on a
physical address or location on the device. Address is
calculated from the value stored in the record’s key
 field. Randomizing routine or hashing algorithm does
the conversion.
 Indexed − Records can be processed both
sequentially and non-sequentially using indexes.
Comparision

File Access
One can access a file using either Sequential Access or
Random Access. File Access methods allow computer
programs read or write records in a file.
Sequential Access
Every record on the file is processed starting with the first
record until End of File (EOF) is reached. It is efficient
when a large number of the records on the file need to be
accessed at any given time. Data stored on a tape
(sequential access) can be accessed only sequentially.
Direct (Random) Access
Records are located by knowing their physical locations
or addresses on the device rather than their positions
relative to other records. Data stored on a CD device
(direct-access) can be accessed either sequentially or
randomly.
Types of Files used in an Organization System
Following are the types of files used in an organization
system −
 Master file − It contains the current information for a
system. For example, customer file, student file,
telephone directory.
 Table file − It is a type of master file that changes
infrequently and stored in a tabular format. For
example, storing Zipcode.
 Transaction file − It contains the day-to-day
information generated from business activities. It is
used to update or process the master file. For
example, Addresses of the employees.
 Temporary file − It is created and used whenever
needed by a system.
 Mirror file − They are the exact duplicates of other
files. Help minimize the risk of downtime in cases
 when the original becomes unusable. They must be
modified each time the original file is changed.
 Log files − They contain copies of master and
transaction records in order to chronicle any changes
that are made to the master file. It facilitates auditing
and provides mechanism for recovery in case of
system failure.
 Archive files − Backup files that contain historical
versions of other files.
Documentation Control
Documentation is a process of recording the information
for any reference or operational purpose. It helps users,
managers, and IT staff, who require it. It is important that
prepared document must be updated on regular basis to
trace the progress of the system easily.
After the implementation of system if the system is
working improperly, then documentation helps the
administrator to understand the flow of data in the system
to correct the flaws and get the system working.
Programmers or systems analysts usually create program
and system documentation. Systems analysts usually are
responsible for preparing documentation to help users
learn the system. In large companies, a technical support
team that includes technical writers might assist in the
preparation of user documentation and training materials.
Advantages
 It can reduce system downtime, cut costs, and speed
up maintenance tasks.
 It provides the clear description of formal flow of
present system and helps to understand the type of
input data and how the output can be produced.
 It provides effective and efficient way of
communication between technical and nontechnical
users about system.
 It facilitates the training of new user so that he can
easily understand the flow of system.
 It helps the user to solve the problems such as
troubleshooting and helps the manager to take better
final decisions of the organization system.
 It provides better control to the internal or external
working of the system.
Types of Documentations
When it comes to System Design, there are following four
main documentations −
 Program documentation
 System documentation
 Operations documentation
 User documentation
Program Documentation
  It describes inputs, outputs, and processing logic for
all the program modules.
 The program documentation process starts in the
system analysis phase and continues during
implementation.
 This documentation guides programmers, who
construct modules that are well supported by internal
and external comments and descriptions that can be
understood and maintained easily.
Operations Documentation
Operations documentation contains all the information
needed for processing and distributing online and printed
output. Operations documentation should be clear,
concise, and available online if possible.
It includes the following information −
 Program, systems analyst, programmer, and system
identification.
 Scheduling information for printed output, such as
report, execution frequency, and deadlines.
 Input files, their source, output files, and their
destinations.
 E-mail and report distribution lists.
 Special forms required, including online forms.
 Error and informational messages to operators and
restart procedures.
  Special instructions, such as security requirements.
User Documentation
It includes instructions and information to the users who
will interact with the system. For example, user manuals,
help guides, and tutorials. User documentation is valuable
in training users and for reference purpose. It must be
clear, understandable, and readily accessible to users at all
levels.
The users, system owners, analysts, and programmers, all
put combined efforts to develop a user’s guide.
A user documentation should include −
 A system overview that clearly describes all major
system features, capabilities, and limitations.
 Description of source document content, preparation,
processing, and, samples.
 Overview of menu and data entry screen options,
contents, and processing instructions.
 Examples of reports that are produced regularly or
available at the user’s request, including samples.
 Security and audit trail information.
 Explanation of responsibility for specific input,
output, or processing requirements.
 Procedures for requesting changes and reporting
problems.
 Examples of exceptions and error situations.
  Frequently asked questions (FAQs).
 Explanation of how to get help and procedures for
updating the user manual.
System Documentation
System documentation serves as the technical
specifications for the IS and how the objectives of the IS
are accomplished. Users, managers and IS owners need
never reference system documentation. System
documentation provides the basis for understanding the
technical aspects of the IS when modifications are made.
 It describes each program within the IS and the entire
IS itself.
 It describes the system’s functions, the way they are
implemented, each program's purpose within the
entire IS with respect to the order of execution,
information passed to and from programs, and overall
system flow.
 It includes data dictionary entries, data flow
diagrams, object models, screen layouts, source
documents, and the systems request that initiated the
project.
 Most of the system documentation is prepared during
the system analysis and system design phases.
 During systems implementation, an analyst must
review system documentation to verify that it is
 complete, accurate, and up-to-date, and including any
changes made during the implementation process.
Design Strategies
Top-Down Strategy
The top-down strategy uses the modular approach to
develop the design of a system. It is called so because it
starts from the top or the highest-level module and moves
towards the lowest level modules.
In this technique, the highest-level module or main
module for developing the software is identified. The
main module is divided into several smaller and simpler
submodules or segments based on the task performed by
each module. Then, each submodule is further subdivided
into several submodules of next lower level. This process
of dividing each module into several submodules
continues until the lowest level modules, which cannot be
further subdivided, are not identified.

Bottom-Up Strategy
Bottom-Up Strategy follows the modular approach to
develop the design of the system. It is called so because it
starts from the bottom or the most basic level modules
and moves towards the highest level modules.
In this technique,
 The modules at the most basic or the lowest level are
identified.
 These modules are then grouped together based on
the function performed by each module to form the
next higher-level modules.
 Then, these modules are further combined to form the
next higher-level modules.
 This process of grouping several simpler modules to
form higher level modules continues until the main
module of system development process is achieved.

Structured Design
Structured design is a data-flow based methodology that
helps in identifying the input and output of the developing
system. The main objective of structured design is to
minimize the complexity and increase the modularity of a
program. Structured design also helps in describing the
functional aspects of the system.
In structured designing, the system specifications act as a
basis for graphically representing the flow of data and
sequence of processes involved in a software
development with the help of DFDs. After developing the
DFDs for the software system, the next step is to develop
the structure chart.

Modularization
Structured design partitions the program into small and
independent modules. These are organized in top down
manner with the details shown in bottom.
Thus, structured design uses an approach called
Modularization or decomposition to minimize the
complexity and to manage the problem by subdividing it
into smaller segments.
Advantages
 Critical interfaces are tested first.
 It provides abstraction.
 It allows multiple programmers to work
simultaneously.
 It allows code reuse.
 It provides control and improves morale.
 It makes identifying structure easier.
Structured Charts
Structured charts are a recommended tool for designing a
modular, top down systems which define the various
modules of system development and the relationship
between each module. It shows the system module and
their relationship between them.
It consists of diagram consisting of rectangular boxes that
represent the modules, connecting arrows, or lines.
 Control Module − It is a higher-level module that
directs lower-level modules, called subordinate
modules.
 Library Module − It is a reusable module and can be
invoked from more than one point in the chart.
We have two different approaches to design a structured
chart −
 Transform-Centered Structured Charts − They
are used when all the transactions follow same path.
 Transaction–Centered Structured Charts − They
are used when all the transactions do not follow the
same path.
Objectives of Using Structure Flowcharts
 To encourage a top-down design.
 To support the concept of modules and identify the
appropriate modules.
 To show the size and complexity of the system.
 To identify the number of readily identifiable
functions and modules within each function.
 To depict whether each identifiable function is a
manageable entity or should be broken down into
smaller components.
Factors Affecting System Complexity
To develop good quality of system software, it is
necessary to develop a good design. Therefore, the main
focus on while developing the design of the system is the
quality of the software design. A good quality software
design is the one, which minimizes the complexity and
cost expenditure in software development.
The two important concepts related to the system
development that help in determining the complexity of a
system are coupling and cohesion.