INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS

ECON 1011

Addis Ababa University

School of Commerce

Department of Economics
May, 2024
 Chapter One: Basics of Economics
1.1 Definition of Economics
❖The word “Economics” is originated from the ancient Greek word “oeconomicus”
equivalent phrase to "household management" or "management of family affairs”.
❖There is no universally accepted definition of economics (its definition is
controversial).
❖Economic can be defined from different perspectives.
1) Wealth Definition: Adam Smith (1723-90)
➢The formal definition of Economics can be traced back to the days of Adam Smith, a
Scottish Economist, generally known as “ father of economics”.
➢Wrote a book entitled “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations”, in
the year 1776.
➢Economics as a distinct subject started with his book.
➢Economics is a science of wealth which studies the process of production,
distribution, consumption and accumulation of wealth.
✓According to Smith: the objective of political economy in every country is to
increase the resources and power of that country.
✓ In a market economy, the way in which production and distribution of wealth will take
place is through the Smithian ‘invisible hand’ mechanism or the ‘price system’
✓ In general, economics is regarded by Smith as “the science of wealth”.

However, the Smithian wealth definition did not served last long and got criticisms by other
group of economist(mainly by Alfred Marshal).

Critiques
✓ The definition is too narrow: Does not considered the major problems faced by a
society, is condemned as ‘the bread-and-butter science’.
✓ Emphasize on the material aspect of human life, i.e., generation of wealth; ignored the
non-material aspect of human life. Above all, as a science of wealth, it taught selfishness
and love for money. Criticized as a “dismal science and bastard science”
✓ Ignored Scarcity and Choice aspects. Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of
any society, and thus, choice is unavoidable.
2) Welfare Definition: Alfred Marshal (1842-1924)
❖ Alfred Marshall in his book ‘Principles of Economics” published in 1890 placed
emphasis on human activities or human welfare rather than on wealth. In
UNDP perspective, human welfare is primarily a matter of education, health and
income, as reflected in the HDI, a composite of three social welfare variables (a
long and healthy life, acquisition of knowledge and a decent standard of
living)).
❖ Marshall defines economics as “a study of peoples’ activities/actions to achieve
human welfare.” OR “a study of men as they live and move and think in the
ordinary business of life (economic activities carried out by peoples in order to
exist).”
❖ He argued that economics, on one side, is a study of wealth and, on the other
side, is a study of man.
❖ Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines
that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the
attainment and with the use of the material requisites of well-being.
❖According to Marshall, wealth is not an end in itself as was thought by classical authors;
it is a means to an end—the end of human welfare.

From his definition:

i. Economics is a social science since it studies the actions of human beings.
ii. Economics studies the ‘ordinary business of life’ since it takes into account the money-
earning and money-spending activities of man.
iii. Economics studies only the ‘material’ part of human welfare which is measurable in
terms of the measuring rod of money. It neglects other activities of human welfare not
quantifiable in terms of money.
iv. Welfare of mankind, rather than acquisition of wealth, is the primary object of
importance.

Critiques
❖ The definition focus on the material welfare, ignores the non material welfare. Thus,
the definition will be too narrow.
❖ Robbins argued that Marshall could not establish a link between economic activities
of human beings and human welfare. There are various economic activities that are
detrimental to human welfare. The production of war materials, wine, etc., are
economic activities but do not promote welfare of any society.
❖Measuring welfare in terms of money is not valid, as welfare is abstract and
subjective concept.
❖“Marshall’s welfare definition gives economics a normative character. However,
Robbins argues Economics must be free from making value judgments, Economics is
a positive science not a normative science.”
❖Ignores the fundamental concepts/problems of scarcity and choice.

3) Scarcity definition: Lionel Robbins(1898-1984)

❑ Robbins defined Economics in terms of allocation of scarce resources to satisfy
human wants in his book entitled “An Essay on the Nature and Significance of
Economics Science” in 1932.
❖According to Robbins, neither wealth nor human welfare should be considered as
the subject-matter of economics.
❖His definition runs in terms of scarcity: “Economics is the science which studies
human behaviour as a relationship between ends (outcomes, goals, destinations)
and scarce means (resources) which have alternative uses.”
❖Economics is fundamentally the study of scarcity and the problems to which
scarcity gives rise. Thus, the central focus of economics is on opportunity cost and
optimization.
❖ By considering the basic economic problem, which is scarcity, Robbins brought
Economics to nearer science and his definition is the most accepted definition of
Economics.
However, the scarcity definition of Robbins is also not free of criticism.
✓ Argue Economics to be as positive Economics.
✓ Gave less emphasis to wealth and welfare
❖Other contemporary Economists also defined Economics in their own way.
Paul Samuelson defined Economics as “ a science of how men and
society choose, with or with out money, to employ scarce productive
resources which could have alternative uses, to produce various
commodities over time, and distribute them for consumption, now and
in the near future, among various people and groups in society.”
❖Thus, the definition varies as the nature and scope of the subject grow over
time.
❖Despite all these, however, the formal and commonly accepted definition is
as follow.
❖“Economics is a social science which studies about efficient allocation of
scarce resources so as to attain the maximum fulfillment of unlimited
human needs. It is a science of choice making, it studies how people
choose to use scarce or limited productive resources (land, labour,
equipment, technical knowledge and the like) to produce various
commodities.”
❖From the above definition.
✓Economics studies about scarce resources;
✓It studies about allocation of resources;
✓Allocation should be efficient: resources allocated according to their
highest value use.
✓Human needs and wants are unlimited.
✓The aim (objective) of economics is to study how to satisfy the
unlimited human needs up to the maximum possible degree by
allocating the resources efficiently.
1.2 The Rationales of Economics
There are two fundamental facts
1) Human (society‘s) material wants are unlimited. wants multiply—
luxuries become necessities.
2) Economic resources are limited (scarce).
❖Scarcity of resources is the fundamental economic problem to any society.
In return, scarcity gives rise to the problem of choice.
❖Therefore, the basic economic problem is about scarcity and choice since
there are only limited amount of resources available to produce the unlimited
amount of goods and services we desire.
❖Thus, economics is the study of how human beings make choices to use
scarce resources as they seek to satisfy their unlimited wants. Therefore,
choice is at the heart of all decision-making.
❖As an individual, family, and nation, we confront difficult choices about how
to use limited resources to meet our needs and wants.
❖Economists study how these choices are made in various settings; evaluate the
outcomes in terms of criteria such as efficiency, equity, and stability; and
search for alternative forms of economic organization that might produce
higher living standards or a more desirable distribution of material well-being.
1.3 Scope and Method of Analysis in Economics
1.3.1 Scope of Economics
❖The field and scope of economics is expanding rapidly and has come to
include a vast range of topics and issues.
❖In the recent past, many new branches of the subject have developed,
including development economics, industrial economics, transport
economics, welfare economics, environmental economics, and so on.
❖However, the core of modern economics is formed by its two major
branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics. That means economics
can be analyzed at micro and macro level.
A. Microeconomics: is concerned with the economic behavior of individual
decision making units such as households, firms, markets and industries. In
other words, it deals with how households and firms make decisions and
how they interact in specific markets.
B. Macroeconomics: is a branch of economics that deals with the
effects and consequences of the aggregate behaviour of all decision
making units in a certain economy. In other words, it is an aggregative
economics that examines the interrelations among various
aggregates, their determination and the causes of fluctuations in them.
❖It looks at the economy as a whole and discusses about the economy-
wide phenomena.
❖The distinctions between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics can
be summarized as below:
Microeconomics Macroeconomics
✓ Studies individual economic units ✓ Studies an economy as a whole
of an economy and its aggregates.
✓ Deals with individual (income, ✓ Deals with national income and
prices, outputs, etc.) economic output and general price level
variables.
Microeconomics Macroeconomics
✓ Its central problem is price determination ✓ Its central problem is determination of level
and allocation of resources. of income and employment.
✓ Its main tools are the DD and SS of ✓ Its main tools are aggregate DD and
particular commodities and factors. aggregate SS of an economy as a whole.
✓ It helps to solve the central problem of ✓ Helps to solve the central problem of full
what, how and for whom to produce in an employment of resources in the economy.
economy so as to maximize profits
✓ Discusses how the equilibrium of a ✓ Concerned and determination of
consumer, a producer or an industry is equilibrium levels of income and
attained employment at aggregate level
Examples: Individual income, individual Examples: national income, national savings,
savings, individual prices, an individual general price level, national output, aggregate
firm‘s output, individual consumption, etc. consumption, etc.
1.3.2 Method of Analysis: Positive and Normative Economics
A) Positive economics
❖it is concerned with analysis of facts and attempts to describe the world
as it is. It tries to answer the questions what was; what is; or what will
be? It does not judge a system as good or bad, better or worse.
Examples:
✓The food inflation for March 2020 inflation rate in Ethiopia is 26.90
percent
✓Poverty and unemployment are the biggest problems in Ethiopia.
✓The life expectancy at birth in Ethiopia is rising.
These statements are all concerned with real facts and information.
Any disagreement on positive statements can be checked by looking in to
facts.
B) Normative Economics:
It deals with the questions like, what ought to be? Or what the economy
should be? It evaluates the desirability of alternative outcomes based on one‘s
value judgments about what is good or what is bad. In this situation, what is
good for one may not be the case for the other.
Normative analysis is a matter of opinion (subjective in nature) which cannot
be proved or rejected with reference to facts.
Examples:
✓Government should subsidize small scale enterprises, unemployment
schemes/compensations.
✓Government should set a minimum wage rate
✓The poor should pay no taxes.
✓There is a need for intervention of government in the economy.
✓Females ought to be given a priority of job opportunity.
Any disagreement on a normative statement can be solved by voting.
1.3.3 Inductive and deductive reasoning in economics
❖The fundamental objective of economics, like any science, is the
establishment of valid generalizations about certain aspects of human
behaviour. Those generalizations are known as theories.
❖A theory is a simplified picture of reality. Economic theory provides the
basis for economic analysis which uses logical reasoning.
❖There are two methods of logical reasoning: inductive and deductive.
A) Inductive reasoning: is a logical method of reaching at a correct general
statement or theory based on several independent and specific correct
statements. In short, it is the process of deriving a principle or theory by
moving from facts to theories and from particular to general economic
analysis.
❖Inductive method involves the following steps.
1. Selecting problem for analysis
2. Collection, classification, and analysis of data
3. Establishing cause and effect relationship between economic
phenomena.

B) Deductive Reasoning: is a logical way of arriving at a particular or specific

correct statement starting from a correct general statement. In short, it deals
with conclusions about economic phenomenon from certain fundamental
assumptions or truths or axioms through a process of logical arguments.
The theory may agree or disagree with the real world and we should check the
validity of the theory to facts by moving from general to particular.
❖ Major steps in the deductive approach include:
1) Problem identification
2) Specification of the assumptions
3) Formulating hypotheses
4) Testing the validity of the hypotheses

1.4 Scarcity, choice, opportunity cost and production possibilities

frontier(PPF/PPC)
A) Scarcity
❖ The fundamental economic problem that any human society faces is the
problem of scarcity.
❖ Scarcity refers to the fact that all economic resources that a society needs to
produce goods and services are finite or limited in supply. But their being
limited should be expressed in relation to human wants.
❖ Thus, the term scarcity reflects the imbalance between our wants and the
means to satisfy those wants.
❖ Resources can be:
1) Free resources: if the amount available to a society is greater than the
amount people desire at zero price. Example: sunshine
2) Scarce (Economic) resources: if the amount available to a society is
less than what people want to have at zero price.
Examples:
✓All types of human resources: manual, intellectual, skilled and
specialized labor;
✓Most natural resources like land (especially, fertile land), minerals,
clean water, forests and wild - animals;
✓All types of capital resources (like machines, intermediate goods,
infrastructure ); and
✓All types of entrepreneurial resources
✓ Economic resources are usually classified into four categories.
1) Labour: refers to the physical as well as mental efforts of human beings
in the production and distribution of goods and services. The reward for
labour is called wage.
2) Land: refers to the natural resources or all the free gifts of nature usable
in the production of goods and services. The reward for the services of
land is known as rent.
3) Capital: refers to all the manufactured inputs that can be used to produce
other goods and services. Example: equipment, machinery, transport and
communication facilities, etc. The reward for the services of capital is
called interest.
4) Entrepreneurship: refers to a special type of human talent that helps to
organize and manage other factors of production to produce goods and
services and takes risk of making loses. The reward for entrepreneurship is
called profit
Note: Scarcity does not mean shortage. Scarcity occurs if the amount
available is less than the amount people wish to have at zero price while
shortage of goods and services is when people are unable to get the amount
they want at the prevailing or on going price.
✓ Shortage is a specific and short term problem but scarcity is a universal
and everlasting problem.
2) Choice: If resources are scarce, then output will be limited. If output is
limited, then we cannot satisfy all of our wants. Thus, choice must be made.
✓ Due to the problem of scarcity, individuals, firms and government are
forced to choose as to what output to produce, in what quantity, and what
output not to produce.
✓ In short, scarcity implies choice. Choice, in turn, implies cost. That means
whenever choice is made, an alternative opportunity is sacrificed. This cost
is known as opportunity cost.
3) Opportunity cost: is the amount or value of the next best alternative that
must be sacrificed (forgone) in order to obtain one more unit of a product.
✓ When opportunity cost of an activity increases people substitute other
activities in its place
Scarcity → choice → opportunity cost
4) The Production Possibilities Frontier or Curve (PPF/ PPC)
✓ PPF/PPC is a curve that shows the various possible combinations of goods
and services that the society can produce given its resources and technology.
✓ Suppose a hypothetical economy produces food and computer given its
limited resources and available technology (Table 1.1).
Types of Product Unit (Measurement) Production Alternatives
A B C D E
Food Metric tones 500 420 320 180 0
Computer Number 0 500 1000 1500 2000
✓ The PPF describes three important concepts:
i) The concepts of scarcity: - the society cannot have unlimited amount of
outputs even if it employs all of its resources and utilizes them in the best
possible way.
ii) The concept of choice: - any movement along the curve indicates the
change in choice.
✓ The concept of opportunity cost: - when the economy produces on the
PPF, production of more of one good requires sacrificing some of
another product which is reflected by the downward sloping PPF.
✓ Related to the opportunity cost we have a law known as the law of
increasing opportunity cost. This law states that as we produce more and
more of a product, the opportunity cost per unit of the additional output
increases.
✓ This makes the shape of the PPF concave to the origin.
 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐮𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐧𝐞𝐱𝐭 𝐛𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐚𝐥𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐝
Opportunity Cost =
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝

Example: Referring to table 1.1 or Figure 1.1 above, if the economy is

initially operating at point B, what is the opportunity cost of producing
one more unit of computer?

Solution: Moving from production alternative B to C we have:

∆𝒀 320−420
Opportunity Cost(OP) = = = 0.2, Implying, the economy
∆𝑿 1000−500
gives up 0.2 metric tons of food per computer.
5) Economic Growth and PPF/PPC
❖ Economic growth or an increase in the total output level occurs when
one or both of the following conditions occur.
✓ Increase in the quantity or/and quality of economic resources
✓ Advances in technology
✓ An economy can grow because of an increase in productivity in one sector of
the economy. For example, an improvement in technology applied to either
food or computer would be illustrated by a shift of the PPF along the Y- axis
or X-axis (Asymmetric Growth).

1.5 Basic Economic Questions

✓ Economic problems faced by an economic system due to scarcity of
resources are known as basic economic problems.
✓ These problems are common to all economic systems.
✓ They are also known as central problems of an economy.
❖ Therefore, any human society/economic system should answer the
following three basic questions.
What to Produce?
How to Produce?
For Whom to Produce?
A) What to Produce?
❖ This problem is also known as the problem of allocation of resources.
It implies that every economy must decide which goods and in what
quantities are to be produced.
❖ The economy must make choices such as consumption goods versus
capital goods, civil goods versus military goods, and necessity goods
versus luxury goods.
❖ As economic resources are limited we must reduce the production of
one type of good if we want more of another type.
❖ Generally, the final choice of any economy is a combination of the
various types of goods but the exact nature of the combination
depends upon the specific circumstances and objectives of the
economy.
B) How to Produce?
❖ This problem is also known as the problem of choice of technique:
Choosing between alternative methods or techniques of production.
❖ For example, cotton cloth can be produced with hand looms, power
looms, or automatic looms.
❖ Similarly, wheat can be grown with primitive tools and manual labour,
or with modern machinery and little labour.
❖ Broadly speaking, the various techniques of production can be
classified into two groups: labor-intensive techniques and capital-
intensive techniques.
❖ The choice between different techniques depends on the available
supplies of different factors of production and their relative prices.
C) For Whom to Produce
❖This problem is also known as the problem of distribution of national
product. It relates to how a material product is to be distributed among the
members of a society.
❖ The economy must decide, for example, whether to produce for the benefit
of the few rich people or for the large number of poor people.
❖ An economy that wants to benefit the maximum number of persons would
first try to produce the necessities of the whole population and then to
proceed to the production of luxury goods.
✓ All these and other fundamental economic problems center around
human needs and wants. Many human efforts in society are directed
towards the production of goods and services to satisfy human needs and
wants.
✓ These human efforts result in economic activities that occur within the
framework of an economic system.
1.6 Economic systems
❖ The way a society tries to answer the above fundamental questions is
summarized by a concept known as economic system.
✓ An economic system is a set of organizational and institutional
arrangements established to answer the basic economic questions.
✓ Customarily, we can identify three types of economic system.
These are:

Capitalism Economy
Command Economy and
Mixed Economy

READING ASSIGNMENT!
1.7 Decision making units and the circular flow
model
✓ There are three decision making units in a closed economy. These are
households, firms and the government.
i) Household: A household can be one person or more who live under one
roof and make joint financial decisions.
✓ Households make two decisions.
a) Selling of their resources, and
b) Buying of goods and services
ii) Firm: A firm is a production unit that uses economic resources to produce
goods and services.
✓ Firms also make two decisions:
a) Buying of economic resources
b) Selling of their products
iii) Government: A government is an organization that has legal and
political power to control or influence households, firms and markets.
✓ provides some types of goods and services known as public goods
and services for the society
✓ Purchase factors of production, goods and service from HH and
Firms, respectively.
✓ Collects Tax from HH and Firms
❖ The three economic agents interact in two markets:
A) Product market: it is a market where goods and services are transacted/
exchanged. That is, a market where households and governments buy
goods and services from business firms.
B) Factor market (input market): it is a market where economic units
transact/exchange factors of production (inputs). In this market, owners of
resources (households) sell their resources to business firms and
governments.
❖The circular-flow diagram is a visual model of the economy that shows
how money (Birr), economic resources and goods and services flows
through markets among the decision making units.
❖ In the circular flow model, Firms, by selling goods and services to
households, receive money in the form of revenue while HHs by supplying
their resources to firms receive income/Revenue.
❖ The gov’t to provide public services purchase goods and services from
business firms from the product market with a given amount of
expenditure(G). While it also needs resources required for the provision of
the services. This resource is purchased from the factor market by making
payments to the resource owners (HHs).
❖ The main source of revenue to the government is the tax collected from
households and firms.
Fig 1.3 Two Sector Model
Fig 1.4 Three Sector Model