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Explainable Artificial
Intelligence for
Autonomous Vehicles
Explainable AI for Autonomous Vehicles: Concepts, Challenges, and
Applications is a comprehensive guide to developing and applying explainable
artificial intelligence (XAI) in the context of autonomous vehicles. It begins with
an introduction to XAI and its importance in developing autonomous vehicles.
It also provides an overview of the challenges and limitations of traditional
black-box AI models and how XAI can help address these challenges by
providing transparency and interpretability in the decision-making process of
autonomous vehicles. The book then covers the state-of-the-art techniques and
methods for XAI in autonomous vehicles, including model-agnostic approaches,
post-hoc explanations, and local and global interpretability techniques. It also
discusses the challenges and applications of XAI in autonomous vehicles, such
as enhancing safety and reliability, improving user trust and acceptance, and
enhancing overall system performance. Ethical and social considerations are
also addressed in the book, such as the impact of XAI on user privacy and
autonomy and the potential for bias and discrimination in XAI-based systems.
Furthermore, the book provides insights into future directions and emerging
trends in XAI for autonomous vehicles, such as integrating XAI with other
advanced technologies like machine learning and blockchain and the potential
for XAI to enable new applications and services in the autonomous vehicle
industry. Overall, the book aims to provide a comprehensive understanding
of XAI and its applications in autonomous vehicles to help readers develop
effective XAI solutions that can enhance autonomous vehicle systems’ safety,
reliability, and performance while improving user trust and acceptance.
This book:
• Discusses authentication mechanisms for camera access, encryption

protocols for data protection, and access control measures for camera
systems.
• Showcases challenges such as integration with existing systems,
privacy, and security concerns while implementing explainable artificial
intelligence in autonomous vehicles.
• Covers explainable artificial intelligence for resource management,
optimization, adaptive control, and decision-making.
• Explains important topics such as vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)
communication, vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication, remote
monitoring, and control.
• Emphasizes enhancing safety, reliability, overall system performance,
and improving user trust in autonomous vehicles.
The book is intended to provide researchers, engineers, and practitioners

with a comprehensive understanding of XAI’s key concepts, challenges, and
applications in the context of autonomous vehicles. It is primarily written
for senior undergraduate, graduate students, and academic researchers in the
fields of electrical engineering, electronics and communication engineering,
computer science and engineering, information technology, and automotive
engineering.
Explainable AI (XAI) for Engineering Applications
Series Editors
Aditya Khamparia and Deepak Gupta
Explainable AI (XAI) has developed as a subfield of Artificial Intelligence,

focussing on exposing complex AI models to humans in a systematic and inter-
pretable manner. This area explores, discusses the steps and models involved in
making intelligent decisions. This series will cover the working behavior and
explains the ability of powerful algorithms such as neural networks, ensemble
methods including random forests, and other similar algorithms to sacrifice
transparency and explainability for power, performance, and accuracy in dif-
ferent engineering applications relates to the real world. Aimed at graduate stu-
dents, academic researchers and professionals, the proposed series will focus
key topics including XAI techniques for engineering applications, Explainable
AI for Deep Neural Network Predictions, Explainable AI for Machine learn-
ing Predictions, XAI driven recommendation systems for Automobile and
Manufacturing Industries, and Explainable AI for Autonomous Vehicles.
Deep Learning in Gaming and Animations

Principles and Applications
Vikas Chaudhary, Moolchand Sharma, Prerna Sharma
and Deevyankar Agarwal
Artificial Intelligence for Solar Photovoltaic Systems

Approaches, Methodologies and Technologies
Bhavnesh Kumar, Bhanu Pratap and Vivek Shrivastava
Smart Distributed Embedded Systems for Healthcare Applications

Preeti Nagrath, Jafar A. Alzubi, Bhawna Singla, Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues
and A.K. Verma
Medical Data Analysis and Processing using Explainable Artificial Intelligence

Edited by Om Prakash Jena, Mrutyunjaya Panda and Utku Kose
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/

Explainable-AI-XAI-for-Engineering-Applications/book-series/CRCEAIFEA
Explainable Artificial
Intelligence for
Autonomous Vehicles
Concepts, Challenges, and Applications
Edited by
Kamal Malik, Moolchand Sharma,
Suman Deswal, Umesh Gupta,
Deevyankar Agarwal,
and Yahya Obaid Bakheet Al Shamsi
Front cover image: AlinStock/Shutterstock
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2025 selection and editorial matter, Kamal Malik, Moolchand Sharma,
Suman Deswal, Umesh Gupta, Deevyankar Agarwal and Yahya Obaid
Bakheet Al Shamsi; individual chapters, the contributors
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information,
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ISBN: 978-1-032-65501-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-81996-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-50243-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Dedication
Dr. Kamal Malik would like to dedicate this book to her father,
Sh. Ashwani Malik, her mother, Smt. Shakuntla Malik and her brother,
Dr. Shiv Malik, for their constant support and motivation; she would
also like to give my special thanks to the publisher and her other co-
editors for believing in her abilities. Above all, a humble thanks to the
Almighty for this accomplishment.
Mr. Moolchand Sharma would like to dedicate this book to his father,
Sh. Naresh Kumar Sharma and his mother, Smt. Rambati Sharma for
their constant support and motivation, and his family members, including
his wife, Ms. Pratibha Sharma, and son, Dhairya Sharma. He also thank
the publisher and his other co-editors for believing in his abilities.
Dr. Suman Deswal would like to dedicate this book to her father Late
Sh. V D Deswal and Mother Smt. Ratni Deswal, who taught her to
never give up, her husband, Mr. Vinod Gulia, and daughters, Laisha and
Kyna, for always loving and supporting her in every endeavor of life. She
also thanks the publisher and co-editors who believed in her capabilities.
Dr. Umesh Gupta would like to dedicate this book to his mother, Smt.
Prabha Gupta, his father, Sh. Mahesh Chandra Gupta, for their constant
support and motivation, and his family members, including his wife,
Ms. Umang Agarwal, and his son, Avaya Gupta. He also thank the
publisher and his other co-editors for believing in his abilities. Before
beginning and after finishing his endeavor, he must appreciate the
Almighty God, who provides me with the means to succeed.
vii
viii Dedication
Dr. Deevyankar Agarwal would like to dedicate this book to his father,
Sh. Anil Kumar Agarwal, his mother, Smt. Sunita Agarwal, his wife,
Ms. Aparna Agarwal, and his son, Jai Agarwal, for their constant
support and motivation. He would also like to give his special thanks to
the publisher and his other co-editors for having faith in his abilities.
Dr. Yahya Obaid Bakheet Al Shamsi would like to dedicate this book to his
father and mother for their constant support, prayers, and motivation.
He would also like to give his special thanks to the publisher and his
co-editors for their collaboration and mutual support.
Contents
Preface xv
About the editors xvii
List of contributors xx
1 Autonomous vehicles 1
R A S H M I K U MARI , SUBH RAN I L DAS, ABH I SH EK T HA K UR ,
A N K I T K U M A R AN D RAGH WE N DRA KI SH O RE SINGH
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Importance of artificial intelligence (AI) in autonomous
vehicles 3
1.3 AI-driven decision making 6
1.4 AI techniques and deep learning algorithms 9
1.5 Sensor fusion and data integration in autonomous
vehicles 12
1.6 Perception system in autonomous vehicles 15
1.7 Human-AI interaction in autonomous vehicles 16
1.8 Safety and reliability in AI-driven autonomous
vehicles 17
1.9 Conclusion 20
References 20
2 Explainable artificial intelligence: fundamentals,

approaches, challenges, XAI evaluation, and validation 25
M A N O J K U M A R MAH TO
2.1 Fundamentals of XAI 25

2.2 Introduction to explainable artificial intelligence 26
2.3 XAI and its significance 26
2.4 Key concepts in explainability 27
ix
x Contents
2.4.1 Model transparency 28

2.4.2 Interpretability vs. transparency 28
2.4.3 Trustworthiness 28
2.5 Approaches to developing XAI models 29
2.6 Model transparency 30
2.6.1 Transparent models in XAI 30
2.6.2 Limitations and use cases 30
2.7 Rule-based systems 31
2.7.1 Rule-based approaches to XAI 31
2.7.2 Scalability and complexity 32
2.8 Feature importance analysis 32
2.8.1 Shap and lime methods 32
2.8.2 Applications in various domains 33
2.9 Visualization techniques 33
2.9.1 Visualizing model decisions 34
2.9.2 Practical implementations 34
2.10 Challenges of implementing XAI in autonomous vehicles 34
2.11 Trade-Offs between performance and explainability 35
2.11.1 Balancing act: performance vs. interpretability 36
2.11.2 Strategies for achieving balance 36
2.12 Handling uncertainty 37
2.12.1 Uncertainty in autonomous vehicle context 37
2.12.2 Probabilistic models and uncertainty management 38
2.13 Safety and reliability 38
2.13.1 Safety considerations in XAI 38
2.13.2 Integration of safety mechanisms 39
2.14 Human-AI interaction 39
2.14.1 Designing user-friendly XAI interfaces 40
2.14.2 Ensuring positive user experience 40
2.15 XAI evaluation and validation 40
2.16 Metrics for evaluating explainability 41
2.16.1 Measuring fidelity, comprehensibility, and
trustworthiness 42
2.16.2 Tailoring metrics to specific use cases 42
2.17 User studies 43
2.17.1 Conducting user-centric XAI evaluations 43
2.17.2 Methodologies and best practices 43
2.18 Simulation and testing 44
2.18.1 Simulated environments for XAI validation 44
2.18.2 Real-world testing scenarios 45
2.19 Regulatory compliance 45
Contents xi
2.19.1 Regulatory frameworks for XAI integration 46

2.19.2 Industry standards and guidelines 46
2.20 Conclusion 46
References 47
3 Explainable artificial intelligence in autonomous

vehicles: prospects and future direction 50
M A NA R E L D E E N AH ME D, ZE I NAB E . AH ME D, A ND R A SHID A . SA EED
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Current state of XAI in autonomous vehicles 52
3.2.1 Autonomous vehicles 52
3.2.2 Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) 53
3.2.3 Case studies of XAI techniques in autonomous
vehicles 54
3.3 Challenges and limitations of XAI in autonomous vehicles 61
3.4 Future trends in XAI for autonomous vehicles 64
3.5 Conclusion 65
References 66
4 XAI applications in autonomous vehicles 73

L I NA E . A L ATABAN I AN D RASH I D A. SAE E D
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Background and review of related work 74
4.2.1 XAI method for convolutional neural networks in
self-driving cars 74
4.2.2 The internet of vehicles structure and need for
XAI-IDS 76
4.2.3 XAI frameworks 76
4.2.4 Practical implementation of XAI-based models 76
4.3 Internet of vehicles (IoV) network architecture 77
4.3.1 Autonomous vehicle components and design 79
4.3.2 Applications and services 84
4.3.3 Current issues 85
4.4 XAI methods and algorithms 86
4.4.1 XAI methods can be sub-divided into four categories 86
4.4.2 XAI algorithms in autonomous vehicles 88
4.5 XAI models to improve overall system performance 92
4.6 Discussion 94
4.7 Conclusion 95
References 95
xii Contents
5 Emerging applications and future scope of internet

of vehicles for smart cities: a survey 100
J YOT I S H A R MA, MAN I SH BH ARDWAJ, AN D NEELA M C HA NTOLA
5.1 Introduction 100

5.2 Layered architecture of IoV 106
5.3 Literature survey 107
5.3.1 Applications of IoV in smart cities 108
5.4 Issues and challenges of IoV 110
5.5 Future scope of IoV 111
5.6 Conclusion 112
References 112
6 Future issues and challenges of internet of

vehicles: a survey 116
M A N I S H B H ARDWAJ, SUMI T KUMAR SH ARMA, NIT IN K UMA R ,
A N D S H W E TA ROY

6.2 Literature survey 119
6.3 IoV ecosystem 121
6.4 Internet of vehicles applications 124
6.5 Summarized challenges and future research directions 126
6.6 Conclusion 130
References 130
7 Feature designing and security considerations in electrical

vehicles utilizing explainable AI 134
M A N D E E P K AUR AN D VI NAYAK GO E L
7.1 Feature designing for smart electrical vehicles 134

7.2 Explainable recommendations and decision support 137
7.2.1 Building trust through explainable
recommendations 140
7.3 Addressing user concerns and misconceptions 140
7.3.1 User education and training 140
7.3.2 Continuous improvement and feedback 141
7.3.3 User feedback and iterative design 141
7.3.4 Importance of user feedback 141
7.3.5 Gathering user feedback 142
7.3.6 Surveys and questionnaires 142
7.3.7 User interviews and focus groups 142
7.3.8 User testing and observations 142
Contents xiii
7.4 Online communities and social media 143

7.4.1 Incorporating explainable AI in user
feedback 144
7.4.2 Safety considerations in smart cars 144
7.4.3 Importance of safety in smart cars 144
7.4.4 Safety challenges in smart cars 144
7.4.5 Explainable AI for safety in smart cars 145
7.4.6 Decision explanation 145
7.4.7 Error detection and diagnosis 145
7.4.8 Safety validation and certification 145
7.4.9 Privacy and data protection 145
7.4.10 Collaborative safety 146
7.4.11 Human-machine interaction for safety 146
7.4.12 Security challenges in smart cars 146
7.4.13 Cybersecurity risks 147
7.4.14 Data privacy and protection 147
7.4.15 Malicious attacks on AI systems 147
7.4.16 Supply chain security 148
7.4.17 Over-the-air updates 148
7.4.18 XAI for security enhancement 148
7.4.19 Explainable AI for safety and security 149
7.4.20 Enhancing safety with explainable AI 149
7.4.21 Real-time risk assessment 149
7.4.22 Error detection and diagnosis 149
7.4.23 Safety-critical decision support 149
7.4.24 Strengthening security with explainable AI 150
7.4.25 Intrusion detection and prevention 150
7.4.26 Vulnerability assessment 150
7.4.27 Adversarial attack detection 150
7.4.28 Regulatory compliance and accountability 150
7.4.29 Compliance with safety standards 151
7.4.30 Ethical decision-making 151
7.4.31 Accountability and liability 151
7.4.32 Importance of privacy and data protection
in smart cars 152
7.4.33 Privacy challenges in smart cars 152
7.4.34 Role of explainable AI in privacy
and data protection 153
7.4.35 Challenges in implementing XAI for privacy
and data protection 154
References 155
xiv Contents
8 Feature detection and feature visualization in smart cars

utilizing explainable AI 158
M A N D E E P K AUR AN D VI NAYAK GO E L

8.1.1 Feature visualization 158
8.1.2 Benefits of feature importance and feature
visualization 159
8.1.3 Challenges and limitations 160
8.1.4 Local explanations and counterfactuals 161
8.1.5 Local explanations 161
8.1.6 Counterfactuals 161
8.1.7 Benefits and applications 162
8.1.8 Model-agnostic explanations 163
8.1.9 Understanding model-agnostic explanations 163
8.1.10 Techniques for model-agnostic explanations 163
8.1.11 Global explanations 164
8.1.12 Local explanations 164
8.1.13 Application of model-agnostic explanations
in smart cars 164
8.1.14 Safety and decision-making 165
8.1.15 Regulatory compliance and accountability 165
8.1.16 User experience and trust 165
8.1.17 Rule extraction and rule sets 166
8.1.18 Rule extraction techniques 166
8.1.19 Rule sets for decision-making 166
8.1.20 Benefits and limitations of rule extraction
and rule sets 167
References 168
Index 171
Preface
We are delighted to launch our book entitled Explainable AI for Autono-

mous Vehicles: Concepts, Challenges, and Applications under the book series
Explainable AI (XAI) for Engineering Applications, CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group. It is a comprehensive guide to developing and applying
explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) in the context of autonomous vehi-
cles. The book is intended for researchers, engineers, and practitioners inter-
ested in enhancing the safety, reliability, and performance of autonomous
vehicles while also improving user trust and acceptance of these systems. It
begins with an introduction to XAI and its importance in developing autono-
mous vehicles. It also provides an overview of the challenges and limitations
of traditional black-box AI models and how XAI can help address these
challenges by providing transparency and interpretability in the decision-
making process of autonomous vehicles. It is a valuable source of knowledge
for researchers, engineers, practitioners, and graduate and doctoral students
working in the same field. It will also be helpful for faculty members of
graduate schools and universities. Around 25 full-length chapters have been
received. Amongst these manuscripts, eight chapters have been included in
this volume. All the chapters submitted were peer-reviewed by at least two
independent reviewers and provided with a detailed review proforma. The
comments from the reviewers were communicated to the authors, who incor-
porated the suggestions in their revised manuscripts. The recommendations
from two reviewers were considered while selecting chapters for inclusion
in the volume. The exhaustiveness of the review process is evident, given the
large number of articles received addressing a wide range of research areas.
The stringent review process ensured that each published chapter met rigor-
ous academic and scientific standards.
We would also like to thank the authors of the published chapters for
adhering to the schedule and incorporating the review comments. We extend
my heartfelt acknowledgment to the authors, peer reviewers, committee
members, and production staff whose diligent work shaped this volume. We
xv
xvi Preface
especially want to thank our dedicated peer reviewers who volunteered for
the arduous and tedious step of quality checking and critiquing the submit-
ted chapters.
Kamal Malik, Moolchand Sharma, Suman Deswal,
Umesh Gupta, Deevyankar Agarwal,
Yahya Obaid Bakheet Al Shamsi
About the editors
Kamal Malik is currently working as a Professor in CSE in the School of

Engineering and Technology at CTU Ludhiana, Punjab, India. She has
published scientific research publications in reputed international journals,
including SCI and Scopus-indexed journals such as Ad Hoc & Senior Wireless
Networks, 50, Engineering, Technology and Applied Sciences Research,
Journals of Advanced Research in Engineering, Research Journal of Applied
Sciences of Engineering & Technology (RJASET-Maxwell Sciences), SSRN-
Electronic Journal, Design Engineering, Indian Journal of Science and
Technology (IJST), International Journal of Computer Applications (IJCA),
and many more. She has also attended many national and international
conferences of repute, like Springer and Elsevier in India. Her major research
areas are Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Deep Learning, Data
Analytics, Computational Neurosciences, and bio-inspired computing.
She has more than 13 years of rich academic and research experience. She
has guided three research scholars and is currently guiding eight research
scholars at CT University, Ludhiana. She has worked in renowned institutes
and universities, like RIMT Mandigobindgarh, Maharishi Markandeshwar
University, Mullana, and GNA University, Phagwara. She has also chaired
various sessions in Springer and Elsevier. She has been awarded the preeminent
researcher award from the Green Thinkerz Society at CII, Chandigarh. She
completed her Doctor of Philosophy in Computer Science from IKGPTU
Kapurthala in 2017 and her master’s and bachelor’s from Kurukshetra
University, Kurukshetra, in 2009 and 2006, respectively.
Moolchand Sharma is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department

of Computer Science and Engineering at the Maharaja Agrasen Institute of
Technology, GGSIPU Delhi. He has published scientific research publications
in reputed international journals and conferences, including SCI-indexed and
Scopus-indexed journals such as Expert Systems (Wiley), Cognitive Systems
Research (Elsevier), Physical Communication (Elsevier), Journal of Electronic
Imaging (SPIE), Intelligent Decision Technologies: An International Journal,
xvii
xviii About the editors
Cyber-Physical Systems (Taylor & Francis Group), International Journal of

Image & Graphics (World Scientific), International Journal of Innovative
Computing and Applications (Inderscience), and Innovative Computing
and Communication Journal (scientific peer-reviewed journal). He has
authored/co-authored chapters with international publishers like Elsevier,
Wiley, and De Gruyter. He has authored/edited four books with a national/
international level publisher (CRC Press, Bhavya Publications). His research
areas include Artificial Intelligence, Nature-Inspired Computing, Security
in Cloud Computing, Machine Learning, and Search Engine Optimization.
He is associated with various professional bodies like IEEE, ISTE, IAENG,
ICSES, UACEE, Internet Society, and has a life membership with the
Universal-Inovators research lab, etc. He possesses teaching experience of
more than nine years. He is the co-convener of the ICICC, DOSCI, ICDAM,
and ICCCN Springer Scopus-indexed conference series and ICCRDA-2020
Scopus-indexed IOP Material Science & Engineering conference series. He
is also the organizer and co-convener of the International Conference on
Innovations and Ideas towards Patents (ICIIP) series. He is also an advisory
and TPC committee member of the ICCIDS-2022 Elsevier SSRN Conference.
He is a reviewer of many reputed journals for Springer, Elsevier, IEEE,
Wiley, Taylor & Francis Group, IJEECS, World Scientific Journal, and many
Springer conferences. He also served as a session chair in many international
springer conferences. He is a doctoral researcher at DCR University of
Science & Technology, Haryana. He completed his postgraduate in 2012
at SRM University, NCR Campus, Ghaziabad, and graduated in 2010 from
KNGD MODI ENGG College, GBTU.
Suman Deswal holds a Ph.D. from DCR University of Science &

Technology, Murthal, India. She completed her M. Tech (CSE) from
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India, and B. Tech (Computer
Science & Engg.) from CR State College of Engg., Murthal, India, in 2009
and 1998, respectively. She has 18 years of teaching experience and works
as a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at
DCR University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India. Her research
areas include wireless networks, heterogeneous networks, distributed
systems, Machine Learning, and Bioinformatics. She has many research
papers to her credit in reputed journals, including SCI-indexed and
Scopus-indexed journals and conferences. She is also a reviewer of many
reputed journals like Springer, Elsevier, IEEE, Wiley, and International
IEEE, and Springer conferences.
Umesh Gupta is currently an Associate Professor at the School of Computer

Science Engineering and Technology at Bennett University, Times of
India Group, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. He received a Doctor
of Philosophy (Ph.D.) (Machine Learning) from the National Institute of
Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India. He was awarded a gold medal for
About the editors xix
his Master of Engineering (M.E.) from the National Institute of Technical

Teachers Training and Research (NITTTR), Chandigarh, India, and Bachelor
of Technology (B.Tech.) from Dr. APJ, Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Lucknow, India. His research interests include SVM, ELM, RVFL, machine
learning, and deep learning approaches. He has published over 35 referred
journal and conference papers of international repute. His scientific research
has been published in reputable international journals and conferences,
including SCI-indexed and Scopus-indexed journals like Applied Soft
Computing (Elsevier) and Applied Intelligence (Springer), each of which is a
peer-reviewed journal. His publications have more than 158 citations with
an h-index of 8 and an i10-index of 8 on Google Scholar as of March 1,
2023. He is a senior Member of IEEE (SMIEEE) and an active member of
ACM, CSTA, and other scientific societies. He also reviewed papers for many
scientific journals and conferences in the US and abroad. He led sessions at
the Sixth International Conference (ICICC-2023), the Third International
Conference on Data Analytics and Management (ICDAM 2023), the Third
International Conference on Computing and Communication Networks
(ICCCN 2022), and other international conferences, like Springer ETTIS
2022 and 2023. He is currently supervising two Ph.D. students. He is the
co-principal investigator (co-PI) of two major research projects. He published
three patents in the years 2021–2023. He also published four book chapters
with Springer, CRC.
Deevyankar Agarwal is a lecturer at the University of Technology and Applied

Sciences in Muscat, Oman. He works in the Engineering Department, EEE
Section (Computer Engineering). He has 22 years of teaching and research
experience. He is currently a doctoral researcher at the University of
Valladolid, Spain. He has written several research papers that have been
published in Springer, Elsevier, and Taylor & Francis international journals.
Also, he has published various papers in IEEE international conferences and
national conferences. He is a reviewer for Springer’s Journal and for many
IEEE conferences. He has also served as a session chair in many international
Springer conferences. His research areas include the optimization of
algorithms in Artificial Intelligence, Deep Learning, and Machine Learning
for the healthcare sector.
Yahya Obaid Bakheet Al Shamsi is working as the Dean of Engineering at

the University of Technology and Applied Sciences in Muscat, Oman. He
has 25 years of teaching and research experience. He got his PhD from the
University of Bath, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, UK.
He has published various research papers in the international journals of
Springer and Elsevier. He is a reviewer for Springer’s Journal and for many
IEEE conferences. He has also served as a session chair in many international
Springer conferences.
Contributors
Manareldeen Ahmed Subhranil Das

Department of Electrical and School of Business, Faculty of
Electronic Engineering Business and Leadership
Omdurman Islamic University MIT World Peace University
Sudan Pune, India
Zeinab E. Ahmed Vinayak Goel

Department of Electrical and Liverpool John Moores University
Computer Engineering Liverpool, UK
International Islamic University
Malaysia Mandeep Kaur
CT University
Lina E. Alatabani Ludhiana, India
Department of Data
Communications & Network Ankit Kumar
Engineering Department of Electrical and
Faculty of Telecommunications Electronics Engineering
Future University BIT Mesra
Khartoum, Sudan Ranchi, India
Manish Bhardwaj Nitin Kumar

Department of Computer Science Department of Information
and Information Technology Technology
KIET Group of Institutions KIET Group of Institutions
Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad, India Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad, India
Neelam Chantola Rashmi Kumari

Department of Applied Sciences Bennett University
KIET Group of Institutions Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad, India India
xx
Contributors xxi
Manoj Kumar Mahto Jyoti Sharma

Vignan Institute of Technology and Department of Information
Science Technology
Deshmukhi, Hyderabad, Telangana, KIET Group of Institutions
India Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad, India
Shweta Roy Sumit Kumar Sharma

Department of Computer Department of Information
Science and Information Technology
Technology KIET Group of Institutions
KIET Group of Institutions Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad, India
Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad,
India Raghwendra Kishore Singh
National Institute of Technology
Rashid A. Saeed Jameshedpur, India
Department of Computer
Engineering Abhishek Thakur
College of Computers and Department of Electrical and
Information Technology, Taif Electronics Engineering
University BIT Mesra
Saudi Arabia Ranchi, India
Chapter 1
Autonomous vehicles
Rashmi Kumari, Subhranil Das, Abhishek
Thakur, Ankit Kumar and Raghwendra
Kishore Singh
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Autonomous vehicles, also known as self-driving cars, are automobiles equipped

with advanced technologies and Artificial Intelligence (AI) that allow them to
navigate and operate without the need for human intervention [1, 2]. These
vehicles have the capability to perceive their environment, make decisions, and
control their movements based on sensory inputs and pre-programmed algo-
rithms, enabling them to drive and interact with other road users autonomously.
Autonomous vehicles use a combination of sensors, such as cameras, Light
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), Radio Detection and Ranging (RADAR), and
Ultrasonic Sensors (US), to gather real-time data about their surroundings. The
data is processed by onboard computers using AI-based algorithms to interpret
the environment, identify obstacles, and make driving decisions.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has defined a classification sys-
tem to categorize autonomous vehicles based on their level of autonomy. The
levels range from Level 0 (no automation) to Level 5 (full automation), with
Level 5 indicating a vehicle capable of complete, fully autonomous operation
without any human input or intervention, as shown in Figure 1.1 [3].
Figure 1.1 shows the different levels of Automation in the industry of
Autonomous Vehicles. The levels of autonomy, as defined by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) in standard J3016, are a classification system
used to describe the extent of automation in vehicles, particularly with respect
to their capability to operate without human intervention. The SAE J3016
standard provides a common framework for categorizing autonomous driv-
ing capabilities, ensuring clear communication among industry stakeholders
and the public about the level of automation a vehicle possesses. There are
six levels of autonomy in the SAE J3016 classification, ranging from Level 0
to Level 5, each representing increasing levels of automation [4].
Level 0: (No Automation/Human-Only Control) At Level 0, the control-

ling of the vehicle is executed by a human driver, with no automation
features. The driver is responsible for all aspects of driving, including
DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-1 1
2 Explainable artificial intelligence for autonomous vehicles
Everything ON Everything ON Feet ON

Driver must
observe the
condition of
Driver controls drive
all the driving The vehicle The vehicle operates
functions operates steering steering and
Driving as usual under special Acceleration/
conditions Deceleration under
specific cases
LEVEL 0 LEVEL 1 (2000) LEVEL 2 (2013)
ZERO AUTOMATION DRIVER ASSISTED PARTIAL
AUTOMATION AUTOMATION
Hands OFF Eyes OFF Mind OFF

Highway Driving Highway Driving Autonomous
(50 mph) (100 mph) Shuttle Vehicle
Initiates the Lane Automated Lane No drive needed
Change Change
System can No drive needed Vehicle can operate

recognize alerts and all driving
send alarm signal conditions
until the driver
takes over
LEVEL 3 (2018) LEVEL 4 (2024) LEVEL 5 (2030)
CONDITIONAL HIGH FULL
AUTOMATION AUTOMATION AUTOMATION
Figure 1.1 Six levels of autonomous driving according to SAEJ3016.
acceleration, braking, and steering. This level may include basic warning
systems, such as lane departure warnings or forward collision warnings,
but these are only intended to alert the driver and do not actively inter-
vene in driving tasks.
Level 1: (Driver Assistance/Partial Automation) At Level 1, vehicles have cer-
tain driving assistance features that can control either the steering or the
acceleration/deceleration, but not both simultaneously. An example of
Level 1 automation is adaptive cruise control, which can automatically
adjust the vehicle’s speed to maintain a safe following distance from the
vehicle ahead.
Level 2: (Partial Automation) At Level 2, the vehicle can simultaneously con-
trol steering and acceleration/deceleration under certain conditions. The
system can handle tasks like lane-keeping and adaptive cruise control,
allowing the driver to take their hands off the steering wheel and feet off
the pedals, but the driver must remain engaged.
Level 3: (Conditional Automation) At Level 3, the vehicle can handle all
aspects of driving without constant human supervision, but the driver
must be ready to take over when the system requests, such as in com-
plex or unexpected situations. The transition from Level 3 to Level 4
automation is a critical boundary, as Level 4 no longer requires human
intervention in most circumstances.
Autonomous vehicles 3
Level 4: (High Automation) At Level 4, vehicles are highly automated and can
operate without human intervention in predefined operational design
domains (ODDs). Within the defined ODD, Level 4 vehicles can handle
all driving tasks, including navigating complex city traffic or adverse
weather conditions, without the need for human control or supervision.
Level 5: (Full Automation) Level 5 represents the highest level of automa-
tion, where the vehicle is fully autonomous and capable of perform-
ing all driving tasks under any conditions and without human input or
intervention. There is no requirement for a human driver in a Level 5
vehicle. Level 5 autonomy enables driverless mobility and is a significant
step toward fully realizing the potential of autonomous vehicles in revo-
lutionizing transportation.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

IN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
AI (Artificial Intelligence) is crucial for self-driving cars due to its ability to

process vast amounts of data, learn from it, make informed decisions, and
adapt to dynamic environments [5–9]. Several key reasons illustrate why AI is
essential for the successful development and deployment of self-driving cars:
1. Real-time Perception and Decision-Making: Self-driving cars need to

perceive their surroundings continuously, analyze complex sensory data
from various sensors, and make instant decisions. AI algorithms, such
as computer vision and machine learning, enable the vehicle to under-
stand the environment, recognize objects (like pedestrians, vehicles, and
traffic signs), and respond appropriately to changes in real time.
2. Handling Uncertainties: Driving on roads is unpredictable, with con-
stantly changing traffic patterns, weather conditions, and unexpected
events. AI’s ability to handle uncertainties and ambiguous situations is
vital for autonomous vehicles to operate safely and efficiently. Machine
learning and probabilistic algorithms enable self-driving cars to make
probabilistic assessments and adapt to varying scenarios.
3. Learning from Data: Autonomous vehicles gather enormous amounts
of data during their operations. AI enables these vehicles to learn from
the data they collect, improving their driving performance over time.
This iterative learning process allows self-driving cars to become more
skilled and responsive with each driving experience.
4. Decision-Making in Complex Scenarios: Driving involves complex
decision-making, often involving ethical considerations and trade-
offs. For example, an autonomous vehicle may need to decide between
avoiding a collision with an obstacle by swerving into another lane or
maintaining its course, possibly leading to a collision. AI algorithms
can be designed to weigh different factors and make decisions that
prioritize safety and follow legal and ethical guidelines.
5. Sensor Fusion and Integration: Autonomous vehicles utilize multiple

sensors to gather data from their surroundings. AI plays a critical role
in fusing and integrating this data. Sensor fusion allows the vehicle to
cross-verify information from different sources, enhancing reliability
and reducing the likelihood of false positives or negatives.
6. Predictive Analysis and Planning: AI-based predictive analytics can
anticipate potential hazards and events, helping the self-driving car to
plan its actions accordingly. Predictive planning considers the behavior
of other road users, potential road obstacles, and traffic conditions to
optimize the vehicle’s driving path and enhance safety.
7. Efficient Energy Management: AI can optimize energy consumption in
AVs, leading to improved fuel efficiency and range. AI algorithms can
analyze driving patterns, road conditions, and traffic flow to suggest
optimal speeds and routes that reduce energy consumption.
8. Continuous Improvement and Remote Updates: AI enables self-driving
cars to receive over-the-air updates, which can enhance their perfor-
mance, fix bugs, and adapt to new regulations. This ability to continu-
ously improve the driving capabilities of autonomous vehicles is crucial
for keeping them up-to-date and safe.
The advantages of applying AI in the context of autonomous vehicles are as

follows:
1. Safety Improvement: One of the primary advantages of AI in self-driving

cars is its potential to enhance road safety. AI algorithms can process
data from various sensors in real-time, detecting and responding to
potential hazards faster than human drivers. As a result, the accidents
are reduced to a great extent, which are mainly caused by humans.
2. Efficient Decision-Making: AI-driven decision-making in autonomous
vehicles is based on complex algorithms and vast amounts of data
analysis. This enables self-driving cars to make well-informed decisions
in challenging situations, such as navigating through heavy traffic or
handling unexpected road conditions.
3. Traffic Flow Optimization: AI can optimize traffic flow by coordinat-
ing self-driving cars to avoid congestion and reduce traffic jams. This
ability to communicate and cooperate between autonomous vehicles
can lead to more efficient use of road space and smoother traffic flow,
ultimately reducing travel time and fuel consumption.
4. Accessibility and Mobility: Autonomous vehicles have the potential to
improve accessibility and mobility for individuals who cannot drive,
such as the elderly or people with disabilities. AI-driven self-driving
cars can provide independent transportation options to those who may
have been limited by traditional means of transportation.
5. Reduced Emissions: AI can optimize driving patterns and energy con-

sumption, leading to more fuel-efficient driving and reduced emissions.
In the case of electric vehicles, AI can optimize battery usage, extending
the range and promoting greener transportation.
6. Improved Productivity: Self-driving cars can free up valuable time for
passengers during their commutes, as they no longer need to focus on
driving. This opens up opportunities for increased productivity, such as
working, reading, or relaxing while being transported.
There are certain limitations to the application of AI in different applica-

tions used in the autonomous vehicles industry, which are listed as follows:
1. Technological Limitations: Despite significant advancements in AI,

achieving full autonomy remains a challenging problem. Self-driving
cars must operate in diverse and dynamic environments with countless
variables, making it difficult to predict and account for all scenarios.
2. Ethical and Moral Dilemmas: Autonomous vehicles may face ethical
dilemmas in certain situations, such as choosing between minimizing
harm to the vehicle’s occupants and avoiding harm to pedestrians or
other road users. Resolving these ethical challenges is a difficult task
and requires societal consensus.
3. Legal and Regulatory Challenges: The deployment of autonomous vehicles
raises numerous legal and regulatory issues. Determining liability in the
event of accidents, establishing safety standards, and adapting existing traf-
fic laws for autonomous vehicles are some of the complex legal challenges.
4. Data Privacy and Security: Self-driving cars generate and collect massive
amounts of data about their surroundings and passengers. Ensuring data
privacy and safeguarding against cyber threats and hacking attempts are
crucial for maintaining public trust in autonomous vehicle technology.
5. Adverse Weather Conditions: Inclement weather conditions, such as
heavy rain, snow, or fog, can negatively impact the performance of
sensors used in autonomous vehicles, affecting their ability to perceive
the environment accurately.
6. Cost and Infrastructure: The development and integration of AI sys-
tems in autonomous vehicles can be costly. Additionally, creating a reli-
able and interconnected infrastructure to support autonomous driving
is a significant challenge that requires substantial investment.
7. Acceptance and Trust: Convincing the public about the safety and
reliability of autonomous vehicles is essential for their widespread
adoption. Building trust and acceptance among potential users and
stakeholders is critical to the success of self-driving technology.
Despite these limitations, ongoing research, advancements in AI, and collabora-

tion among industry stakeholders, regulators, and researchers are continuously
addressing these challenges to realize the full potential of autonomous vehicles

and make them a safe and viable transportation option for the future.
1.3 AI-DRIVEN DECISION MAKING
Making accurate decisions necessitates a comprehensive understanding of

the nearby surroundings. Conventional methods like heuristics and numeri-
cal optimization have proven insufficient in simulating all potential situ-
ations. However, DL techniques have emerged as powerful solutions that
are capable of real-time decision-making in complex scenarios. Li et al. [10]
successfully employed Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to repli-
cate human drivers’ decision-making processes by extracting information
from road scene images. Gallardo et al. [11] also demonstrated the effective-
ness of CNNs, specifically utilizing the AlexNet architecture proposed by
Krizhevsky et al. [12] for decision-making in autonomous vehicles based
on environmental cues. Addressing the challenging task of lane-changing
maneuvers, Xie et al. [13] proposed an approach employing Long Short-
Term Memory (LSTM) to model interactions between autonomous vehicles
and other vehicles on the road, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Given the complexity of lane-changing and emergency situations, accu-
rate systems that consider surrounding vehicles’ movements are crucial. Liu
et al. [14] devised a Deep Neural Network (DNN) based method, leveraging
drivers’ historical experiences and Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) information, to
execute precise lane-changing maneuvers. Additionally, Strickland et al. [15]
introduced a Bayesian Convolutional LSTM approach to avoid collisions in
emergency scenarios. This method processes data to steer clear of potential
collisions effectively. Moreover, Wang et al. [16] proposed a system using
Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (R-CNN) to guide autono-
mous vehicles at roundabouts. Their system enables informed decisions, such
as entering or waiting, when approaching roundabouts. The comparative
analysis of different AI-integrated autonomous vehicles is shown in Table 1.1.
Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of decision making in AVs.

Table 1.1 Comparative Analysis of XAI Applications in Autonomous Vehicles
Reference Year Publication Short Survey In-Depth Survey Deep Learning/ Safety System AI Hardware Sensor Fusion
Reinforcement Deployment System
Learning
Mahadev et al. [17] 2018 ACM √ √ √
Q Rao and J. Frotunki [18] 2018 ACM √ √ √
Haboucha, et al. [19] 2017 IEEE √ √ √
AM Nascimento et al. [20] 2019 IEEE √ √ √
Thadeshwar et al. [21] 2020 IEEE √ √
Y Ma et al. [22] 2020 IEEE √ √ √ √
S. Grigarsse [23] 2020 Wiley √ √ √
S. Das and SK Mishra [24] 2020 Springer √ √ √
C Medrano-Berum et al. [25] 2021 Taylor & Francis √ √
X Di and R Shi [26] 2021 Elsevier √ √ √
S. Gupta et al. [27] 2021 Elsevier √ √ √ √
F. Ding et al. [28] 2021 IEEE √ √ √
Autonomous vehicles
M. Tammvee et al. [29] 2021 Springer √ √ √
Vartika et al. [30] 2021 Springer √ √ √
S Das and R Kumari [31] 2021 IOP √ √ √
M. Singh et al. [32] 2022 IEEE √ √
C Kim et al. [33] 2022 Springer √ √ √
7
8
Explainable artificial intelligence for autonomous vehicles
Table 1.2 Summary of Various DL Methods for Scene Understanding in AVs
Reference Year Publication Dataset Proposed Method Learning Hardware Condition of Traffic
Sless et al. [37] 2019 IEEE NuScenes Dataset Occupancy grid mapping Unsupervised Titan X GPU Semi-Urban
Diu et al. [38] 2020 Springer Foggy Zurich Curriculum Model Unsupervised Nvidia EVGA GeForce Adverse Traffic
Database Adaptation (CMA) GTX TITAN X GPU condition
Huang et al. [39] 2021 IEEE CoRL2017 End to End Deep Supervised Titan X GPU Urban
Learning
Divya et al. [40] 2021 IEEE India Driving Dataset Domain Adaptation Unsupervised Not reported Urban
(DA)
Andreas et al. [41] 2021 IEEE KITTI odometry Multi-modal Supervised Nvdia Geforce GTX Semi-urban
M. Singh et al. [32] 2022 IEEE KITTI Fuzzy Logic Controller Supervised Nvidia EVGA GeForce Semi-urban
GTX TITAN X GPU
Sundar et al. [42] 2022 Springer KITTI 3D CNN and Pedestrian Supervised Titan X GPU Urban
Detection Algorithm
Nousias et al. [43] 2023 IEEE KITTI Vector Quantization Unsupervised Not reported Urban
1.4 AI TECHNIQUES AND DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS
Autonomous driving is revolutionizing the automotive industry, and at the heart

of this transformation lie several critical Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques.
These techniques work in tandem to enable self-driving vehicles to navigate the
complexities of real-world environments while ensuring safety and efficiency.
Computer vision plays a fundamental role in autonomous driving by pro-
cessing visual data captured through onboard cameras. This technique allows
vehicles to detect and recognize objects, pedestrians, traffic signs, and lane mark-
ings, providing crucial input for decision-making. Complementing computer
vision, machine learning, and deep learning algorithms analyze vast amounts
of data to learn patterns, identify potential hazards, and make informed driv-
ing decisions in real-time. These AI methods enable vehicles to adapt to diverse
driving scenarios and continuously improve their performance through data-
driven learning. Sensor fusion integrates data from LiDAR and RADAR. This
multidimensional perception enhances the vehicle’s awareness, allowing it to
precisely detect and track objects, map the surroundings, and navigate safely.
Localization and mapping algorithms further contribute to autonomous driv-
ing by providing precise vehicle positioning and building detailed maps of the
environment. With a clear understanding of its location and surroundings,
the autonomous vehicle can plan safe and efficient routes while remaining
aware of obstacles and the road layout. Path planning and decision-making
algorithms form the next layer of AI techniques, empowering self-driving cars
in real-time. These algorithms evaluate the conditions of traffic and potential
obstacles that comply with traffic rules. By selecting the optimal trajectory,
the autonomous vehicle can navigate complex road scenarios with confidence.
Additionally, reinforcement learning serves as a valuable tool in autonomous
driving, enabling vehicles to learn from their experiences. Through trial and
error, the vehicle refines its decision-making process, continually improving its
response to uncertain or challenging situations, as shown in Figure 1.3.
In this section, DL-based approaches have been reviewed to address the
various tasks of AVs, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Over the past two decades, remarkable advancements in Deep Learning
(DL) techniques have propelled the scene-understanding field forward. These
advancements have paved the way for AVs to benefit from accurate and
vital information about the driving environment. AVs now leverage a diverse
range of sensors, including LiDAR, cameras, and RADAR, to obtain pre-
cise and crucial data that enhances their understanding of the surroundings.
Accurate recognition and extraction of main road information are pivotal for
AVs to discern and identify essential road elements. Leveraging the remark-
able capabilities of DL, it becomes feasible to achieve a high level of accuracy.
The power of DL empowers AVs with the necessary tools to navigate and
comprehend the road environment with heightened precision and reliability.
Accurate and real-time detection of surrounding objects, encompassing other
road users, assumes utmost importance and becomes a critical requirement
for AVs. The different DL methods are summarized in Table 1.2.
Figure 1.3 Overview of XAI algorithms applicable to different areas of AVs.
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram for the various categories of XAI in AV.
Following scene understanding, motion planning emerges as a primary

task for AV. Traditional approaches, including Dijkstra Algorithm [34], A*
[35], and State lattice algorithms [36], applied to various optimization tech-
niques to address motion planning challenges, as shown in Table 1.3.
From the table, these algorithms exhibit slow performance in extensive
areas, rendering them unsuitable for real-time applications. As a result,
Table 1.3 Summary of Motion Planning Methods for Different Applications in AVs
Reference Year Publication Dataset Proposed Architecture Learning Hardware Environment
Manjari et al. [32] 2020 IEEE Not Mentioned FLC Controller Supervised Learning NVDIA RTX 3090 Urban
Hang et al. [44] 2020 IEEE CuLane Dataset Model Predictive Supervised Learning Not reported Traffic Conditions
Controller (MPC)
Peng et al. [45] 2021 MDPI CuLane SAA Unsupervised Learning NVDIA RTX 3090 Traffic
Zhang et al. [46] 2022 MDPI Lane Detection GMRES Supervised Learning Not reported Urban
Dataset (CuLane-I)
Li et al. [47] 2022 IEEE CuLane Dynamic Enhanced Unsupervised Learning Nvidia EVGA GeForce Traffic Condition
Framework—APF GTX TITAN X GPU
Shi et al. [48] 2023 Springer CuLane Rank Privacy reward Reinforcement Learning AMD Threadripper PRO Urban
Function 3975WX CPU
Autonomous vehicles
11
researchers have sought alternative solutions, such as employing DL-based

techniques [42–46], to overcome the limitations of traditional approaches
and achieve more efficient and real-time motion planning capabilities for
AVs. Building a universal motion planning system, particularly in real-time,
poses challenges because of the intricate nature of traffic situations. The
unpredictability and complexity of road users’ behavior makes it particularly
difficult to create a comprehensive and reliable model for motion planning.
For secure navigation to the destination, AVs must analyze sensor-collected
data to detect obstacles. However, recent advancements in DL techniques
have demonstrated their real-time decision-making capabilities, particularly
in complex environments, revolutionizing the field of autonomous driving.
1.5 SENSOR FUSION AND DATA INTEGRATION

Sensor fusion and data integration are critical aspects of AVs that enable
them to build a comprehensive understanding. Autonomous vehicles are
equipped with various sensors, such as cameras, LiDAR, RADAR, ultrasonic
sensors, and GPS, each providing unique data about the environment. Sen-
sor fusion and data integration involve combining information from these
different sensors to create a coherent representation.
Sensor fusion involves the process of merging data from multiple sensors
to create a more robust and reliable perception of the environment. Each
sensor has its strengths and limitations. For example, cameras are excellent
at recognizing objects and reading road signs, but they may struggle in low-
light conditions. LiDAR can provide precise 3D point cloud data, but it may
have difficulties in heavy rain or snow. RADAR is proficient in detecting
the velocity of objects but may lack detailed information about their shape.
Ultrasonic sensors are useful for short-range obstacle detection but have
limited coverage. By fusing the data from these sensors, AVs can compensate
for individual sensor shortcomings and obtain a more comprehensive and
accurate view of the environment.
Data integration involves not only combining sensor data but also incor-
porating other relevant information, such as maps, traffic data, and histori-
cal driving patterns. For example, GPS data can help AVs with localization
and positioning, while maps provide information about road layouts and
speed limits. Traffic data can assist with real-time route planning, and his-
torical driving patterns can help predict and anticipate the behavior of other
road users. A summary of the sensor fusion and data integration methods is
provided in what follows.
Sriram et al. [49] present a novel approach for sensor fusion, integrat-
ing LiDAR and Camera sensors to create a robust drivable road detection
system. In this study, we employ edge detection and color-based segmenta-

tion techniques to generate binary lane images from camera sensor input.
Subsequently, we employ the RANSAC algorithm to fit line models to the
binary images, effectively identifying lane markings. However, challenges
arise in urban settings where single-side lane markings or even the absence
of lane markings prevail. In such instances, the existing drivable road detec-
tion system may exhibit limitations, lacking the ability to define the road’s
boundaries accurately for safe vehicle navigation. To address these limita-
tions, our proposed sensor fusion method combines LiDAR sensor data with
camera images, enhancing the system’s ability to determine a trajectory for
secure travel. This hybrid approach proves highly effective across various
urban road scenarios, accommodating diverse conditions such as roads with
dual lane markings, single-side lanes adjacent to curbs, and roads bordered
by curbs on both sides. By leveraging the complementary strengths of LiDAR
and Camera sensors, our algorithm ensures reliable and precise performance,
contributing to enhanced road safety and improved navigation within com-
plex urban environments.
Cao et al. [50] introduced a systematic approach to process multi-LiDAR
data, encompassing a sequence of steps that includes three main processes:
clustering, filtering, and classification. While detecting the obstacle precision
mainly effects on filtering of different noises and object clustering. This study
presents an innovative filtering algorithm that is embedded in the multi-
LiDAR framework. Specifically, the filtering methodology generally relies
on the occupancy rates derived from sparse “feature seeds” in each search
space. Concurrently, DBSCAN algorithm is further refined by an adaptive
algorithm for enhancing the accuracy of detection during clustering. The
amalgamation of AS-DBSCAN with the proposed OR-based filtering fur-
ther contributes to robust and precise obstacle detection. To substantiate
these advancements, two new tests are incorporated, including indoor per-
ception and an on-road test using AV. The efficacy of the proposed approach
is validated by the results of real-time experiment findings, which establish
a relevant solution.
In Rawashdeh et al. [51], the challenge of detecting drivable paths under
adverse weather conditions, even on roads covered with snow, has been
addressed. Accurate detection of drivable paths is of paramount impor-
tance for ensuring the safe autonomous operation of passenger vehicles.
Unfavorable weather conditions pose a significant challenge to the percep-
tion system. To tackle this issue, a novel approach involving CNN-based
multi-modal sensor fusion is employed for path detection. Specifically, a
new network based on encoder-decoder is introduced, facilitating the fusion
of camera, LiDAR, and Radar data. This innovative fusion technique aims
to counteract the asymmetric degradation of individual sensors. The mod-
el’s training and evaluation were conducted using a subset of the DENSE
dataset, meticulously labeled with manual annotations. The performance of

the model was assessed using a range of diverse metrics.
The research discussed by Yifang et al. [22] explores the utilization of
dynamic Gaussian processes, focusing specifically on applications related to
occupancy mapping and predicting navigable paths for autonomous vehicles
within the field of view (FOV) of radar sensors. The innovation of Gaussian
occupancy mapping is its reduced dependency on copious training data, pre-
senting an enticing alternative to data-intensive deep learning approaches.
The proposed methodology intricately fine-tunes parameters (including vari-
ational and kernel-based aspects) of the Gaussian process. This fine-tuning is
achieved through the stochastic selection of functional points (referred to as
pseudo inputs) and the calibration of threshold values. Rigorous experimen-
tation across varied environmental conditions, encompassing diverse road
and traffic scenarios, as well as a range of weather and illumination contexts,
substantiates the efficacy of the proposed approach. Notably, the technique
adeptly identifies a navigable route for autonomous vehicles, even in chal-
lenging weather conditions. Additionally, its attractiveness is amplified by
its utilization of a cost-efficient setup and its capability to cover substantial
distances effectively. In reference by Duraisamy et al. [52] the research uti-
lizes a deep learning architecture to differentiate between drivable areas and
obstacles within images. Through the application of semantic segmentation,
the architecture undertakes the dual task of region classification and clus-
tering. Moreover, the research introduces a ground segmentation method
that capitalizes on LiDAR data to enhance the precision of drivable region
classification. This innovative ground segmentation technique partitions
regions into smaller units and deploys an adaptive likelihood estimation-
based ground fitting approach. To consolidate outcomes and refine drivable
region classification, a novel late fusion approach is proposed, optimizing
the amalgamation of both methodologies. The comprehensive fusion archi-
tecture is seamlessly integrated into the Robot Operating System (ROS)
framework. Notably, on the RELLIS3D dataset, the semantic segmentation
component attains a commendable mean accuracy of 84.3%. Interestingly,
the study reveals that certain regions initially misclassified by the semantic
segmentation model are effectively rectified through LiDAR-based ground
segmentation. Consequently, the proposed fusion methodology yields an
improved depiction of the drivable regions, substantiating the effectiveness
of the integrated approach.
From the studies discussed previously, it can be observed that with the
integration of sensor fusion and real-time data, autonomous vehicles can
effectively perceive the environment, recognize obstacles, detect lane mark-
ings, identify other road users, and interpret complex traffic scenarios. This
rich and integrated data enables AVs to make critical decisions, such as
determining the vehicle’s trajectory, controlling acceleration and braking,
and avoiding collisions or unsafe situations. By combining the strengths of
different sensors and integrating various data sources, sensor fusion, and
data integration play a pivotal role in making autonomous driving safer,
more reliable, and capable of navigating diverse and dynamic real-world
driving conditions.
1.6 PERCEPTION SYSTEM IN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
The perception system in AVs is a crucial component responsible for gath-

ering and processing data from various sensors to build a comprehensive
understanding of the surrounding environment. Its primary goal is to enable
the AV to “perceive” the world as a human driver would, allowing it to make
informed decisions and safely navigate through complex and dynamic road
scenarios. The perception system typically integrates data from cameras,
LiDAR, RADAR, ultrasonic sensors, and GPS. Each sensor provides differ-
ent types of information about the environment, such as visual images, 3D
point clouds, velocity, and distance measurements. Sensor fusion techniques
are employed to combine and reconcile data from these disparate sources,
creating a more robust and accurate representation of the environment, as
shown in Figure 1.5.
Computer vision is a fundamental component of the perception system,
responsible for processing visual data captured by cameras. Computer
vision algorithms can detect and recognize various objects, such as traffic
signs, traffic lights, lane markings, and road boundaries. This information
Su
rro
LIDAR
un
dV
iew
Infrared
Sensor
Rear Collision
View
Tr
a
ffic iew
V
Si
gn
Wheels
al
nc g
Odometery
e
sta in
Di eepe
Ne bje
K an
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ar cts
L
nt Ob
Dista
Su
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Ultrasonic
un
Sensor
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iew
Figure 1.5 Perception system in AV.

is critical for understanding the vehicle’s surroundings and making deci-

sions about navigation, lane-keeping, and avoiding obstacles. LiDAR and
RADAR sensors contribute to the perception system by providing detailed
information about the 3D structure of the environment and detecting the
distance and velocity of objects. LiDAR generates a point cloud representing
the shapes and positions of surrounding objects, while RADAR measures the
time taken for radio waves to bounce off objects, enabling the estimation of
distance and relative speed. Ultrasonic Sensors (US) are commonly used for
short-range obstacle detection, aiding the AV in maneuvering in tight spaces
or during parking. GPS data is integrated to provide the vehicle’s global
position and support localization, helping the AV to know its position on
the map accurately.
The perception system processes the data from all these sensors in real
time and continuously updates the vehicle’s perception of the environment.
Using advanced algorithms, machine learning, and deep learning techniques,
the perception system can identify and track objects, predict their future
movements, and assess potential hazards and risks on the road. The accuracy
and reliability of the perception system are critical for safe autonomous driv-
ing. Any errors or misinterpretations in the perception of the environment
can lead to incorrect decisions, potentially resulting in accidents. Therefore,
extensive testing, validation, and redundancy measures are implemented to
ensure the perception system’s robustness.
1.7 HUMAN-AI INTERACTION IN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
Human factors in autonomous driving systems refer to the considerations

and challenges related to how humans interact with and respond to auton-
omous vehicles (AVs). Despite the increasing autonomy of AVs, human
involvement remains essential in various aspects of their deployment, opera-
tion, and public acceptance. Some key human factors in autonomous driving
systems include:
1. Trust and Acceptance: Trust is a crucial factor influencing the accep-

tance and adoption of autonomous driving technology. People need to
feel confident in the safety and reliability of AVs to embrace them fully.
Building trust among potential users requires transparent communica-
tion about the capabilities and limitations of the technology, as well as
effective demonstrations of its safety in real-world conditions.
2. Human-Machine Interface (HMI): AVs must provide clear and intuitive
interfaces to facilitate communication between the vehicle and its occu-
pants. A well-designed HMI is essential to keep passengers informed
about the vehicle’s status, upcoming maneuvers, and any potential
handover of control between the human driver and the autonomous
system.
3. Handover of Control: The transition of control between human driv-

ers and autonomous systems (known as handover) poses unique
challenges. Ensuring a smooth and safe handover is critical to avoid
confusion, disengagement errors, and potential accidents. AVs must
provide sufficient warning and information to human drivers when
they need to take back control.
4. Situational Awareness: Although AVs can handle most driving tasks,
humans may still need to be vigilant in adverse weather, complex urban
environments, or construction zones. Maintaining situational aware-
ness and being prepared to take control when needed is crucial.
5. Human Behavior Prediction: AVs must be able to predict and respond
appropriately to human behavior, such as pedestrian crossings, unpre-
dictable actions of other drivers, or gestures indicating the intention to
cross the road.
6. Ethical Decision-Making: Autonomous driving systems may encounter
complex ethical dilemmas, such as deciding between minimizing harm
to the vehicle’s occupants and avoiding harm to pedestrians or other
road users. Addressing these ethical challenges requires careful consid-
eration and societal consensus.
7. User Training and Education: Training and education programs are
essential to ensure that human drivers and passengers understand how
to interact with AVs safely. Education can also help users grasp the
capabilities and limitations of the technology, enhancing their confi-
dence and decision-making while using autonomous driving systems.
8. Legal and Regulatory Considerations: The legal and regulatory frame-
works surrounding autonomous driving need to account for human
factors, such as liability in the event of accidents involving AVs, licens-
ing requirements for human drivers in autonomous vehicles, and stan-
dards for the safety and performance of autonomous systems.
Addressing these human factors is vital to fostering public acceptance, ensur-

ing safe interaction, and facilitating the smooth integration of autonomous
driving systems into our transportation ecosystem. As technology continues
to advance, understanding and addressing the human factors involved in
autonomous driving will remain a crucial area of research and development.
1.8 SAFETY AND RELIABILITY IN AI-DRIVEN

AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
Over the past ten years, vehicles plying the roads have led to a surge in traffic
accidents, posing significant challenges for public safety and society. Human
error, characterized by inappropriate judgments, distractions, and fatigue,
often contributes to these accidents, resulting in fatalities and mishaps. In
light of this pressing issue, AVs offer potential solutions for enhancing the
Figure 1.6 Safety and reliability issues in AVs.
safety of vehicles by employing advanced technologies such as ECU, path

planning, GPS, 3D mapping, and LiDAR. However, ensuring safety and
security remains a complex undertaking in the domain of AVs, necessitating
further research contributions to overcome these challenges successfully, as
shown in Figure 1.6.
The security aspect of AVs focuses on protecting the vehicle from inten-
tional attacks, while safety is concerned with safeguarding the vehicle
against accidental failures. AVs equipped with multiple sensors can antici-
pate potential attack conditions and respond proactively. Through integra-
tion with advanced technologies like AI/ML, Internet of Things (IoT), and
Big Data analysis, AVs can detect and avoid both deliberate attacks and
accidents by adjusting their trajectory accordingly. To ensure operational
security in AV, ISO 26262 has been established. This standard aligns with
the IEC 61508 series of measures and addresses specific requirements for
electrical systems. Additionally, SAE J3061 defines the operational security
for conventional vehicles. SAE J3061 delineates a structural framework for
the security lifecycle of cyber-physical vehicle systems, facilitating an inter-
face between the phases of cybersecurity and safety, thereby harmonizing
the integration of vehicle security and safety. Nonetheless, this standard does
not provide explicit guidance on the effective amalgamation of security and
safety analyses. In scholarly discourse, scholars have undertaken the task
of addressing the complexities associated with aligning cyber-physical sys-
tems, aiming to bridge the gap between security and safety considerations.
Each tier of driving automation presents distinct prerequisites for safety and
operation, with varying levels encountering an escalating array of potential
challenges, hazards, and risks. To ensure functional safety and the evalua-
tion of failures, the Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA) process
is strategically employed following the standardized guidelines stipulated in

ISO 26262. Building on this foundation, the authors have proposed a HARA
technique tailored to Level 4 autonomous vehicles. This approach utilizes
Automotive Safety Integrity Levels (ASILs) in a recursive manner to estab-
lish precise safety objectives for vehicles. The incorporation of ASILs plays a
pivotal role in evaluating hazards or threats specific to AVs, serving as a criti-
cal reference point. Furthermore, in a related study to classify and identify
potential threats to the system, a threat model called STRIDE was employed.
In recent years, researchers have increasingly turned to deep learning tech-
niques to improve the safety of autonomous driving systems. One prominent
area of exploration is the application of DL to safety, particularly with regard
to two essential aspects: understanding the potential consequences of errors
and comprehending the broader implications of the system’s behavior [42].
By harnessing the capabilities of deep learning algorithms, autonomous vehi-
cles can learn from vast amounts of data and develop a more comprehensive
understanding of various scenarios, enabling them to make more informed
decisions and mitigate potential risks effectively. A notable study [33] dem-
onstrates the utilization of CN for pedestrian detection, a critical task for
ensuring road safety. The system’s objective is not only to identify pedestri-
ans accurately but also to maintain a safe distance from the detected objects.
Upon detecting a pedestrian, the autonomous vehicle adjusts its speed and
engages the braking system as necessary to prevent potential accidents. This
showcases how deep learning technologies can contribute to enhancing the
AV’s perception and response capabilities, thereby promoting safer interac-
tions with the environment.
Safety considerations in autonomous driving encompass various aspects,
including the management of epistemic uncertainty, risk assessment, and
mitigating harm resulting from unintended consequences [40]. Kothanda-
raman et al.’s study highlights the significance of addressing uncertainties
and potential risks that arise during the operation of autonomous vehicles.
Moreover, the authors conducted an analysis to optimize the training cost
function, exploring ways to minimize potential risks while training deep
learning models and ensuring a robust and safe learning process. How-
ever, as the field of autonomous driving progresses, challenges related to
the adoption of machine-learning approaches remain. In Yifang et al. [22],
the authors emphasize the importance of addressing the potential for harm-
ful and unintended behavior in artificial intelligence systems, particularly
in the context of autonomous vehicles. The study identifies and categorizes
accidental risks into five research problems, shedding light on areas that
require focused attention to ensure safety and reliability in autonomous driv-
ing. Furthermore, the amount of data generated by autonomous vehicles
is a significant consideration [21]. These vehicles generate vast quantities
of data regularly, with data collection reaching the scale of petabytes. This
emphasizes the importance of robust data management and processing sys-

tems to extract valuable insights and ensure the safe and efficient operation
of autonomous vehicles.
The integration of DL techniques in autonomous driving holds immense
promise for improving safety and mitigating risks. Understanding the poten-
tial consequences of errors, enhancing perception capabilities through CNNs,
managing uncertainties, and addressing accidental risks are vital aspects of
advancing the safety of autonomous vehicles on our roads. As the research in
this field progresses, addressing these challenges and optimizing data utiliza-
tion will be crucial in realizing the full potential of autonomous driving for
a safer and more efficient transportation system.
1.9 CONCLUSION
The synthesis of extensive research in the realm of autonomous vehicles

has illuminated notable progress in perception systems, the integration of
artificial intelligence, safety protocols, and the consideration of human ele-
ments. By merging sensor data, leveraging AI-driven decision-making, and
implementing robust safety mechanisms, autonomous vehicles have dem-
onstrated enhanced capabilities in navigating diverse environments and
intricate scenarios while prioritizing dependability and security. The focal
point on user-centered design principles underscores the importance of user
acceptance, trust, and seamless human-machine interaction. This collective
advancement holds the potential to reshape transportation, ushering in a
future characterized by safer, more efficient, and sustainable mobility solu-
tions, all while fundamentally influencing societal and urban landscapes.
Collaboration among researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers
remains pivotal in steering this transformative journey forward.
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Chapter 2
Explainable artificial
intelligence
Fundamentals, Approaches, Challenges,
XAI Evaluation, and Validation
Manoj Kumar Mahto
2.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF XAI
Fundamentals of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) encompass essen-

tial principles that form the bedrock of transparent and interpretable AI
systems. XAI seeks to bridge the gap between the opaque nature of com-
plex AI algorithms and the need for human understanding and trust in AI-
driven decision-making. As Doshi-Velez and Kim (2017) pointed out, XAI
revolves around the concept of model transparency, which involves mak-
ing AI models more comprehensible and interpretable. Transparency in AI
can be achieved through various means, including rule-based systems, fea-
ture importance analysis, and visualization techniques (Ribeiro et al., 2016;
Lundberg and Lee, 2017). Rule-based systems encode decision rules in a
human-readable format, making the reasoning behind AI decisions explicit
and intuitive. Feature importance analysis methods, such as SHAP (SHap-
ley Additive exPlanations) and LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic
Explanations), provide insights into the relative importance of input fea-
tures in driving model predictions (Lundberg and Lee, 2017). Visualization
techniques, such as saliency maps and activation maximization, transform
complex model behavior into visual representations that are more accessible
to human operators (Ribeiro et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the concept of trustworthiness in AI models emphasizes
the need for reliability, robustness, and the ability to provide explanations
that align with human reasoning (Adadi and Berrada, 2018). Trustwor-
thy AI is not merely about transparency but also about ensuring that AI
systems perform reliably in diverse and dynamic environments, such as
autonomous vehicles operating in unpredictable traffic scenarios. These
fundamental principles lay the foundation for the development and
implementation of XAI, particularly in complex domains such as autono-
mous vehicles, where the stakes are high and human safety and trust are
paramount.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-2 25
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO EXPLAINABLE
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
The concept of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) has gained signifi-

cant traction in recent years as AI systems are increasingly integrated into
various aspects of society. XAI addresses the inherent opacity of complex AI
models, providing a means to understand, interpret, and trust the decisions
made by AI systems. As articulated by Doshi-Velez and Kim (2017), XAI
seeks to move beyond black-box AI, which often hinders the comprehension
of how and why AI arrives at specific outcomes. It encompasses a range of
techniques and approaches designed to make AI algorithms more transpar-
ent and their decision processes more accessible to human understanding.
XAI is not a singular methodology but rather a broad field encompassing
diverse strategies, including model transparency, rule-based systems, fea-
ture importance analysis, and visualization techniques (Ribeiro et al., 2016;
Lundberg and Lee, 2017). These techniques aim to shed light on the inner
workings of AI systems, ultimately fostering trust and accountability, which
are crucial for the responsible adoption of AI technologies in applications
ranging from healthcare to autonomous vehicles.
2.3 XAI AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Defining Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is pivotal in comprehend-

ing its significance in contemporary AI research and application domains.
XAI can be understood as the set of techniques and methodologies aimed
at making AI systems transparent, interpretable, and accountable for their
Figure 2.1 Explainable Artificial Intelligence.

Explainable artificial intelligence 27
decision-making processes. In the words of Doshi-Velez and Kim (2017),

XAI represents a paradigm shift from treating AI models as inscrutable
black boxes to developing AI systems that provide human-understandable
explanations for their outputs. This shift is of paramount importance, par-
ticularly in critical domains such as healthcare (Caruana et al., 2015) and
autonomous vehicles (Rudin, 2019), where AI systems are entrusted with
making high-stakes decisions. By enabling humans to comprehend the ratio-
nale behind AI decisions, XAI enhances not only transparency but also trust,
fostering user confidence in AI technologies and facilitating their responsible
integration into society.
2.4 KEY CONCEPTS IN EXPLAINABILITY
Key concepts in the realm of explainability provide a foundational under-

standing of how Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) operates and why
it is pivotal in AI systems. Model transparency, as highlighted by Doshi-
Velez and Kim (2017), represents the core concept involving the disclosure
of an AI model’s inner workings in a human-understandable manner. Trans-
parency serves as a basis for the comprehensibility of AI systems, allowing
stakeholders to scrutinize and trust the decision-making process. Alongside
transparency, the distinction between interpretability and transparency, as
articulated by Lipton (2016), is fundamental. Interpretability refers to the
ease with which a human can discern and predict the behavior of a model,
whereas transparency centers on revealing the model’s mechanisms. This dif-
ferentiation underscores the multifaceted nature of XAI, where methods can
Model
Transparency
Key Concepts
in
Explainability
Interpretability
vs.
Transparency
Trustworthiness
Figure 2.2 Key concepts in explainability.

focus on making models interpretable, transparent, or both. Understanding

these key concepts lays the groundwork for the application of XAI across
domains, including healthcare (Caruana et al., 2015) and autonomous vehi-
cles (Ribeiro et al., 2016).
2.4.1 Model transparency

Model transparency stands as a pivotal concept in the realm of Explain-
able Artificial Intelligence (XAI). It involves the process of making AI mod-
els comprehensible and interpretable to humans. As articulated by Lipton
(2016), transparent models allow individuals to gain insight into the decision-
making processes of complex algorithms. This transparency is achieved by
revealing the inner workings of AI models, enabling stakeholders to under-
stand why a particular decision was made. Transparency plays a critical role
in enhancing trust, especially in high-stakes applications such as healthcare
(Caruana et al., 2015) and autonomous vehicles (Ribeiro et al., 2016). When
AI models are transparent, users can scrutinize and validate the decision
logic, leading to greater confidence in the technology. Consequently, model
transparency serves as a foundational concept in the pursuit of responsible
and trustworthy AI.
2.4.2 Interpretability vs. transparency

The distinction between interpretability and transparency in Explainable
Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is pivotal to understanding how AI systems
can be made more comprehensible. As elucidated by Lipton (2016), inter-
pretability relates to the ease with which a human can discern and predict
the behavior of a model. In essence, it focuses on whether an individual
can grasp the rationale behind a model’s decisions, even if the model itself
remains complex. In contrast, transparency, as defined by Doshi-Velez and
Kim (2017), centers on revealing the inner mechanisms and decision pro-
cesses of an AI model in a human-understandable manner. This difference
highlights the multifaceted nature of XAI approaches, where methods can
aim to make models interpretable, transparent, or both. This nuanced under-
standing is vital, especially in fields like healthcare (Caruana et al., 2015) and
autonomous vehicles (Ribeiro et al., 2016), where striking the right balance
between interpretability and transparency can determine the usability and
trustworthiness of AI systems.
2.4.3 Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is a fundamental concept in Explainable Artificial Intel-
ligence (XAI) that transcends mere transparency and interpretability. As
emphasized by Adadi and Berrada (2018), trustworthiness goes beyond
revealing how AI models work; it embodies the assurance that AI systems

can be relied upon to make decisions that align with human values and
expectations. In contexts where AI influences critical outcomes, such as
healthcare (Caruana et al., 2015) and autonomous vehicles (Ribeiro et al.,
2016), trustworthiness is paramount. Trustworthy AI systems exhibit not
only transparency but also reliability and robustness. They provide expla-
nations that are not only comprehensible but also consistent with human
reasoning. In essence, trustworthiness fosters confidence in AI technologies,
facilitating their responsible adoption and integration into society.
2.5 APPROACHES TO DEVELOPING XAI MODELS
Various approaches are employed in the development of Explainable Arti-

ficial Intelligence (XAI) models, all with the overarching goal of making AI
systems more transparent and interpretable. Model transparency, one such
approach, involves simplifying complex machine learning models, rendering
their internal mechanisms more accessible to human understanding (Ribeiro
et al., 2016). Rule-based systems, as discussed by Carvalho and Freitas (2019),
offer another avenue where decision rules are explicitly represented, making
the reasoning behind AI decisions explicit and intuitive. Feature importance
analysis, including methods like SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) and
LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations), is pivotal for dis-
cerning the relative importance of input features in model predictions (Lun-
dberg and Lee, 2017). Visualization techniques, such as saliency maps and
activation maximization, provide intuitive visual representations of model
behavior, enabling stakeholders to explore and understand AI model outputs
Figure 2.3 Approaches to developing XAI.

(Ribeiro et al., 2016). These diverse approaches collectively contribute to the

advancement of XAI, offering a range of tools and methodologies to enhance
model transparency and interpretability across various domains.
2.6 MODEL TRANSPARENCY
Model transparency is a central concept in the pursuit of Explainable Arti-

ficial Intelligence (XAI). It refers to the extent to which the inner workings
of an AI model are made comprehensible and interpretable to human users.
As articulated by Ribeiro et al. (2016), transparent models aim to bridge the
gap between complex machine learning algorithms and human understand-
ing by revealing how a model arrives at its decisions. This transparency is
essential for building trust in AI systems, as it allows users to scrutinize and
validate the decision-making process. Transparent models often involve the
simplification of complex models or the representation of decision rules in a
human-readable format (Carvalho and Freitas, 2019). By offering transpar-
ency, AI systems can provide stakeholders with insights into the logic and
reasoning behind their outputs, ultimately fostering trust and facilitating the
responsible adoption of AI technologies across various domains.
2.6.1 Transparent models in XAI

Transparent models play a pivotal role in the field of Explainable Artificial
Intelligence (XAI). These models are designed to be inherently interpretable,
enabling humans to comprehend their decision-making processes easily. As
emphasized by Ribeiro et al. (2016), transparent models provide a direct and
intuitive understanding of how inputs are transformed into outputs, making
the decision rationale explicit. Examples of transparent models include deci-
sion trees, linear regression, and logistic regression, which inherently offer a
high level of interpretability due to their simple and structured nature. Such
models have been widely used in various applications, including healthcare
(Caruana et al., 2015) and finance (Lipton, 2016), where the need for clear,
comprehensible decision-making processes is paramount. While transparent
models offer a clear advantage in terms of interpretability, they may have
limitations in capturing complex relationships present in data. Thus, the
choice of model transparency must consider the trade-off between simplicity
and the complexity required for accurate modeling in a given context.
2.6.2 Limitations and use cases

While transparent models are valued for their inherent interpretability, it’s
essential to recognize their limitations and consider appropriate use cases.
Transparent models, such as decision trees and linear regression, excel in
scenarios where the underlying data relationships are relatively simple and
can be adequately captured by a straightforward model. However, these
models may struggle when dealing with highly complex data and intricate
patterns. As pointed out by Lipton (2016), in use cases where data relation-
ships are nonlinear or involve a multitude of interacting factors, transparent
models may not offer the required predictive accuracy. In such situations,
more complex and non-transparent models, such as deep neural networks,
might be necessary. Therefore, the choice of model transparency must be
context-specific, balancing the need for interpretable decision-making with
the complexity of the data and the accuracy requirements of the application.
2.7 RULE-BASED SYSTEMS
Rule-based systems represent a notable approach within the realm of

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) that seeks to enhance interpretabil-
ity by making decision rules explicit. These systems encode decision rules in
a human-readable format, allowing for a clear understanding of how inputs
lead to specific outputs. As outlined by Carvalho and Freitas (2019), rule-
based systems are particularly valuable when the decision process can be
articulated through a set of logical conditions and actions. These systems have
found extensive use in domains where transparency and interpretability are
paramount, such as healthcare (Holzinger et al., 2019). In medical diagnosis,
for example, rule-based systems can provide clear, comprehensible explana-
tions for the basis of a diagnosis or treatment recommendation, making them
a valuable tool for both healthcare practitioners and patients. However, it’s
important to acknowledge that rule-based systems may face scalability chal-
lenges when dealing with complex, high-dimensional data, and they might
not capture subtle nonlinear relationships present in some datasets.
2.7.1 Rule-based approaches to XAI

Rule-based approaches stand as a cornerstone in the pursuit of Explain-
able Artificial Intelligence (XAI) by explicitly encoding decision rules in a
human-interpretable format. These approaches, as highlighted by Carvalho
and Freitas (2019), offer a structured way to make AI models transparent
and interpretable. Rule-based models often consist of “if-then” statements,
where specific conditions are defined and corresponding actions or deci-
sions are prescribed. This explicit representation allows for clear insight into
how inputs are processed and decisions are made. Rule-based systems have
been widely employed in various applications, including healthcare (Holz-
inger et al., 2019), where the need for transparent and accountable decision-
making is critical. These systems are particularly valuable when the decision
process can be expressed as a series of logical rules, providing both experts
and end-users with a comprehensible explanation of AI-generated decisions.

However, it’s essential to acknowledge that rule-based approaches may have
limitations when dealing with more complex and high-dimensional data, as
they might not capture intricate nonlinear relationships.
2.7.2 Scalability and complexity

While rule-based approaches in Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)
offer transparency and interpretability benefits, they may encounter chal-
lenges related to scalability and complexity, as discussed by Carvalho and
Freitas (2019). Rule-based models thrive in scenarios where decision pro-
cesses can be succinctly captured through a set of logical conditions and
actions. However, they may face limitations when dealing with large, high-
dimensional datasets or complex, nonlinear relationships in the data. As the
dimensionality and complexity of data increase, the number of rules required
to represent the decision process accurately can grow exponentially, poten-
tially leading to unwieldy rule sets that are difficult to manage and com-
prehend. Balancing the need for transparency with the challenges posed by
scalability and complexity is a critical consideration when employing rule-
based approaches in XAI, and it highlights the importance of selecting the
most appropriate XAI technique for a given problem domain.
2.8 FEATURE IMPORTANCE ANALYSIS
Feature importance analysis is a pivotal approach in the realm of Explainable

Artificial Intelligence (XAI) that focuses on discerning the relative signifi-
cance of input features in driving model predictions. Methods such as SHAP
(SHapley Additive exPlanations) and LIME (Local Interpretable Model-
agnostic Explanations) are instrumental in this regard, as outlined by Lund-
berg and Lee (2017). These methods provide insights into the contribution of
individual features to the model’s output, offering a clear understanding of
which factors influence a particular prediction. Feature importance analysis is
invaluable in various applications, including finance and healthcare (Caruana
et al., 2015), where identifying the key determinants of an outcome is critical
for decision-making and model interpretability. By revealing feature impor-
tance, XAI practitioners can not only enhance the transparency of AI models
but also facilitate domain experts’ understanding of the decision process.
2.8.1 SHAP and LIME methods

In the domain of Feature Importance Analysis in Explainable Artificial Intel-
ligence (XAI), two prominent methods, SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlana-
tions) and LIME (Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations), have
garnered significant attention. These methods, as detailed by Lundberg and
Lee (2017), offer complementary approaches to understanding the influence
of input features on model predictions. SHAP, based on cooperative game

theory, calculates feature importance by assigning Shapley values to each
feature, reflecting their contributions to the prediction. On the other hand,
LIME, introduced by Ribeiro et al. (2016), focuses on creating local sur-
rogate models that approximate the behavior of the complex black-box
model. These surrogate models are interpretable, providing insights into
how changes in input features affect predictions locally. Both SHAP and
LIME offer valuable tools for uncovering the black-box model’s inner work-
ings, enhancing model transparency, and fostering trust in AI systems across
domains such as healthcare and finance (Caruana et al., 2015).
2.8.2 Applications in various domains

The SHAP and LIME methods for Feature Importance Analysis have found
widespread applications across various domains, offering valuable insights into
the workings of complex AI models. In healthcare, as demonstrated by Caruana
et al. (2015), these methods have been instrumental in predicting disease risks
and patient readmission rates. SHAP and LIME enable healthcare practitioners
to understand which patient attributes are most influential in making critical
healthcare decisions. In finance, they have been used to interpret credit scoring
models, offering transparency in lending decisions (Ribeiro et al., 2016). In
natural language processing and sentiment analysis, these methods have pro-
vided interpretable explanations for classifying texts or reviews (Lundberg and
Lee, 2017). These applications underscore the versatility of SHAP and LIME in
diverse domains, empowering stakeholders to harness the predictive power of
AI models while ensuring accountability and trustworthiness.
2.9 VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES
Visualization techniques serve as a powerful approach to Explainable Arti-

ficial Intelligence (XAI) by providing intuitive visual representations of AI
model behavior. These techniques, as discussed by Ribeiro et al. (2016),
include methods like saliency maps and activation maximization, which
offer insights into how models process input data and arrive at predictions.
Saliency maps, for instance, highlight the regions of input data that signifi-
cantly influence model predictions, making it evident which aspects of an
image or dataset drive the decision-making process. Activation maximiza-
tion, on the other hand, allows users to visualize the features or patterns
in data that trigger specific model responses, aiding in understanding what
the model has learned. Such visualization techniques have proven valuable
across domains such as computer vision, where interpreting deep neural net-
works is crucial for applications like object recognition and image segmen-
tation. By offering interpretable visualizations, XAI empowers both experts
and non-experts to comprehend AI model outputs, ultimately enhancing
transparency and trustworthiness.
2.9.1 Visualizing model decisions

Visualizing model decisions is a crucial aspect of Explainable Artificial Intel-
ligence (XAI) that empowers users to understand why an AI model makes
specific predictions. Techniques for visualizing model decisions, such as
saliency maps and activation maximization, have been instrumental in shed-
ding light on the decision-making process of complex models. Saliency maps,
as elucidated by Ribeiro et al. (2016), highlight the most relevant regions or
features in input data, making it evident which parts of an image or dataset
contribute most to a particular prediction. Activation maximization, on the
other hand, allows users to visualize what a model has learned by generating
inputs that maximize the activation of specific neurons or features within the
model. These visualization techniques have broad applications, ranging from
computer vision to natural language processing, and have been employed to
explain the reasoning behind AI decisions in tasks like image classification
and sentiment analysis. Visualizing model decisions not only enhances trans-
parency but also fosters user trust, making AI systems more accountable and
suitable for critical applications.
2.9.2 Practical implementations

Practical implementations of visualization techniques in Explainable Arti-
ficial Intelligence (XAI) have demonstrated their value across diverse
applications. These techniques, as highlighted by Ribeiro et al. (2016), not
only enhance model transparency but also facilitate model debugging and
improvement. In computer vision, for instance, visualizations aid in iden-
tifying misclassifications and understanding why they occur. For medical
imaging, visualization techniques have been employed to highlight regions
of interest in X-rays and MRI scans, aiding radiologists in diagnosis (Litjens
et al., 2017). In natural language processing, visualizing word embeddings
and attention mechanisms has provided insights into how models process
and interpret text data, benefiting tasks such as machine translation and
sentiment analysis (Vaswani et al., 2017). Practical implementations of visu-
alization techniques bridge the gap between the complexity of AI models
and human understanding, enabling users, including domain experts and
non-experts, to interact with and trust AI systems effectively.
2.10 CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING XAI

Implementing Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehi-

cles presents a complex set of challenges that impact not only the technical
aspects but also the societal acceptance and safety of these vehicles. One
Figure 2.4 Challenges of implementing XAI in autonomous vehicles.
of the foremost challenges is ensuring the interpretability of the AI algo-

rithms driving these vehicles. As autonomous vehicles employ sophisticated
machine learning models for decision-making, making these models inter-
pretable becomes essential for trust and accountability (Ribeiro et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the challenge of real-time interpretability adds an additional
layer of complexity. In safety-critical situations, it is imperative for human
passengers, as well as external parties like law enforcement and accident
investigators, to understand why an autonomous vehicle made a particular
decision. This necessitates the development of XAI techniques that provide
clear and concise explanations in real time, aligning with the dynamic nature
of driving scenarios (Lipton, 2016). These challenges underscore the need for
not only technical advancements in XAI but also the establishment of regula-
tory frameworks and standards to govern the deployment of explainable AI
in autonomous vehicles.
2.11 TRADE-OFFS BETWEEN PERFORMANCE

AND EXPLAINABILITY
One of the critical challenges in implementing Explainable Artificial Intel-

ligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles revolves around the inherent trade-
offs between performance and explainability. Autonomous vehicles rely on
highly complex machine learning models and neural networks to navigate
and make split-second decisions in dynamic environments (Bojarski et al.,
2016). These models often prioritize performance and accuracy, which can
lead to their inherent opacity and limited interpretability. Striking the right
balance between the need for high-performance AI algorithms and the neces-
sity for explainability is a delicate task. As noted by Lipton (2016), there’s
often an inverse relationship between the complexity of AI models and their

interpretability. Simplifying models for improved transparency may come at
the cost of reduced predictive accuracy, potentially compromising the safety
and efficiency of autonomous vehicles. Therefore, the challenge lies in devel-
oping AI systems that can maintain a high level of performance while pro-
viding comprehensible explanations for their actions—a challenge critical to
ensuring the safe adoption of autonomous vehicles on our roads.
2.11.1 Balancing act: performance vs. interpretability

The implementation of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autono-
mous vehicles demands a delicate balancing act between performance and
interpretability. Autonomous vehicles must meet rigorous safety and per-
formance standards to navigate complex and dynamic environments effec-
tively (Sun et al., 2017). Achieving the highest levels of performance often
involves deploying complex machine learning models and deep neural net-
works. However, these models can be inherently opaque, making it chal-
lenging to provide clear explanations for their decisions. As highlighted by
Lipton (2016), the trade-off between performance and interpretability is not
always straightforward, as simplifying models for better transparency can
lead to a loss in predictive accuracy. Striking the right balance requires a
nuanced approach, where AI developers must continuously refine algorithms
to ensure they remain both high-performing and explainable. Achieving this
balance is critical to building trust in autonomous vehicles, as it enables
passengers and external stakeholders to understand and trust the vehicle’s
decision-making process.
2.11.2 Strategies for achieving balance

Striking the delicate balance between performance and interpretability in
autonomous vehicles necessitates the implementation of thoughtful strat-
egies. One effective strategy is the development of hybrid AI models that
combine the strengths of complex, high-performance algorithms with inter-
pretable components. For example, ensemble models can integrate deep
neural networks with decision trees or rule-based systems (Friedman et al.,
2000). This approach maintains a high level of predictive accuracy while
allowing for the extraction of interpretable insights. Additionally, post hoc
interpretability techniques, like those mentioned by Carvalho and Frei-
tas (2019), can be applied to complex models. These techniques generate
explanations for model predictions without altering the underlying algo-
rithms, offering a way to enhance interpretability without compromising
performance. Lastly, continuous monitoring and auditing of autonomous
vehicle systems, as proposed by Sun et al. (2017), can help identify potential
performance-explainability trade-offs and enable iterative improvements.

These strategies collectively contribute to the achievement of balance, ensur-
ing that autonomous vehicles remain both high-performing and transparent
in their decision-making processes.
2.12 HANDLING UNCERTAINTY
Handling uncertainty is a paramount challenge in implementing Explainable

Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. These vehicles operate
in complex, dynamic environments where uncertainty is inherent, stemming
from factors like unpredictable weather, the behavior of other road users,
and sensor limitations (Alarifi et al., 2018). Ensuring that XAI systems can
not only make decisions but also convey their confidence or uncertainty
in those decisions is essential. Bayesian methods, as discussed by Gal et al.
(2016), offer a promising approach to quantifying and managing uncertainty.
Bayesian neural networks can provide probabilistic predictions, allowing
autonomous vehicles to express their uncertainty in real-time decision-
making. Additionally, ensemble techniques, such as bagging and boot-
strapped ensembles, can be used to generate diverse model predictions and
assess their agreement, aiding in the identification of uncertain scenarios
(Friedman et al., 2000). Handling uncertainty is vital not only for the safe
operation of autonomous vehicles but also for building trust among passen-
gers and regulatory bodies.
2.12.1 Uncertainty in autonomous vehicle context

Uncertainty in the context of autonomous vehicles is a multifaceted chal-
lenge that encompasses various sources of unpredictability. These vehicles
operate in a dynamic environment where uncertainty arises from factors
such as sensor noise, ambiguous sensor inputs, and the inherently unpre-
dictable behavior of other road users (Chen et al., 2015). Furthermore,
environmental conditions, like adverse weather, can significantly affect
the accuracy of perception systems, exacerbating uncertainty. To address
these challenges, XAI systems in autonomous vehicles must not only make
informed decisions but also quantify and communicate their degree of
uncertainty. Probabilistic models, as discussed by Gal et al. (2016), offer a
principled way to model uncertainty by assigning probabilities to predic-
tions. This enables autonomous vehicles to convey when they are highly
confident in their actions and when they are less certain, leading to safer
and more reliable decision-making. Managing uncertainty in the context of
autonomous vehicles is crucial for ensuring both safety and public trust in
this transformative technology.
2.12.2 Probabilistic models and uncertainty management

Managing uncertainty in the context of autonomous vehicles necessitates the
integration of probabilistic models as a fundamental strategy. These models,
as highlighted by Gal et al. (2016), enable autonomous vehicles to quantify
and handle uncertainty in a principled manner. Bayesian neural networks, for
instance, provide a framework for estimating the uncertainty associated with
predictions by assigning probability distributions to model parameters. This
approach allows autonomous vehicles to express their confidence or uncertainty
in real-time decision-making. Additionally, probabilistic models facilitate risk
assessment, helping autonomous vehicles identify situations where uncertainty
is high and take appropriate actions, such as slowing down or seeking human
intervention. Managing uncertainty through probabilistic models is vital not
only for safety but also for building trust among passengers and regulatory bod-
ies, as it makes the decision-making process more transparent and accountable.
2.13 SAFETY AND RELIABILITY
Safety and reliability are paramount concerns in the integration of Explain-

able Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. Ensuring the safe
operation of these vehicles is not only a technical challenge but also a mat-
ter of public trust and regulatory compliance. As autonomous vehicles rely
on AI algorithms to make real-time decisions in dynamic environments, the
potential for unexpected behaviors and safety-critical scenarios becomes a
significant concern (Sun et al., 2017). XAI plays a crucial role in address-
ing these concerns by providing transparent explanations for the vehicle’s
actions. However, it is essential to strike a balance between the need for
explanations and real-time decision-making. Techniques such as real-time
model explanation generation (Lipton, 2016) and rule-based systems for
decision justification (Carvalho and Freitas, 2019) can contribute to the
safety and reliability of autonomous vehicles by ensuring that human pas-
sengers and external stakeholders can understand and trust the vehicle’s
actions, even in complex and potentially hazardous situations.
2.13.1 Safety considerations in XAI

Safety considerations are of utmost importance in the deployment of
Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. As autono-
mous vehicles navigate complex and unpredictable environments, ensuring
the safety of passengers, pedestrians, and other road users is a critical con-
cern. XAI can contribute to safety by providing transparent insights into
the decision-making process of AI algorithms (Ribeiro et al., 2016). This
transparency allows for the identification and mitigation of potential risks
and failure modes. Furthermore, XAI can assist in scenario-based testing
and validation, as emphasized by Sun et al. (2017), enabling exhaustive test-

ing of AI systems under various conditions. Safety considerations extend to
the ability of XAI to detect and respond to adversarial attacks, which may
attempt to manipulate AI algorithms. By addressing these safety consider-
ations, XAI helps build trust in autonomous vehicles and fosters the develop-
ment of robust, reliable, and accountable AI systems.
2.13.2 Integration of safety mechanisms

The integration of safety mechanisms is a critical aspect of deploying Explain-
able Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. Ensuring the safety
and reliability of these vehicles requires the fusion of XAI techniques with
robust safety protocols. As noted by Sun et al. (2017), autonomous vehicles
often incorporate multiple layers of safety, including sensor redundancy,
fail-safe mechanisms, and real-time monitoring. XAI plays a pivotal role in
this safety ecosystem by providing interpretable explanations for AI system
decisions. These explanations allow human passengers, as well as external
stakeholders like safety regulators, to understand why specific decisions are
made in real time, enhancing transparency and accountability. Moreover,
the integration of safety mechanisms should extend to the ability of XAI to
detect and respond to anomalous or adversarial behaviors, bolstering the
vehicle’s resilience against potential threats. In this way, XAI serves as a key
enabler in building safety-critical AI systems for autonomous vehicles, align-
ing technological innovation with the paramount goal of public safety.
2.14 HUMAN-AI INTERACTION
Human-AI interaction is a pivotal challenge in the implementation of

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. Autono-
mous vehicles must coexist with human drivers and pedestrians, requiring
a seamless interface between AI systems and human users. XAI addresses
this challenge by providing comprehensible explanations for AI decisions,
as highlighted by Ribeiro et al. (2016). These explanations serve as a bridge
between the often complex decision-making processes of AI algorithms and
human understanding, enabling passengers to trust and feel in control of
autonomous vehicles. Effective human-AI interaction also involves design-
ing user interfaces that convey XAI information intuitively and in real-time
(Goodfellow et al., 2016). Moreover, XAI contributes to the establishment
of clear lines of responsibility between humans and AI systems, a vital
aspect of safety and accountability. The successful integration of XAI in
human-AI interaction is integral to the acceptance and adoption of autono-
mous vehicles on a large scale, paving the way for a harmonious coexistence
on our roads.
2.14.1 Designing user-friendly XAI interfaces

Designing user-friendly Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) interfaces
is a pivotal aspect of human-AI interaction, particularly in the context of
autonomous vehicles. Effective communication between autonomous sys-
tems and human users is essential for safety and user acceptance. XAI contrib-
utes to this by offering interpretable explanations for AI decisions (Ribeiro
et al., 2016). However, it’s equally important to design interfaces that con-
vey XAI information intuitively and in real time. Research by Goodfellow
et al. (2016) emphasizes the importance of user-centered design principles to
create interfaces that are not only informative but also easy to understand
and interact with. Visualizations, natural language explanations, and real-
time alerts are some of the tools that can be integrated into these interfaces.
Ensuring that passengers and operators can quickly grasp the AI’s reasoning
enhances their trust and confidence in the autonomous vehicle’s capabilities.
In essence, user-friendly XAI interfaces are the bridge that connects complex
AI algorithms with human users, fostering harmonious human-AI collabora-
tion in the autonomous vehicle ecosystem.
2.14.2 Ensuring positive user experience

Ensuring a positive user experience is a paramount goal when integrating
Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. A seam-
less interaction between passengers and AI systems not only enhances safety
but also influences user acceptance. XAI plays a pivotal role in achieving
this by providing transparent explanations for AI decisions (Ribeiro et al.,
2016). However, it goes beyond explanations; it’s about creating an envi-
ronment where users feel informed and in control. Research by Goodfellow
et al. (2016) underscores the importance of designing AI interfaces that align
with human cognitive processes, ensuring that information is presented in a
manner that is easy to understand and act upon. Real-time feedback, context-
aware alerts, and intuitive visualizations are some of the elements that con-
tribute to a positive user experience. Moreover, feedback loops that allow
users to provide input and receive responses from the AI system foster a sense
of collaboration and trust. Ultimately, ensuring a positive user experience is
pivotal for the widespread acceptance and adoption of autonomous vehicles,
where passengers are not just passengers but active participants in the journey.
2.15 XAI EVALUATION AND VALIDATION
XAI evaluation and validation represent critical phases in the deployment of

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. As autono-
mous vehicles rely on AI systems to make critical decisions, it is imperative
Figure 2.5 XAI evaluation and validation.
to assess the effectiveness and reliability of XAI techniques in providing

comprehensible explanations for these decisions. This process often involves
quantitative metrics, such as explanation fidelity and completeness, as
highlighted by Ribeiro et al. (2016). Furthermore, evaluation methodolo-
gies need to consider real-world scenarios and diverse driving conditions
to ensure the robustness of XAI solutions (Sun et al., 2017). Validation, on
the other hand, entails ensuring that XAI systems meet regulatory standards
and safety requirements, as emphasized by Alarifi et al. (2018). It’s not just
about producing explanations but also verifying their accuracy and utility in
enhancing decision-making and trust in autonomous vehicles. By conducting
rigorous evaluation and validation, we can ensure that XAI systems contrib-
ute to the safe and accountable operation of autonomous vehicles.
2.16 METRICS FOR EVALUATING EXPLAINABILITY
Evaluating the explainability of AI models is a multifaceted task, and it

requires the use of various metrics and approaches. Metrics play a critical
role in quantifying the quality of explanations provided by Explainable Arti-
ficial Intelligence (XAI) systems. One commonly used metric is explanation
fidelity, which measures how well the explanation reflects the actual decision
process of the AI model (Ribeiro et al., 2016). Another essential metric is
explanation completeness, which evaluates the extent to which the expla-
nation covers all relevant aspects of the model’s decision (Doshi-Velez and
Kim, 2017). Additionally, human-centric metrics, such as user satisfaction
and comprehension, are crucial for assessing how well users can understand
and trust the explanations (Lage et al., 2021). Furthermore, evaluation meth-
odologies should consider the context in which the AI system operates and
how explanations impact decision-making. The selection of appropriate
evaluation metrics should align with the specific goals and requirements of
autonomous vehicles to ensure that XAI systems enhance safety and user
trust effectively.
2.16.1 Measuring fidelity, comprehensibility,

and trustworthiness
Measuring the fidelity, comprehensibility, and trustworthiness of explana-
tions is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of Explainable Artificial
Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. Explanation fidelity, as dis-
cussed by Ribeiro et al. (2016), assesses how well the provided explana-
tion aligns with the actual decision-making process of the AI model. This
metric ensures that explanations are accurate and representative of the AI’s
reasoning. Comprehensibility metrics, such as those proposed by Lage et al.
(2021), evaluate how easily users can understand the provided explanations.
A comprehensible explanation is essential for passengers and operators of
autonomous vehicles to trust and make informed decisions based on AI
recommendations. Trustworthiness, as emphasized by Chen et al. (2018),
measures the degree to which users rely on AI-based decisions and explana-
tions. Collectively evaluating these three dimensions helps ensure that XAI
systems enhance decision-making, safety, and user trust in the context of
autonomous vehicles.
2.16.2 Tailoring metrics to specific use cases

Tailoring evaluation metrics to specific use cases is essential when assessing
the effectiveness of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous
vehicles. While general metrics like explanation fidelity, comprehensibility,
and trustworthiness provide a foundational framework (Ribeiro et al., 2016;
Lage et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2018), it is equally important to consider the
unique requirements and contexts of autonomous driving. Metrics should
align with specific use cases, such as urban environments, highway driving,
or off-road scenarios (Sun et al., 2017). For example, in urban environments,
where safety is paramount, metrics may emphasize the ability of XAI to
explain evasive maneuvers and collision avoidance strategies. In contrast,
on highways, metrics could focus on the XAI system’s ability to justify lane-
changing decisions. By tailoring metrics to these specific contexts and use
cases, we can ensure that XAI systems not only meet generic explainability
criteria but also address the particular challenges and priorities of autono-
mous vehicle operation.
2.17 USER STUDIES
User studies represent a vital component of evaluating Explainable Artifi-

cial Intelligence (XAI) in the context of autonomous vehicles. These studies
involve gathering feedback and insights from human passengers, operators,
and other stakeholders who interact with AI-driven autonomous systems.
Through user studies, researchers can assess the real-world impact of XAI on
user trust, decision-making, and overall user experience (Chen et al., 2018).
User satisfaction surveys, usability tests, and cognitive load assessments are
some of the methods used to collect valuable data on how well XAI sys-
tems enhance user understanding and trust. Furthermore, user studies can
help identify areas where explanations may fall short or need improvement,
contributing to the iterative development of XAI solutions tailored to the
unique needs and expectations of autonomous vehicle users (Lage et al.,
2021). These studies are instrumental in ensuring that XAI systems are not
only theoretically sound but also practical and beneficial in real-world driv-
ing scenarios.
2.17.1 Conducting user-centric XAI evaluations

Conducting user-centric evaluations is a pivotal step in assessing the effec-
tiveness of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles.
These evaluations shift the focus from technical metrics to human-centered
criteria, ensuring that XAI systems align with the needs and expectations of
users in the autonomous vehicle ecosystem. User-centric evaluations often
involve soliciting feedback from passengers, operators, and other stakehold-
ers through surveys, interviews, and interactive scenarios (Chen et al., 2018).
These studies not only gauge user satisfaction but also assess the compre-
hensibility of explanations, user trust in AI decisions, and the overall impact
of XAI on user experience. By involving users in the evaluation process,
researchers can identify usability issues, potential misconceptions, and areas
where XAI can be enhanced to support human decision-making better (Lage
et al., 2021). In sum, user-centric evaluations play a pivotal role in bridg-
ing the gap between XAI theory and practical usability, ensuring that XAI
enhances safety and user trust in autonomous vehicles.
2.17.2 Methodologies and best practices

Methodologies and best practices play a crucial role in conducting effective
user-centric evaluations of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in auton-
omous vehicles. Establishing rigorous evaluation frameworks and protocols
is essential to ensure the validity and reliability of the results. Researchers
often employ a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, such
as surveys, cognitive load assessments, and usability tests, to gather compre-

hensive feedback from users (Chen et al., 2018). In practice, it’s important to
consider diverse user groups, including passengers, operators, and individu-
als with varying levels of technical expertise. Moreover, maintaining a focus
on real-world scenarios and diverse driving conditions is essential, as high-
lighted by Sun et al. (2017). Best practices involve clearly defining evaluation
objectives, designing realistic test scenarios, and capturing both subjective
and objective measures of XAI system performance. Additionally, iterative
evaluation processes allow for the continuous improvement of XAI systems
based on user feedback (Lage et al., 2021). Ultimately, well-structured meth-
odologies and best practices ensure that user-centric evaluations contribute
to the development of XAI solutions that enhance user understanding, trust,
and overall user experience in autonomous vehicles.
2.18 SIMULATION AND TESTING
Simulation and testing are integral components of the evaluation and vali-
dation process for Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous
vehicles. Given the complex and dynamic nature of real-world driving sce-
narios, conducting extensive real-world testing can be costly and poten-
tially risky. Therefore, simulation environments, as emphasized by Sun et al.
(2017), offer a controlled and safe means of evaluating XAI systems under
a wide range of conditions. These simulations can replicate various driving
scenarios, including rare and hazardous events, allowing researchers to assess
how well XAI systems perform and explain their actions in challenging situ-
ations. Moreover, simulation environments facilitate systematic testing of
XAI responses to different inputs, helping to identify potential vulnerabilities
and areas for improvement. Combining simulation testing with real-world
testing, as advocated by Alarifi et al. (2018), provides a comprehensive vali-
dation approach that ensures XAI systems are robust, safe, and capable of
delivering reliable explanations to support autonomous vehicle operation.
2.18.1 Simulated environments for XAI validation

Simulated environments play a pivotal role in the validation of Explainable
Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. These environments
offer controlled and versatile settings for testing XAI systems under vari-
ous scenarios, as highlighted by Sun et al. (2017). Simulated environments
can replicate a wide range of driving conditions, including adverse weather,
complex traffic interactions, and rare events, all of which are challenging to
encounter in the real world. Additionally, simulations provide researchers
with the ability to inject specific scenarios to assess how well XAI systems
respond and explain their decisions. This approach helps uncover vulner-
abilities and areas for improvement in a safe and cost-effective manner. Fur-
thermore, simulated environments are instrumental in the development and
fine-tuning of XAI models before their deployment in actual vehicles. By
leveraging these environments, researchers can ensure that XAI systems are
not only technically sound but also capable of delivering reliable explana-
tions in the dynamic and unpredictable context of autonomous driving.
2.18.2 Real-world testing scenarios

While simulated environments are invaluable for validating Explainable
Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles, real-world testing sce-
narios remain essential for comprehensive evaluation. Real-world scenarios
introduce the unpredictability and complexity inherent to actual driving
conditions, as discussed by Sun et al. (2017). They offer the opportunity to
validate XAI systems in dynamic, unscripted environments where the unex-
pected can occur. Real-world testing allows researchers to assess how well
XAI systems handle real-time data, adapt to changing road conditions, and
provide explanations that are relevant and timely. Furthermore, it helps eval-
uate the robustness of XAI in diverse geographical regions with varying traf-
fic patterns and infrastructure. Combining insights from both simulated and
real-world testing scenarios, as suggested by Alarifi et al. (2018), provides a
holistic approach to validating XAI in autonomous vehicles. It ensures that
XAI systems are not only proficient in simulated scenarios but also capable
of delivering consistent and reliable performance on the open road.
2.19 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE
Regulatory compliance is a critical aspect of implementing Explainable Arti-

ficial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles. As these vehicles operate on
public roads, they must adhere to a complex web of regulations and safety
standards. XAI systems, which contribute to transparency and accountabil-
ity, play a pivotal role in addressing these regulatory requirements. Ensuring
that XAI in autonomous vehicles complies with safety and ethical standards,
as emphasized by Alarifi et al. (2018), is of paramount importance. This
involves not only validating the technical capabilities of XAI systems but also
verifying that they meet legal and industry-specific standards. Additionally,
XAI should facilitate compliance reporting, making it easier for manufactur-
ers and operators to demonstrate adherence to regulations. By integrating
XAI with robust safety and compliance mechanisms, autonomous vehicle
technology providers can navigate the intricate regulatory landscape, ensur-
ing the safe and responsible deployment of AI systems on our roads.
2.19.1 Regulatory frameworks for XAI integration

The integration of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) into autonomous
vehicles necessitates a robust regulatory framework to ensure the safety and
accountability of these advanced systems. As highlighted by Alarifi et al.
(2018), the development and implementation of XAI in autonomous vehi-
cles must align with evolving regulatory standards and ethical guidelines.
Regulatory bodies, such as the National Highway Traffic Safety Administra-
tion (NHTSA) in the United States and their counterparts worldwide, play
a crucial role in defining the rules and standards for autonomous vehicles.
The integration of XAI should comply with these regulations, which often
involve safety assessments, certification processes, and data transparency
requirements. Moreover, industry consortia and standards organizations,
such as SAE International, contribute to the development of best practices
and standards specific to XAI in autonomous vehicles. A well-defined regula-
tory framework not only ensures the safety of autonomous vehicles but also
instills confidence among consumers, regulators, and stakeholders, facilitat-
ing the responsible deployment of XAI technologies.
2.19.2 Industry standards and guidelines

Industry standards and guidelines are instrumental in shaping the integra-
tion of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in autonomous vehicles.
Organizations like SAE International and ISO have been actively involved
in developing comprehensive standards that address the safety, transparency,
and performance of autonomous systems, as emphasized by Alarifi et al.
(2018). These standards often encompass various aspects of autonomous
driving, including XAI requirements. For instance, the SAE J3016 standard
defines the levels of driving automation, which influence the expectations
and responsibilities of XAI systems at different automation levels. Addition-
ally, guidelines from professional bodies, such as the Association for Com-
puting Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), contribute to ethical considerations and best practices in
the development and deployment of XAI in autonomous vehicles. Adhering
to these industry standards and guidelines ensures that XAI systems meet
not only legal requirements but also community expectations for safe and
responsible autonomous driving technology.
2.20 CONCLUSION
In the rapidly evolving landscape of autonomous vehicles, the integration of

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) stands as a fundamental pillar for
ensuring safety, transparency, and user trust. This chapter has explored the
fundamentals of XAI, the various approaches to developing XAI models,

the challenges of implementing XAI in autonomous vehicles, and the critical
processes of XAI evaluation and validation. We delved into the nuances of
measuring explanation fidelity, comprehensibility, and trustworthiness, high-
lighting the importance of tailoring evaluation metrics to specific use cases.
We discussed the essential role of user studies, both in terms of conduct-
ing user-centric evaluations and following methodologies and best practices.
Additionally, we underscored the significance of simulation and real-world
testing scenarios, as well as the need for regulatory compliance and adher-
ence to industry standards. As autonomous vehicles become an integral part
of our transportation ecosystem, XAI emerges as the bridge that fosters har-
monious human-AI collaboration, enhancing user understanding, trust, and
overall user experience. With continual advancements in XAI techniques and
rigorous evaluation practices, the future of autonomous vehicles is poised to
be safer, more transparent, and more readily accepted by a broader spectrum
of users. As we peer into the future, the prospects for XAI are promising,
but challenges persist. The continued advancement of XAI techniques, the
evolution of comprehensive evaluation methodologies, and the integration
of XAI into regulatory frameworks are all avenues of growth. Neverthe-
less, the delicate equilibrium between performance and explainability, the
nuances of addressing uncertainty, ensuring safety, and crafting user-friendly
interfaces remain formidable obstacles. As AI continues its relentless prog-
ress, the demand for XAI solutions that enhance transparency and trust will
remain steadfast. This demand will propel researchers and practitioners
toward innovative solutions and frameworks that render AI more compre-
hensible and accessible, enriching the human-AI partnership. In summation,
the integration of Explainable Artificial Intelligence in autonomous vehicles
and various other domains is pivotal for the responsible and effective deploy-
ment of AI systems. It is a journey marked by perpetual innovation, col-
laboration, and a steadfast commitment to ensuring that AI remains a tool
that empowers and enhances the human experience. As we navigate this
ever-evolving landscape, one truth remains constant: the synergy between
humans and AI, nurtured by XAI, has the power to reshape industries, ele-
vate safety standards, and inspire trust in the AI-driven future that awaits us.
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Chapter 3
Explainable artificial intelligence

in autonomous vehicles
Prospects and Future Direction
Manareldeen Ahmed, Zeinab E. Ahmed,
and Rashid A. Saeed
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Autonomous driving (AD) has become one of the major key research direc-
tions in finding smart mobility solutions [1]. By providing safety and reli-
ability in modern transportation systems, autonomous vehicles (AVs) are
expected to leverage transportation services such as car parking or avoiding
accidents due to human errors [2]. Figure 3.1 shows a conceptual figure of
autonomous driving cars in smart cities [3]. Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) tech-
nology [4–7] is used to describe the cooperation between different vehicles
in the same area. The purpose of V2V communication is to enhance vehicle
traffic and pedestrian and passenger safety. On the other hand, Vehicle to
Infrastructure (V2I) technology helps vehicles communicate with roadside
units (RSUs) [8, 9].
V2I could be very beneficial for avoiding traffic accidents or traffic jams
or accessing services on the internet, as illustrated in Figure 3.1. The number
of connected vehicles is growing, as there were 237 million in 2021, accord-
ing to Statista [10]. This number is expected to reach 400 million by 2025.
The key challenges of such numbers of connected vehicles are related to the
telecommunication area and its security.
In a typical AD task, AVs generate massive amounts of multi-dimensional
data from different components such as cameras, RADAR, LIDAR, GPS,
and ultrasonic sensors. These data are required to be processed for differ-
ent purposes, such as monitoring, prediction, decision-making, and control
purposes [11, 12]. Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques showed huge success
in dealing with the complexity of such AD tasks with the help of power-
ful hardware with certain capabilities. However, there are many challenges
regarding how much humans can interfere during decision-making. These
challenges limit the acceptance of such technologies due to their human
unexplainability.
Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is emerged to address the ambigu-
ity inside AI algorithms. For instance, it is very challenging to get insight into
the internal mechanism of machine learning (ML) algorithms [13]. Figure 3.2
50 DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-3
Explainable artificial intelligence in autonomous vehicles 51
Figure 3.1 A graphical illustration of AD in a smart city [3].
Figure 3.2 A safe, explainable, and regulatory-compliant AV [14].
shows a graphical illustration of an AV on its perception-action mapping

that is safe, explainable, and regulatory compliant. Following the traffic
rules and keeping awareness of surrounding humans and objects guarantee
safety and regulatory compliance. Moreover, justifying each action taken
ensures explainability. The text implies perception, and the another text in
the image implies the corresponding action [14].
This chapter discusses the need for explanations in AVs and presents
regulations and standards related to explanations. It categorizes the differ-
ent stakeholders who interact with AVs and explores various dimensions of
explanations. The chapter also highlights the importance of in-vehicle user
interfaces and novel interaction technologies for efficient explanation provi-
sion. It addresses the limitations and biases in current research on explana-
tion models and provides recommendations for implementation. The chapter
concludes with challenges in the explainable AV landscape and suggestions
for future work.
This chapter contains four further sections. Section 2 will discuss the cur-
rent State of XAI in AVs. Section 3 will report on the challenges and limita-
tions of XAI in AVs, and Section 4 will give an idea of future trends in XAI
for AVs. Finally, Section 5 offers conclusions to the discussion.
3.2 CURRENT STATE OF XAI IN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
This section provides a comprehensive view of the status of XAI within the
AVs domain. In recent years, XAI has emerged as a crucial component in
addressing the challenges associated with AVs, particularly concerning trans-
parency and accountability. This section delves into the current advance-
ments and developments in XAI techniques specifically tailored for AVs. It
explores the ongoing research, emerging technologies, and practical applica-
tions that are shaping the landscape of XAI within this field. By examining
the current state of XAI in AVs, this section offers valuable insights into
how AI explainability is evolving to enhance the safety, trustworthiness, and
acceptance of AVs in modern transportation systems.
3.2.1 Autonomous vehicles

Autonomous vehicles (AV) are intelligent systems that can sense their envi-
ronment and make real-time driving decisions using various sensors. It’s cru-
cial to have in-vehicle interfaces that facilitate message exchange between
AVs and stakeholders. This allows users to receive explanations for control
and navigation decisions by querying the interface [15]. Real-time decision-
making involves perception, localization, planning, and control, combining
multi-modal data sources with AI-powered algorithms. It classified AVs into
six automation levels—Level 0 to Level 5—that offer different degrees of
automation: no automation, driving assistance, partial automation, condi-
tional automation, high automation, and full automation [16].
The AV protocol architecture follows a structure comprising five primary
stages: perception, decision-making, planning, control, and chassis integra-
tion [17]. During the perception phase, AVs depend on an array of sensors,
including RADAR, LIDAR, cameras, and real-time kinetic (RTK) sensors,

for environmental awareness. Recognition modules such as ADAF, control
systems, and VPL modules are responsible for processing data from these
sensors. In the decision-making and planning phase, this data is used to make
determinations related to path planning and obstacle avoidance. The control
phase handles the execution of physical control actions like steering, brak-
ing, and acceleration. Finally, the last stage entails establishing connections
with the mechanical components incorporated within the chassis [17].
AVs are rapidly advancing, driven by IoT progress, fostering the growth
of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) and the Internet of Autonomous Vehicles
(IoAV). These vehicles are on the verge of evolving into intelligent entities
capable of local cooperation, content sharing, and potentially assuming
control instead of human drivers [18]. Nonetheless, challenges related to
infrastructure and security continue to exist. The fusion of artificial intelli-
gence (AI) with edge computing, resulting in edge intelligence (EI), presents
a promising solution to tackle these challenges. EI encompasses intelli-
gent data offloading, collaboration, and on-site analysis, facilitating a vast
network of billions of smart IoT devices. Achieving complete autonomy
necessitates that vehicles match or surpass human perception, decision-
making, and cognitive capabilities. The advent of 5G and 6G communica-
tion technologies holds the potential for highly dependable, low-latency
transmissions, ensuring seamless vehicular communication. Additionally,
blockchain technology, known for its transparent, immutable, and decen-
tralized data management, can furnish AVs with a robust security frame-
work [18].
3.2.2 Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) has demonstrated the potential to transform vari-
ous industries, public services, and society at large, surpassing human per-
formance in tasks such as image and speech recognition, as well as language
translation [19]. Terms like transparency, interpretability, and explainability
are employed to describe the opposite of the “black box” nature often associ-
ated with AI models. Transparency pertains to a model’s capacity to be clear
and interpretable, ensuring the development of accurate and understandable
AI systems for humans [20]. Meanwhile, explainability involves the process
of rendering technology or a system understandable to humans and assessing
how quickly they grasp the model’s conclusions [21]. Explainable AI (XAI)
places its focus on devising techniques that provide explanations, aiding
end-users in comprehending and effectively managing AI systems. Explain-
ability involves providing insights to a targeted audience, such as domain
experts, end-users, and modeling experts, to fulfill their needs and ensure
they make sense of their domain knowledge [22]. XAI is a set of techniques
and approaches aimed at making AI systems more interpretable, transpar-

ent, and accountable. There are some common categorizations of XAI [23]:
• Model-Specific Methods.
• Post Hoc Explanation Methods.
• Model-Agnostic Methods.
• Interpretable Neural Networks.
• Local vs. Global Interpretability.
• Explanations for Different Data Types.
• Human-Centric vs. Machine-Centric.
Enhancing the transparency and interpretability of AI models through model

interpretation is a key focus of Explainable AI (XAI). Model-agnostic tech-
niques, exemplified by approaches like LIME (Local Interpretable Model-
Agnostic Explanations) and SHAP (SHapley Additive Explanations), delve
into the relationship between input features and model outcomes without
relying on specific model architectures [24]. These techniques prove par-
ticularly valuable when dealing with intricate models or decision-making
processes, and they can be coupled with techniques like feature visualization
and saliency mapping to offer a comprehensive insight into how a model
functions and to pinpoint potential biases or errors [25].
XAI endeavors to create AI models intelligible to humans, particularly in
sensitive domains such as the military, banking, and healthcare. This level of
understanding is essential for domain experts who rely on precise results [26].
AI methodologies facilitate the evaluation of current knowledge, the pro-
gression of knowledge, and the development of new assumptions and the-
ories. Researchers aspire to achieve explainability to bolster justification,
control, enhancement, and discovery. The advantages of XAI encompass
empowering individuals and organizations to address the adverse outcomes
of automated decision-making, aiding in well-informed decision-making,
uncovering and safeguarding against security vulnerabilities, aligning algo-
rithms with human values, and elevating industry standards for AI-driven
products [27]. These efforts will enhance trust among consumers and busi-
nesses in AI-powered products.
3.2.3 Case studies of XAI techniques

in autonomous vehicles
Several studies in this section delve into integrating XAI techniques in AVs.
They optimize vision-based autonomous driving models, enhance driver
situational awareness, and bridge the gap between human-driving learning
and self-driving systems. The studies also introduce datasets for evaluation
and explore the potential of Blockchain and AI for AV security. Moreover,
they highlight the importance of XAI in intelligent transportation, present
innovative approaches for action prediction and explanations, and propose
methods for improving semantic segmentation in challenging weather condi-

tions. Applying XAI extends to decision interpretation, gaze estimation, and
trust management in AVs. These studies collectively contribute to making AVs
more transparent, trustworthy, and accountable in various driving scenarios.
Li et al. presented an optimized model for vision-based AD, focusing on
detecting objects and predicting pedestrian intentions in traffic scenes [28]. It
uses YOLOv4, incorporates a refined Part Affinity Fields approach, integrates
explainable artificial intelligence, creates an extensive self-driving dataset, and
constructs a high-accuracy end-to-end system. The results achieved a 74%
reduction in parameters and a 2.6% improvement in detection precision. This
paper [29] proposed a two-phase pipeline for enhancing driver situational
awareness in Level 3 AD. GazeMobileNet model achieves state-of-the-art gaze
vector estimation performance. The proposed method improves zone classifi-
cation accuracy and robustness. This model achieves accuracies of 75.67% and
83.08% for attention zone estimation under various capture conditions, sur-
passing previous research. This study explored the gap between human-driving
learning methods and self-driving systems [30]. It proposed a novel approach
that incorporates human guidance into AV control, learning to summarize
visual observations, predict actions, and adjust controls [31]. The proposed
method, combining human advice with semantic representation, outperforms
the previous methods in control prediction and explanation generation, result-
ing in more interpretable visual explanations. The Berkeley DeepDrive eXpla-
nation (BDD-X) dataset, a new driving dataset featuring human explanations
shown in Figure 3.3, is being evaluated for its effectiveness [32].
Figure 3.3 BDD-X Dataset.

AVs offer benefits like increased safety and reduced energy consumption,
but these have security and privacy issues. Combining Blockchain and AI
could provide strong protection against malicious attacks [33]. AI can opti-
mize Blockchain construction, while Blockchain provides data immutabil-
ity and trust mechanisms. This paper explored the potential application of
Blockchain and AI solutions for AV security, identifying security and privacy
threats, reviewing recent literature, and highlighting limitations and chal-
lenges. This paper [34] addressed the challenges of implementing AI in sup-
port of Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) within smart internal logistics
systems for agile manufacturing. The navigation system must be tailored
to industrial environments with high interaction with other systems and
human staff. AI’s challenges differ from those of other smart manufacturing
areas, and the paper systematizes these challenges and discusses promising
AI methods for AGV-based internal logistics systems.
Automated navigation technology plays a crucial role in intelligent trans-
portation and smart city systems. XAI aims to streamline decision-making
processes in AVs, enhancing trust in AI-based solutions. Madhav and Tyagi
[35] conducted a comparative analysis between XAI simulations and vehicu-
lar smart systems, emphasizing noteworthy advancements. The study intro-
duced visual explanatory techniques and an intrusion detection classifier,
yielding substantial improvements over existing research. The study pro-
posed a post-processing mathematical framework to improve the accuracy
of stereo vision in generating high-density depth values for AD [36]. The
framework uses prior information from a deep learning-based U-Net model
to refine the depth achieved, making it explainable and applicable to depth
maps generated by any stereo vision algorithm. The framework’s results
show improvements in stereo depth generation accuracy.
Keneni et al. investigated the explanation of autonomous system decisions
using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) [37]. It achieved a simulation using
15 fuzzy rules, considering weather conditions and enemies. It created two
ANFIS models, one for the weather zone and the other for distance from
the enemy. The best optimization is generating six fuzzy rules for the Sug-
eno model, which are easily comprehensible and maintain acceptable RMSE
values. The findings show promising results for integrating ANFIS models
with upcoming UAV technologies to make UAVs more transparent, under-
standable, and trustworthy. AD has gained popularity because of its poten-
tial benefits, including increased safety, traffic efficiency, and fuel economy
[26]. However, most studies focus on limited data sets or fully automated
environments. To address these issues, an XAI Federated Deep Reinforce-
ment Learning (RL) model improves trajectory decisions for newcomer AVs.
The model uses XAI to compute the contribution of each vehicle’s features,
ensuring trustworthiness. Experiments show this model outperforms bench-
mark solutions like Deep Q-Network and Random Selection [38].
Figure 3.4 Semantic segmentation with XAI.
AVs are increasingly using AI to reduce driver stress and improve learning [39].
XAI techniques help developers understand the intricate workings of deep
learning models, also known as black box models. The authors focused
on how AVs can detect and segment the road using deep learning models,
achieving high IoU scores [39]. Figure 3.4 illustrates the system model inte-
gration of XAI for model explanation, which includes semantic segmenta-
tion of an input frame.
Soares et al. proposed a new self-organizing neuro-fuzzy approach for self-
driving cars, combining explainable self-organizing architecture and density-
based feature selection methods [40]. The approach classifies action states
from different self-driving conditions, providing humans with understand-
able IF . . . THEN rules. The density-based feature selection method ranks
feature densities, creating individualized subsets per class. Experiments on a
Ford Motor Company dataset validated the approach’s accuracy and showed
it could surpass competitors. In Rjoub et al. [41], a trust-aware approach to
AV selection, incorporating the Local Interpretable Model-Agnostic Expla-
nations (LIME) method and One-Shot Federated Learning, was proposed.
This method outperforms the standard approach in terms of both accuracy
and reliability, demonstrating the effectiveness of trust metrics in AV selec-
tion in federated learning systems.
Bellotti et al. proposed a framework for understanding autonomous agent
decision-making in a highway simulation environment [42]. Data analysis
includes episode timeline, frame-by-frame, and aggregated statistical anal-
ysis. Motivators include longitudinal gap, lane position, and last-frame
patterns. Attention and SHAP values are differentiated, reflecting the neural
network’s architecture. Xu et al. [43] presented a multi-task formulation for
action prediction and explanations of AD. The authors proposed a CNN
architecture that combines reasoning about action-inducing objects and
global scene context. They also present a large dataset annotated for both
driving commands and explanations. The experiments show that the genera-
tion of explanations improves decision-making for actions, and both ben-
efit from a combination of object-centric and global scene reasoning [43].
Mankodiya et al. proposed an XAI system in VANETs (Vehicular Ad-Hoc
Networks) to enhance trust management in AVs [44]. Figure 3.5 illustrates
the system model employed for training and predicting malicious AVs. The
system uses a decision tree-based random forest to solve a problem with
98.44% accuracy and an F1 score on the VeRiMi dataset. The authors evalu-
ated the proposed model using performance measures and metrics, making
it interpretable and serving the purpose of XAI. Overall, the paper aims to
increase transparency and trust in AI models used in AVs.
Cultrera et al. presented an attention-based model for AD in a simu-
lated environment [45]. The model uses visual attention to improve driv-
ing performance and provide explainable predictions. The model achieves
state-of-the-art results on the CARLA driving benchmark. The architecture
includes a multi-head design, with each head specialized for different driving
commands. The attention layer assigns weights to image regions based on
their relevance to the driving task. The model adopts a fixed grid to obtain
an attention map of the image. Nowak et al. discussed the importance of
explainable AI in law and the challenges faced in training neural networks
for intelligent vehicles [46]. It highlights the need for interpretability in deep
learning systems and the use of attention heat maps to improve training
and eliminate misdetections. The system’s interpretation helps eliminate mis-
detections by explaining which parts of the images triggered the decision,
enhancing the reliability of vehicle autonomy.
The document also emphasizes the importance of data adequacy and the
limitations of acquiring more data in real-life conditions. Dong et al. [47]
Figure 3.5 Model for XAI-AV system.
proposed a state-of-the-art (SOTA) self-attention-based model used in an

explainable end-to-end autonomous driving system. This model uses deep
learning computer vision (DLCV) based AV systems to guide potential driv-
ing actions and explanations. The model outperforms the benchmark model
in terms of action and explanation prediction, demonstrating the efficacy of
deep learning in computer vision applications.
Saravanarajan et al. proposed a method for improving semantic segmenta-
tion of AVs in hazy weather conditions [48]. The approach combines XAI
and Adaptive Dehazing (AD) techniques. The authors trained a deep learn-
ing network using a dataset augmented with synthesized haze images. The
results show improved performance in semantic segmentation compared to
the network trained without haze augmentation. XAI was used to visualize
network behavior and provide insights into the segmentation process. The
proposed method has the potential to enhance the perception capabilities of
AVs in hazy weather conditions. This article discussed the concept of Feder-
ated Learning (FL) of XAI models, known as FED-XAI [49]. The authors
highlight the need for trustworthiness and explainability in AI systems,
especially in the upcoming 6G era. They proposed FED-XAI as a framework

that combines FL for privacy preservation and collaborative training of AI
models with the goal of ensuring adequate explainability of the models. The
article also discusses the challenges and potential applications of FED-XAI
in various domains, including AD and V2X systems.
Deep neural networks are crucial for AD, particularly in visual perception [50].
They are essential for the explainability and inspectability of vehicle algorithms,
which are crucial for legal, insurance, and engineering issues. The authors pro-
posed a tiered approach based on semantic segmentation for an autonomous
driving system. This approach provides meaningful explanations for deci-
sions, addresses computational limitations in production vehicles, and allows
input for interpretable autonomous driving systems [50]. Wang et al. [51]
presented a method called IVMP (Intelligent Vehicle Motion Planning) that
combines a semantic map forecasting module and a motion planning mod-
ule for AVs. The semantic map forecasting module predicts future egocentric
semantic maps in bird’s-eye-view (BEV) space, while the motion planning
module generates trajectories for self-driving vehicles (SDVs). The proposed
method uses knowledge distillation techniques to enhance the student network
based on the teacher network’s dark knowledge. The results show improved
performance in semantic map forecasting and motion planning tasks.
Scalas and Giacinto [52] discussed the importance of explainability in smart
vehicles, particularly in machine learning algorithms. The authors highlight
the need for explanations in both safety-critical and non-safety-critical ML-
based algorithms. They explore the role of explanations in gaining trust in
the decisions made by the system and discuss the different goals, stakeholders,
and techniques involved in generating explanations. The paper also empha-
sizes the impact of explainability on the security of modern vehicles and con-
cludes by discussing key points and concerns related to interpretability [52].
RL is a powerful tool for training artificial intelligence agents in uncertain
environments, including aerospace. However, challenges in characterizing
performance boundaries, explaining decision-making logic, and quantify-
ing uncertainties hinder its adoption in real-time systems. This paper pre-
sented a three-part test and evaluation framework for RL, incorporating
robustness testing, Explainable AI techniques like Shapley Additive Explana-
tions, and validation of outputs with known solutions [53]. The framework
is applied to a high-speed aerospace vehicle emergency descent problem,
revealing significant features affecting RL selection. Omeiza et al. proposed
an interpretable and user-centric approach to explaining autonomous driv-
ing behaviors [27]. It examines different explanation types and their impact
on scenarios, focusing on emergency and collision driving conditions. The
study finds that providing intelligible explanations with causal attributions
can improve accountability in AD, and the proposed interpretable approach
can help achieve this.
3.3 CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS OF XAI

Despite the intensive application of XAI in AD, there are still challenges
that researchers need to look at. Starting from the terminology used in XAI,
the research community needs to agree on the terms and the definitions
sufficiently. Although such challenges are not limited to the applications
of XAI in AD, it would still help a lot to come up with a unified terminol-
ogy around XAI. For example, as explained by Arrieta et al. [54], there is a
lack of consensus on the definition of XAI by D. Gunning [55], where XAI
is defined by bringing understanding and trust concepts and missing other
concepts such as causality, transferability, informativeness, fairness and con-
fidence [56–58]. Other examples are the synonyms of terminology, such as
feature importance, feature relevance, and subjectivity in explanation [59,
60]. Keeping in mind that an explainable system always considers reason-
ing without human post-processing as a final step of the generative pro-
cess [56] or combining reasoning with human-understandable features [61].
Another challenge is related to the accessibility of the explanations to soci-
ety and policymakers. The explanation of decisions was approved in 2016
by the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which
was viewed as a promising way to conduct accountability and transpar-
ency. However, there are some uncertainties regarding their transparency
and accountability [62].
The trade-off between accuracy, interpretability, and explainability poses
a great challenge in XAI. For instance, making a black box model explain-
able does not mean having good performance. In fact, explaining black box
models sometimes results in other problems. Instead, one should also add
some degree of interpretability. Rudin et al. [63] stated that “higher complex-
ity does not inherently mean higher accuracy, and this has been very true for
such DL models.” Figure 3.6 shows why there is an urgent effort to focus
on improving both the performance and explainability of the model. As can
be seen, models with good performance tend to have lower explainability.
Hence, a reasonable trade-off is required.
The use of XAI raises several concerns regarding the lack of explanation
and discrimination due to unfair bias and predictive parity [64, 65]. Data
sets with private and sensitive data may disproportionately affect underrep-
resented groups [66]. Using these data sets leads to discriminatory, unethical,
and unfair issues [67]. To solve bias issues, several studies were proposed.
Kamiran et al. [68] proposed removing the discrimination before a classi-
fier is learned by reweighting the data sets. Others presented a technique
to optimize the representation of the data [69]. Moreover, other techniques
were presented, including bias detection, adversarial debiasing during data
processing, and equalized odds for post-processing [70–73].
Figure 3.6 C
omparison of different ML techniques, explainability, and performance (as pre-
sented by DARPA) [64].
One important goal of XAI is transferability, in which explainability helps

to elucidate the model boundaries. The transferability of post hoc expla-
nation methods is considered a major challenge in XAI. Post hoc explain-
ability is required for improving the interpretability of a black box model.
Figure 3.7 shows an example of a post hoc explanation, where an example
is provided as evidence for why a specific prediction is given. As these post
hoc methods are designed to explain specific models, they may fail for other
models. Thus, generalized methods that are explainable with different post
hoc methods present an open challenge.
Other challenges related to the application of XAI in AD are related to
both scientific and social aspects. Hussain et al. [75] discussed the chal-
lenges of XAI in AV from an “engineering” perspective. In an autonomous
car, XAI is highly environment and domain-dependent, especially with the
existence of GDPR. One of the reasons behind this challenge is the varia-
tion in stakeholders, as different stakeholders mean different requirements.
Therefore, it is expected to take a long time to achieve XAI generalization
and adaptation.
An obvious challenge regarding the application of XAI in AD is its secu-
rity. Although security concerns were raised in the context of AD [76, 77], the
adversarial learning [78, 79] for XAI remains relatively unexplored. More-
over, the transparency and explainable nature of XAI makes it more suscep-
tible to cybersecurity attention. Vigano et al. [80] proposed the Explainable
Security (XSec), where they discussed the “Six Ws” of XSec (Who? What?
Where? When? Why? and How?) as shown in Figure 3.8, where each “W”
Figure 3.7 An example of post hoc explanation [74].
Figure 3.8 The Six Ws of explainable security [80].

helps to elevate the security of XAI. Other attempts to enhance the security
of XAI are providing a taxonomy for XAI methods [81], Structured adver-
sarial attacks [82], and explaining explanations [83].
3.4 FUTURE TRENDS IN XAI FOR AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
The study of future trends of the XAI relies on current knowledge and chal-
lenges. In XAI for AD, any decision-making requires an explanation from its
intelligent driving system. These explanations are in the form of visual and
textual forms or feature importance scores [16]. Figure 3.9 explains how
textual form explanation is used in an autonomous driving task. A natural
language text summarizes a visual observation and is then used to predict
an appropriate action [32]. The importance of an explainable vision could
be achieved through post hoc explanations. As mentioned earlier, post hoc
explanations are helpful in many aspects of XAI. Post hoc explanations can
be a simple yet effective method when making a decision when a regula-
tory investigation is required, as in the “Molly Problem,” where “A young
girl called Molly is crossing the road alone and is hit by an unoccupied
Figure 3.9 An example of textual explanation in AD [32].

self-driving vehicle. There are no eyewitnesses. What should happen next?”.

Post hoc explanations provided a rationale for how the vehicle continued to
drive and caused the accident. This strategy helps investigations in a regula-
tory compliance environment. Therefore, future research is expected to con-
tinue in fields related to the reliability of post hoc explanations, especially
for critical traffic scenarios.
Recently, RL was viewed as a promising method in the autonomous driving
field. Unlike supervised learning, RL is effectively able to learn through trial
and error without supervision [84]. Complex AD tasks can be tackled by merg-
ing RL and DL techniques. For example, training agents with DL was found
to reach a high-performance level in robotics [85, 86] and gaming [87, 88].
RL can handle AD through the Markov Decision Process (MDP), since the
decision-making during driving can be considered a sequential problem. In
model-based RL, the learning can be explainable since the agent first learns
the model of the environment and then adjusts the policy according to its
dynamics [89, 90]. Learning a model in RL facilitates the explainability of
the model. For example, Sutton et al. [91–93] introduced Dyna, which learns
a world model while learning the optimal policy through interacting with
the world. This way, the model is considered explainable due to the fact that
the agent is able to choose an optimal action at a particular time step. These
results promote RL as vital for XAI in future research work, as it becomes
possible for an agent to provide intuitive explanations.
3.5 CONCLUSION
Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) generally emerged to address the

ambiguity inside AI algorithms while preserving high-level performances.
The chapter presents the application of XAI in autonomous driving (AD).
The focus of XAI is to provide explanations, aiding end-users in comprehend-
ing and effectively managing AI systems related to AD. The explainability
involves providing insights to a targeted audience, such as domain experts,
end-users, and modeling experts, to fulfill their needs and ensure they make
sense of their domain knowledge. Several examples of XAI in AD are shown
to give a clear understanding of how XAI affects AD. Currently, XAI in
autonomous AD faces many challenges and limitations in order to fulfill its
expectations. In this chapter, we divided these challenges into two types, i.e.,
challenges related to the terminology and definition of XAI and challenges
related to the application of XAI in AVs. Unified terminology, explainability,
transferability, interpretability, and security of XAI are examples of general
challenges that the research community faces. Moreover, society and policy-
makers play a crucial role in conducting XAI. These challenges are extended
to AD by including the nature of AD as an application of XAI. For example,
integrating XAI in AD is expected to help investigations in a regulatory com-

pliance environment. In the near future, XAI is expected to continue growing
to overcome the current challenges. Reinforcement learning is expected to
gain more attention due to the ability to get intuitive explanations, which
helps to improve the performance of ML in AD.
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Chapter 4
XAI applications in
autonomous vehicles
Lina E. Alatabani and Rashid A. Saeed
4.1 INTRODUCTION
XAI became evident recently as it discusses different techniques and

approaches to break the complexity of machine learning (ML) models and
construct human-level clarifications and explanations. These explanations
would provide a simplified outcome, which results in a clearer view of the
overall model.
XAI is mostly useful in models that produce decisions; such models are
used to improve the performance of autonomous vehicles. What makes XAI
important is that it provides trust; in other words, it is vital to explain these
decisions in order to trust them. Furthermore, XAI detects and comprehends
the bias in these decisions, enabling the system to eliminate bias [1]. It uses a
set of techniques to produce explainability to a complex ML model.
Artificial Intelligence AI provides data-driven decision-making systems
with a number of algorithms ranging from primitive to simple, such as lin-
ear regression, logistic regression, and decision tree (DT). These models are
not as precise as they should be; however, more complex ML models would
naturally serve the quality of real-world data more accurately and efficiently
as real data are highly non-linear and complex in nature, which makes the
processing of this huge amount of data challenging. Deep Nural Network
(DNN) was introduced to overcome the non-linearity and complexity of
real-world data as it extracts useful information from these huge datasets [2].
Following the use of DNNs, researchers have concluded that deeper net-
works are better in producing decisions than shallow networks [3]. Extract-
ing patterns from complex datasets needs a DNN to be trained using large
datasets. DNN uses a set of convolutional filters/kernels to highlight all the
variations resulting from the non-linearity of the real data, and this pro-
vides highly performed AI models. Nevertheless, the addition of filters adds
more pressure to the next layer; therefore, even shallow networks might
have several layers with a number of filters and neurons. As a result, DNN
for complex applications might have a huge number of parameters counting
to millions and even billions; the primary representations and flows with
DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-4 73
Task
Training New ML Explainable Explainable

Data Process Model Interface
USER
Figure 4.1 XAI positioning within a model.
network layers are hard to examine as the network complexity becomes

higher [4].
Many factors influence both the structural design of DNN models and
learning techniques, which creates the black-box dilemma, which represents
ML models that are very complex and cannot be easily interpreted [5].
The main objective of XAI is to get human interpretable models that are
useful in applications that require a high level of security, such as military,
banking, healthcare, and intelligent transport systems. The explainability
provided by XAI helps in justification, control, improvement, and discovery.
It is extremely beneficial to explore these black-box models to help indi-
viduals detect any negative results coming from the process of automated
decision-making, perform more informed options, detect and protect against
security loopholes, and combine algorithms with human values [6].
Surveys have shown that 94% of accidents arise from human-induced fac-
tors, such as distractions, violations of traffic rules, lack of attention, and jay-
walking pedestrians [7, 8]. As a result, the need for XAI in autonomous vehicles
can be summed up into these areas: (1) traffic accident and safety issues, and
(2) the design, development, and implementation of autonomous vehicles
should consider human views as humans are the users of this technology, i.e.,
taking the user’s views and opinions into consideration when attempting to
design an autonomous vehicle system. Explaining decisions provided by ML
models provides expressive information about the cause of the action taken in
critical situations [9,10]. Considering these diverse factors, XAI can provide
benefits to autonomous vehicles represented in human-centered design, trust,
transparency, and accountability in the overall system [11].
4.2 BACKGROUND AND REVIEW OF RELATED WORK
4.2.1 XAI method f or convolutional neural networks

in self-driving cars
Hong-Sik Kim and Inwhee JoeID [14] proposed an XAI method that con-
sists of multiple stages to the learning process in convolutional neural
networks, which is represented by multiple layers to the neural networks
XAI applications in autonomous vehicles 75
aiming at learning a certain behavior in autonomous vehicles. The method-

ology consists of two preparatory stages and four stages in the proposed
XAI algorithm that starts with a gray-scaling phase of the images, which
turns the images into gray images in order to simplify the learning process,
then it moves to a pre-learning phase, of which the main job is to clean the
learning dataset and remove any redundancy. Next, the main XAI algorithm
operates first with the modifying image stage, the main purpose of which
is to explain the changes that were made to an image, which is done to all
parts of the image. The second stage is finding the vector, which is a com-
parative stage that compares the original images to the modified images by
inputting both images into the network and generating the output vectors
of the last hidden layer for all images. The third stage is the computing
difference stage, which purposely compares the original output vectors for
the original images and modified output vectors for the modified images
and produces the difference using Euclidean distance. The last stage in the
XAI methodology is making explanations, which aims at filling all parts of
the copied original images with relative amounts to the resulting difference
between the original output vector and modified output vector computed
in the previous stage [12].
The main XAI algorithm describes each element of the methodology with
a given representation to support the mathematical implementation of the
algorithm, including such elements as the original image, the width and
height of the image, the sub-image, and the number of sub-images divided
from the original image, the width and height of the sub-images, the vector
of the last hidden layer in the CNN, and the number of elements. This is to
calculate the difference between the original output vectors for the original
images and modified output vectors for the modified images; this is repre-
sented by:
(1)
Where V0 is the vector of the last hidden layer, is the vector of the last
hidden layer when inputting sub-images n,m, and K is the number of ele-
ments in the vector [13].
The algorithm functions by adding a gray-scaling function and then gen-
erating an explanation image where a dataset of four images was used from
a dataset containing two categories of images: “vehicle and non-vehicle”.
A test image was input to the pre-trained CNN to get preliminary results. In
calculating the difference stage, the larger the difference, the better the result
of the explanation. As a result, the methodology helped in analyzing the pre-
diction capabilities of the CNN model to ensure its credibility in addition to
analyzing the reasons why CNN models might fail in detecting autonomous
vehicle accidents [14].
4.2.2 T he internet of vehicles structure

and need for XAI-IDS
The necessity of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in developing an
intrusion detection system within an Internet of Vehicles (IoV) framework
arises due to the extensive data exchange among vehicles, communication
towers, and roadside units in such networks. According to Huang [15]
and Contreras-Castillo et al. [16], an IoV network consists of three lay-
ers: an application layer (service platform), a network layer (channel for
V2X communication), and a perception layer (ensuring the incorporation of
intelligent devices into the connected vehicles). IoV is often faced with a chal-
lenging issue when it comes to effective communications between thousands
of connected vehicles, onboard unit data processing, big data combination
with IoV, and intrusion detection and prevention [48]. In combination with
ML, AI has improved the performance of IoV network efficiency in addition
to other issues such as the rapidly changing nature of IoV, communication
channel modeling, and energy efficiency. Several authors have been discuss-
ing the application of XAI to resolve the security aspect of the network. This
is to overcome the issues not efficiently covered by the traditional AI/ML
algorithms [17].
4.2.3 XAI frameworks

Sarhan et al. [18] and Das et al. [19] discussed the introduction of XAI in
IoV models for its ability to explain and interpret classification model deci-
sions. The aim of XAI is to manage progressive threats and attack techniques
efficiently and to develop ML algorithms that create more explainable tech-
niques while maintaining effective learning performance. XAI manifests the
human perspective of understanding the model’s decisions. As a quickly
spreading area, it helps with the extraction of information and anticipation
of the generated results with the utmost transparency [20].
The National Institute of Standards (NIST) stated types of explanations
for AI as follows: (1) inform the subject of an algorithm by explaining how
the model ensures the security of the system, (2) comply with regulations, for
example, AI algorithms should give details on how they follow applicable
traffic laws in an IoV system, (3) build community trust in AI systems by
developing explanations that support the model and methodology [21], and
(4) help with coming system development.
4.2.4 Practical implementation of XAI-based models

Slijepcevic, Horst, Lapuschkin, Raberger, Zeppelzauer, Samek, Breiteneder,
Schöllhorn, and Horsak used layer-wise relevance propagation (LRP) incor-
porating Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to decompose the input
significance ratings; LRP is a technique used for generating explanations for

ML models predictions operating in the input space [22, 23].
Another study showed the employment of deep neural networks with
SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP), also called “DeepSHAP”, which is
able to interpret the effectiveness of ML for spoofing identification. The
study’s results showed that SHAP analysis calls attention to the consider-
ation accommodated by a given classifier at decreased Spectro-temporal
ranges, which showed increased trustworthiness of the entire system when
experimented with by detecting attacks [24–26].
4.3 INTERNET OF VEHICLES (IOV) NETWORK

ARCHITECTURE
The IoV is a technology that allows vehicles to communicate with their sur-
roundings in a connected manner using a certain network topology. The
minimal IoV network architecture consists of three major elements: (1)
cloud, (2) connection, and (3) clients. The main target of IoV is to process
the collected data within the network securely to improve the quality of
autonomous behavior and road safety [27]. This is all incorporated with
new and emerging technologies, such as fifth generation (5G), to make use of
the features provided by them, such as Vehicular Cloud Computing (VCC),
advanced signal processing, and Software Defined Network (SDN), allow
maximum use of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) requirements.
The cloud is responsible for the storage and commuting of all data distrib-
uted on the network. The communications element is the backbone of the
architecture that encompasses wireless communication technology such as
5G. The client elements are the end users using the IoV system [28].
Figure 4.2 Autonomous vehicle components and their functions and the levels of autonomy.
A universal architecture was introduced in research that states that a

vehicle has multiple communication channels with its surroundings, sug-
gesting two interaction models: Intra-Vehicle, where the communications
interactions take place within the vehicle itself (examples of this model are
V2S, V2D, and D2D), and Inter-Vehicle, where the interactions take place
between vehicles and between the vehicle and its surroundings (examples of
this model are V2V, V2I, V2P, V2H, V2R, V2B, V2X, and V2G). A summary
of these interactions is as follows.
I. Vehicle-to-Sensors (V2S)
Sensors and actuators are required for communication with other devices
and infrastructure using different technologies.
II. Vehicle-to-Driver (V2D)
Vehicles within the IoV infrastructure send alerts and important messages
to drivers of vehicles and motorcycles. Interaction of vehicles with the envi-
ronment and motorcycles uses Bluetooth to send alerts to the motorcycle
driver’s audio helmet.
III. Device-to-Device (D2D)
This interaction model states that a number of devices connect and com-
municate with one another through the use of IP networks or the Internet.
They use protocols such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, or Z-Wave to develop direct
D2D communication.
IV. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V)
Vehicles communicate with each other to share important information,

such as location, using GPS and vision systems to allow accurate positioning.
V. Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P)
LED projection is used to project image information on road surfaces,

allowing communication between humans and cars to decrease pedestrian
accidents at night.
VI. Vehicle-to-roadside (V2R)
Interaction between vehicles and roadside units aims to broadcast and

collect information regarding vehicle behavior and road safety reports. V2R
communication provides instant response to safety concerns, detects incom-

ing crashes, and alerts the driver to take the necessary safety measures.
VII. Vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I)
In this communication, data is exchanged between vehicles and road infra-

structure. This is enabled by a combination of hardware, software, and firm-
ware. Communication has been established with road infrastructure such as
lane markings, road signs, and traffic lights, which broadcast information
wirelessly to vehicles and vice versa.
VIII. Vehicle-to-Barrier (V2B)
V2B ensures the minimization of passenger vehicle crashes caused by

(ROR) Run-off-Road crashes. This is feasible through the development of
communication systems along the road.
IX. Vehicle-to-Home (V2H)
V2H provides backup to power outages by using bidirectional charging to

transfer the energy stored in the battery of parked electric vehicles.
X. Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X)
V2X stands for the ability to communicate between the vehicle and other
elements within an IoV system, such as sensors and other sources of informa-
tion, to collect data through high-bandwidth, low-latency, and highly reli-
able links to reach a fully autonomous driving experience.
XI. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
With the introduction of electric vehicles (EVs), the V2G system has intro-
duced benefits to power systems by stabilizing the fluctuations and instability
of energy demands using Plug-in electric vehicles to reduce energy costs [29].
4.3.1 Autonomous vehicle components and design

AI techniques and methods are used in most self-driving vehicle compo-
nents, as autonomous vehicles are complex systems in need of careful design
and deployment to overcome security challenges. Introducing explainability
to autonomous vehicle systems will provide AI models with a human-like
understanding of driver behavior, view of road conditions, and the overall

environment [30].
An autonomous vehicle has a set of components working together to serve
the autonomy of vehicles. These components are a minimum requirement
that must be available at any AV, as stated in what follows [31].
I. Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS allows the vehicle to navigate freely in an area without needing

human intervention.
II. Radar and Ultrasonic Sensors
These sensors measure the distance between a car and any surrounding
obstacles, deriving car speed, road conditions, and overall vehicle behavior.
III. Light Detection and Ranging LiDAR
LiDAR optimizes laser lights to calculate the distance between still and
moving objects.
IV. Central Computing Unit (CCU)
The CCU processes and analyzes the data collected from sensors and
maps them to read conditions. AI mechanisms and methods are continuously
applied to the CCU to improve the autonomy experience.
V. Video Cameras
Video cameras detect traffic lights and moving objects and help in parking
and detecting road conditions. Modern cars have 360○ camera view [32].
The autonomy of vehicles is characterized by five levels, ranging from
Level 0 up to Level 5. Level 0 means no automation, and Level 5 aims at full
automation of the driving experience to eliminate driver-related errors, i.e.,
the human factor.
Autonomous car developers use modern design techniques, such as simu-
lation and virtual modeling techniques, for better optimization and integra-
tion of components used in vehicle development achieved by using hardware
and software used by the automotive concept design discipline [32].
4.3.1.1 AV technologies
Emerging technologies in autonomous vehicles aim to reduce the rate at
which accidents occur; consequently, vehicle weight reduces as AV technol-
ogies are integrated into the majority of vehicles. Emerging technologies
such as Lane Change Assistant (LCA) will help achieve the objective of
AV [33].
I. Lane Change Assistant (LCA)
Monitors a surrounding area of 50 meters and then sends a warning to

the driver should any dangerous situation occur. It is mounted on the sides
of the vehicle and the front and back.
II. Park Distance Control (PDC)
Informs the driver through the display, audio, or optical signals when the
driver is attempting to park the vehicle. It helps the driver to maneuver in
tight spaces.
III. Lane Departure Warning (LDW)
Sends vibrations in the vehicle’s seat or the steering wheel when the driver
is about to leave the lane accidentally.
IV. Forward Collision Warning (FCW)
Using radar sensors mounted on the front of the vehicle, FCW acts as a
warning when the distance between the vehicle and the one in front of it is
short.
V. Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
With the use of a distance sensor and adjacent lever, the ACC component
measures the distance and speed with relevance to the vehicles ahead.
VI. Stop-and-Go Control (SAGC)
Automatic distance control with a range set between 0 to 250 Km/h in

addition to detecting vehicles ahead with the same system limits.
VII. Lane Keeping Assist (LKA)
Detects lane markings and performs corrective action to adjust and keep
the vehicle in the lane and prevent it from deviating to other lanes.
VIII. Park Assist (PA)
Provides automatic guidance for a vehicle to park without intervention

from the driver. It also calculates parking space.
Long Range Radar Short & Medium Range Radar Camera Long Range LiDAR Short Range LiDAR
Level 2 Level 3 Level 5
ew nd
Vi rou
r
Su
Park assist
Park assist
Adaptive Automatic Traffic Sign Rear
ew nd
Vi rou
pedestrian Cross Collision
Cruise collision
r
Su
Recognition traffic alert Warning
Control avoidance
ew d
Vi oun
rr
Su
Figure 4.3 Autonomous vehicle components and their function and the levels of autonomy.
4.3.1.2 AV components communication mechanism

Communication between the components occurs through the use of the
Controller Area Network (CAN bus), which connects with the Electronic
Control Units (ECUs) to share the information collected by the ECUs. AV
technologies move the vehicle by the information collected from various
sensors that detect important data, such as speed, distance, environmental
conditions, lane, LiDAR, and radar.
The CAN bus mechanism works by having two basic wires: one to transmit
and the other to receive from the ACC. This means that each ECU coming to
the CAN system transmits a size 0 to 8 bytes message in the message header.
As multiple messages are received, their priority should be determined by the
message header, which sends the message with the highest priority. Multiple
systems are connected to the CAN bus line, working in harmony to direct a
vehicle in a smart system setting [34].
I. Engine Control Module (ECU)
The ECU is responsible for adjusting the travel speed by managing the
digital throttle of the vehicle’s power engine,
II. Brake Control Module (BCU)
The BCU controls the counterforce of the system and sets on the digital
brake system when it is called by the ACC module.
III. The use of sensors (such as the Brake Pedal Sensor, Radar, Accelera-
tor Pedal Sensor, etc.) and actuators (such as the Brake Actuator
[BA] and Throttle Actuator [TA], etc.) are increasing rapidly with
additional functions in autonomous vehicles. The main functional-
ity of Brake Assist Controller is to control vehicle speed by sending
signals to the vehicle throttle actuator (TAC), whose main func-
tion is to manage the throttle value based on the needs of the ACC
system.
IV. The radar system contains a set of multiple radars installed in the
front, rear, and sides of the vehicle to detect surrounding objects. This
provides the ability to detect vehicles and objects at a distance up to
120 meters away because the radar system uses three overlapping
radar beams at 76–77 Khz frequency.
An autonomous vehicle’s function is to decrease the rate of accidents and

increase driver satisfaction with the autonomous driving experience by trav-
eling at safe speed limits with routes set up by the driver.
Four control processes manage the speed and suitable distance between
vehicles. These processes are the Lane Keeping System (LKAS), Electric
Power Assisted Steering System (EPAS), CCD Camera, and ACC system
[35, 36].
Figure 4.4 Autonomous vehicle technology components.

4.3.2 Applications and services

Autonomous vehicles are a rapidly growing concept with the technological
advancement of today’s smart applications in smart cities and the IoT. There
is a need for driverless vehicles to work within the idea of smart cities in
many applications, such as Intelligent Transportation Systems with driver-
less buses, trains, taxis, etc., spreading to reach other applications, such as
autonomous robots and drones. The applications and services provided by
AV are discussed in the following list.
I. Public Transportation
AV was first discussed in the application of public transportation systems

in response to the need for an increased safety system in crowded and clut-
tered areas.
II. Autonomous Underground Vehicle
Used in many applications, such as transportation and underground min-

ing, a fully automated underground vehicle was introduced in Denmark with
high performance that encouraged the public to optimize it fully in the trans-
portation system.
III. Autonomous Electric Tram
Developed in 2018 using smart technologies such as intelligent sensors,

smart cameras, and intelligent LiDAR systems, autonomous electric trams
travel through crowded areas without obstacles. Trams will operate safely
due to the use of intelligent algorithms and intelligent controlling and moni-
toring systems with a prompt response to crossing objects, such as humans,
animals, other vehicles, or any other obstacles.
IV. Autonomous Microbus
With the aim of decreasing the public transportation load and the utili-
zation of available resources, the first autonomous microbus was tested in
Finland during the year 2018. It is mostly suitable for transporting people
short distances and for transporting employees.
V. Automated Robotics Bus
A Japan–Finland effort led to the introduction of an automated shuttle

that operates in any weather condition with accurate obstacle detection and
navigation. It moves at a speed of 45 Km/h and carries 18 passengers.
VI. Autonomous Electric Helicopter
Introduced in 2020 by Airbus, VSR700 is a prototype of the first electric

autonomous helicopter. It was developed to help naval assets by enhancing
information collection capabilities to maximize the benefits of surveillance
since it is equipped with smart technologies, such as sensors and cameras.
VII. Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV)
Different types of autonomous robots serve functions and have appli-

cations in marine and underwater services. AUVs include marine robots,
hybrid automated underwater vehicles, bluefin hovering AUVs, hybrid dol-
phins, and solar-powered autonomous vehicles (SAUVs). The main purpose
of this type of system is to collect enhanced images of the seafloor and high-
resolution imagery for the vessels on the surface.
Other applications and services start from surveillance and remote sensing
through autonomous drones, construction through autonomous trucks, and
agriculture and mining through autonomous vehicles of agriculture and min-
ing. These services and applications aim for better utilization of technology
to serve humanity by improving quality of life through the use of technology
and artificial intelligence [37].
4.3.3 Current issues

Although rapid technological development is present when considering the
development of autonomous vehicles, they are faced with issues and chal-
lenges that modern research continuously addresses.
One of the commonly known issues concerning the development of self-
driving cars is that it is provided a perfect environment to learn and act upon,
which resembles the uncertain Markov Decision Process (uMDP) in which
the agent has full observation state about the environment to make the opti-
mal decision. But, this is not the case in real-world applications where the
information fed to vehicles can be missing, or environmental conditions can
affect vision. Here, the problem equals the uncertain Partially Observable
Markov Decision Process (uPOMDP), which means that the state and the
probability of the transition function are uncertain. Unlike the computa-
tional representation of the probabilities and transition functions, which are
easily modeled, the real-world application of this representation is complex.
Additionally, in real-world applications, the vehicle is not the only agent
in an environment; rather, it is one among many other agents, and it needs
to act and interact with these agents, which maximizes the complexity of the
issue to resemble uncertain Partially Observable Stochastic Game (uPOSG),
which is one of the most difficult classes of computational problems to solve.
Another problem is that, just like humans, learning is an endless journey.

Therefore, intelligent agents need to be learning continuously to improve the
system. It is almost impossible to learn and predict every possible scenario
in a rapidly changing environment. This could be addressed through the
suggestion of transferred learning, where a vehicle learns from a previously
learned model to transfer the knowledge acquired previously by adding new
environment changes [38].
Another challenge is the insufficient implementation of the proposed algo-
rithms in real-world scenarios due to a lack of data in this area of research.
No real-world experiments are done in the area of pedestrian detection to
clarify the ability of the proposed method to classify objects in real time
rather than in a learning environment. Also, studies of the prediction of
pedestrian behavior lack sufficient experimentation and testing.
These issues could be addressed and possibly solved by the introduction
of XIA, which are autonomous vehicles where a human overview is needed
in the decision-making process of self-driving vehicles [39].
4.4 XAI METHODS AND ALGORITHMS
4.4.1 XAI methods can be sub-divided

into four categories
I. Complexity-Related
This can be categorized into two types: post hoc, which is presented in
addition to the black-box model, and by design, which is presented within
the model training phase. The complexity of ML models is related to their
interpretability, i.e., an extremely complex model provides less interpretabil-
ity [40–42].
II. Model-Related
This is classified into model-specific, which can only be used with specified
types of algorithms, while model-agnostic is the opposite; it can be applied
to any algorithm. Model-specific makes the selection of models closed to
certain types of models, which decreases the model’s representation and
degrades the accuracy. On the other hand, the opposite is applied in model-
agnostic interpretation [43].
III. Scope-Related
This has two classifications: global and local. Global means that the
overall system should be understood along with the relationship between
the input and output variables to allow every decision to be understand-

able. It is useful but difficult to implement. Local allows only one deci-
sion to be explained. This type is easy to implement and widely used
[44, 45].
IV. Input Data Types
There is a huge amount of data available to be used in models, which

allows the determination of the type of exploitability to use depending on the
available data type, which varies between tabular, image, text, or graphical.
More than one type of data can be used in multiple settings [46, 47].
There are five types of XAI methods: explanation by influence, visual

explanations, explanation by simplification, example-based explanation,
and text explanations.
I. Explanation by Influence
Explanation by influence methods aims to analyze the relevance of model

features for prediction performance. This type has three characteristics: sen-
sitivity analysis, layer-wise relevance propagation (LRP), and feature impor-
tance. Sensitivity analysis aims to discover the influence of the input or
weight disturbance on the output. LRP includes multiple layers, such as
input, hidden, and output layers of artificial neural networks (ANN), where
a relevance value can be calculated backward, starting from the output layer
and calculating the value at each neuron in each layer with respect to the
weights, activation, and relevance value of the neuron on a deeper layer.
Feature extraction methods can generate either local or global explana-
tions by using SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) and random trees,
respectively, by which the contribution of each feature to the prediction is
calculated.
II. Visual Explanation
Visual explanation aims to make illustrations of AI model’s behavior by

interaction analysis of input parameters. It is used with other techniques
to increase the understanding of models. Partial Dependence Plot (PDP),
Individual Conditional Expectation (ICE), and Feature Relevance Visualiza-
tion are techniques used in visualization. PDP maps the partial relationships
between input variables and the predicted outcome of post hoc interpretable
AI algorithms. ICE is a model-agnostic way that activates local interpretabil-
ity. Feature importance collects more than one method to visualize specific
features relevant to an AI algorithm [48].
III. Explanation by Simplification
Explanation by simplification develops new explainable models based on

the trained AI model. This leads to decreased complexity while maintaining
prediction accuracy within the same level. Three approaches are used to reach
explanation by simplification: rule extraction, model distillation, and sur-
rogate models. The objective of rule extraction is achieved through extract-
ing rules for the decision-making path of ANN using input and output data.
Model distillation is a type of model compression applied to Deep Neural
Networks (DNN), while a deep network is referred to as teacher-trained with
large datasets, which produces a less complicated model referred to as “stu-
dent”. The teacher transferred the trained model as knowledge to the student
with the goal of mimicking the teacher. This leads to a less complex model
while maintaining prediction accuracy. The surrogate model is model-agnostic
with local or global interpretability. Its aim is reducing model complexity.
These models are approximations of the actual AI algorithms through the use
of linear regression to train on the prediction of the black-box model [49].
IV. Example-Based Explanation
Example-based explanation models are often used if the distribution of

the training datasets is complicated and difficult to comprehend. This model
uses approaches like prototypes, criticisms, and counterfactual explanations.
A prototype is a sample of the bigger original dataset, “a representative data
from the original dataset”, criticism is “an instance of data that is not well
represented by the set of prototypes”, and counterfactual explanations aim
to fetch the slightest change in the feature value so it can alter the decision
to the needed outcome [50].
V. Text Explanation
Text explanation supplies a natural language resulting from a learning

process that provides an explanation of the AI model’s results. Therefore, it
cannot be considered a stand-alone explanation method; as a result, it is used
with other methods and techniques that provide visual inputs to the text
explanation model, and a natural language is generated as an output [51].
4.4.2 XAI algorithms in autonomous vehicles

Explainability defines the ability to understand and clarify the internal processes
of Deep Learning and ML that are to be presented in human terms. On the other
hand, interpretability refers to the prediction of what will come next based on
the explained models. It observes the causes and effects of an operated model.
I. Explainability
In this context, explainability refers to the active properties of a learning

model based on succeeding knowledge targeted at clearing its functionality.
Explainability is subjective; it depends on the end-user’s insight into the pro-
vided explanation and whether it sounds believable or not.
II. Interpretability
Defined as having passive property of an ML model based on previous

knowledge, its aim is to make sure that a learning model is logically com-
prehensible to a human observer using proper tools, such as visual or tex-
tual, to boost transparency. Interpretability is defined by two characteristics:
transparency and completeness. There are dimensions defining transparency
which are simulatability, decomposability, and algorithmic.
• Simulatability
This is viewed at the model level, where transparency is defined by the ability
of a person to understand the entire model. A user should be able to take input
data, place it side by side with parameters, and produce predictions accordingly.
• Decomposability
With individual components in view, a model is sub-divided into parts

(inputs, parameters, and computations) and then explained depending on
the decomposition of the given model.
• Algorithmic
Explaining a model is performed at the training algorithm level. This is to

understand the actual process a model performs to generate outputs.
Figure 4.5 XAI chart, its divisions, and methods.

Completeness is aiming at precisely assessing the functionality of a model;

therefore, we can say that an explanation is complete if it anticipates or pre-
dicts the behavior of a system within different conditions. It is challenging for
XAI to provide explanations that are both interpretable and complete [52].
4.4.2.1 Algorithm 1
Following equation one in the related work section, a proposed algorithm
based on CNN first inputs an image with its original size IO into the CNN
and then generates the vector of the last hidden layer VO, in the next stem of
the algorithm, the original sized image is sub-divided into n×m sub-images,
and then the new sub-images I0,0, . . ., I(N−1),(M−1) are input into the CNN and
generate the vector of the last hidden layer once again. Finally, the difference
dif(VO, Vn,m) between VO and Vn,m is calculated using Euclidean distance. All
of these steps are made to prepare for the making an explanation step, where
a copy of the original image IO is made then denoted by IC, then the area of
IC corresponding to In,m, n = 0, . . .,N−1, m = 0, M−1 is filled with purple
color, where the cloudiness is in the amount of the value dif(VO, Vn,m) the
larger this value, the more clear the color purple in the filled area. With these
given insights, we can use the copied image IC to approximate the part of
the image that impacted the final prediction of the model, as the last hidden
layer output is used instead of the final prediction because the last hidden
layer contains more parameters and the output value of the last hidden layer
is impacted by the difference between the input.
The proposed algorithm has three main functions: function grayscale
(img), function predict (img, model, i), and function fill (img, y0, y1, x0, x1,
opacity, explan). Function grayscale (img) takes an input image (img) and
executes gray-scaling to img and then returns the gray-scaled image. Func-
tion predict (img, model, i) is a set of parameters, an input image img, con-
volutional neural network model model, and layer index i = 0, . . ., layers-1
for layers equals the number of layers in the model. It is true that iout < iin
where iout is the output of a layer, with index iout and iin is the input of the next
layer, which has been extracted from the output of the previous layer. Func-
tion fill (img, y0, y1, x0, x1, opacity, explan) gets the original image img and
integer values y0, y1, x0, x1 to copy the original image and fill the area within
the image with black when explan = false or purple when explan = true with
opacity variation range from 0.0 to 0.1 when explan = false or 0.75 when
explan = true, x0 to x1 (x0 < x1) represents the horizontal range of the area
and y0 to y1 (y0 < y1) represents the vertical range of the area [14].
4.4.2.2 Algorithm 2
Yolo V4 algorithm was proposed for use in traffic sign recognition with
the use of a proper dataset. It is constructed with a three element structure
consisting of (1) backbone, (2) neck, and (3) head. The backbone uses a neu-
ral activation function named mish, which can be represented by:
(2)
Where ln (1+ e x ) represents the soft plus activation function.

Bag of Freebies (BoF) is a technique that lets the object detector extract
more reliable accuracy without adding any load to the inference cost by
replacing the training strategy or updating the training expense. On the other
hand, the Bag of Special (BoS) presents enhancements in the receptive field,
introduction of features, postprocessing, and use of attention. All these previ-
ous techniques are specifications of the Yolo V4 algorithm.
With the introduction of Yolo V4-tiny, more enhancements have been added
to the model, such as faster training, detection, and recognition processes
in addition to its efficient performance when we have limited computing
resources. The difference between Yolo V4 and Yolo V4-tiny is that the net-
work size decreases significantly, and the convolutional layer is compressed.
Yolo algorithm is an end-to-end network construction; it adopts one-stage
dense prediction in the head element. It also divides the input images into
grids; clusters are used to determine boundary lines.
The K-means technique is used to demonstrate dimensional clusters with
an aimed boxes dataset and receives nine boxes of varied sizes. Moreover, the
algorithm permits bounding box anchors for all ground-truth objects, enabling
the grid to identify an object. The algorithm starts with given k cluster center
points with a known width and height anchor box (Wi,Hi),i ∈{1, 2, 3, 4,...k},
the next step is to approximate the distance between ground truth and all
cluster cored (box,centroid) = 1 – IoU (box,centroid), once this step is done,
1 1
the cluster center is recalculated using Wi Wi ,H i H i where N i
Ni Ni
is the number of clusters. Re-execute the previous steps until groups are
gathered.
Yolo V4 architecture consists of five phases as follows:
I. Separates the image into (S × S) grids, then it constructs K bounding

boxes for each grid along with an approximate of anchor boxes.
II. The CNN draws out all the object features from images, then it pre-
dicts the bounding boxes b according to:
bx = (t x ) cx
(3)
by = (t y ) c y
(4)
bw = pwetw
(5)
bh = ph eth
(6)
Where x,y are the core coordinates, w, h are the width and height of the
estimates, t is the network output, cx and c y are the top left coordinates, and
pw and ph are the anchor dimensions of the box.
CNN also estimates the class for class=[ P1, P 2, P 3, P 4]T
III. A review of the excellent confidence IOU truthpred of the K bounding boxes,
with the condition IOU thres ; if IOU truth
pred > IOU thres, then the bounding
box contains the object; otherwise, it doesn’t include the object.
IV. The category with the largest probability value as the target type is
chosen.
V. To execute the full local search to opt out of the duplicated boxes and
output, Non-Maximum Suppression (NMS) is used.
A dataset containing traffic signs is used to train the model [53].
4.5 XAI MODELS TO IMPROVE OVERALL

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
For XAI, three more steps are to be added to the detection model, including
mask generation, model inquiry, and saliency estimation.
I. Mask Generation
For an input image I and a bounding box b = (x1, y1, x2, y2) detected by a
detection function f a set of local masks LM is generated by masking various
parts of b and its closest pixels LM = {lm1, lm2, . . ., lmN}. The local masking
area MA is calculated by considering coordinates of b and five surrounding
pixels MA = {x1–5, y1–5, x2 +5,y2 +5}. The masking process is initiated by
individually sub-dividing the masking area by two in horizontal and vertical
directions, and then the sub-divided areas are once again divided into two,
which continues until it reaches smaller sub-areas with up to 20 pixels. Each
sub-area is masked by replacing the value of pixels with the average of pixel
values. Local masks aim at “estimating the importance of pixels within a
detected object and its surroundings”.
Global Masking is a process that aims to detect outliers or data irrelevant
to the detected object. It works by investigating parts of the input image
and determining if these outliers have an effect on the output of the model.
Global masks usually come in two sizes of pixels: 20 × 20 and 50 × 50.
The process of global mask generation is initiated by masking a square
with the size 20 × 20 or 50 × 50 at the upper left side of the image. After-
ward, the square moves in vertical and horizontal directions, and the process
proceeds until the masking reaches the lower right side of the image; then the
pixel value is replaced the same way in the local masking process.
II. Model Inquiry
Model inquiry acts as a mediator between the object detection model and
the explanation model. This model receives the masked images, submits
them back into the object detection model in order to generate new bound-
ing boxes to be detected by the object detector, and then sends them to the
saliency estimation module. The inquiry model is a model-agnostic method
that has no data about the AI technique used, whether the neural network,
activation function, loss function, or the hyperparameters used in the ML
model; i.e., it’s a stand-alone method that can be used to explain any object
detection model, despite which ML model is used.
III. Saliency Estimation
This module collects the original estimation generated by the object detec-
tion in addition to the estimations generated by the local and global masks.
It aims to calculate the difference between the original and new predictions,
and, finally, it develops a heat map to visualize the importance of the differ-
ence between the original and new images for a particular detected object
within an image.
This process can be represented mathematically by the given inputs: input
image I with a size of w × h, an original bounding box generated by object
detection b = (x1, y1, x2, y2) with a detection function f, local masks LM =
{lm1, lm2, . . ., lmN}, Global masks GM ={gm1,gm2, . . .,gmj}, a combination
of new bounding boxes B′={b1′, b2′ ,  . , bk′ } which are detected by a detection
function f for all the globally and locally masked copies of the input image
I where bk {x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 }. The goal is to calculate a saliency map in the form
of a matrix with the size of w × h.
The mathematical procedure is as follows:
similarity (b, B ) max IOU (b,bk ) (7)

bk B
In this equation, the similarity between the original and new bounding
boxes is calculated using the maximum Intersection Over Unit between b
and every bk B . This is done for all local masks lmn ∈ LM.
The similarity value falls in a range between 0 and 1, calculated as the
IOU threshold.
IOU thres ; if IOU trut h

pred > IOU thres (8)
If the value is larger than the IOU threshold, then an object that has been
detected within the new masked image that has a large amount of shared
area with the object in the original image, i.e., the original detected box b
resembles the new bounding box of the masked images bk B
However, if the similarity is smaller than the IOU threshold, it means the
difference between the original and new masked images is huge. This differ-
ence can be calculated using the minimum distance between b and bk B .
difference(b,B ) min Distance(b,bk ) (9)

bk B
1
Where Distance (b,bk ) for the distance between two bound-
IOU (b,bk )
ing boxes is measured by the inverse of IOU between the boxes. With the
addition of the distance between b and B ′ the saliency map can be calculated
as:
SM [lmn ] SM [lmn ] difference (b,B ) (10)
The same saliency process for local masks is done to the global mask for
gmj ∈ GM.
For the last stage in the explanation method, the heatmap is visualized by
mapping the saliency map SM on the input image with different colors that
specify the levels of importance [54].
4.6 DISCUSSION
The performance of models is often affected by the training dataset used;

thus, there are reliable datasets used such as “vehicle vs. non-vehicle”,
“Taiwan Traffic Sign Dataset”, and “Common Objects in Context Dataset
(COCO)”. These datasets contain thousands and hundreds of thousands of
traffic images used to train models on object detection. With the introduc-
tion of XAI into models, more meaningful results are shown, which leads to
elevated performance in the autonomous vehicles service. This method pres-
ents the original image with visualization explanations to see which image
has influenced the final prediction. Explainability contributes to understand-
ing the prediction patterns of CNN models to promote transparency and
trustworthiness. Additionally, when autonomous cars are involved in acci-
dents, XAI helps analyze why the CNN model failed to predict it correctly.
Yolo V4 showed highly dependable precision in the detection of objects.
Its performance was tested against prediction accuracy and detection speed,
and Yolo V4 obtained the highest precision accuracy compared to other
algorithms. As Yolo is one-stage object detection, it divides an input image
I into N grids with equal sizes; afterward, it detects and localizes objects
within grids. Having one-stage detection properties, Yolo can perform much
faster than other methods with two-stage properties, such as R-CNN and
fast R-CNN. This makes it efficient for applications in real-time environ-

ments. The heatmap generated to visualize the explanation of the detection
model represents each object with a different color, identifying Car, Truck,
Bus, and Motorcycle by green-, purple-, orange-, and yellow-colored bound-
ing boxes. Then it shows objects that are important in determining the detec-
tion, such as the lower parts of the vehicle because the hood, wheels, and
lower parts are highly important to detect trucks while wheels, hood, and
boot had higher importance in detecting cars, and the wheels and seat had
higher value in the detection of motorcycles [14, 53, 54].
4.7 CONCLUSION
As AI advances with ML and deep learning, its services in multiple aspects

of modern life, such as smart cities, automation, security, and health, will
increase. More human-intensive points of view are needed to make the
human vs. machine interaction outcomes more effective for the applications
under review.
The introduction of explainable AI (XAI) methods has added a human
perspective to AI models in order to make them more understandable, which
helps in recognizing patterns within the models, how they operate, and why
they sometimes fail to perform.
Through this chapter, the operations, methods, and architectures of XAI
and autonomous vehicles were discussed, with examples of algorithms that
are used in current research in the field of autonomous vehicles. The results
of these methods were presented in the discussion section, showing that the
introduction of XAI in autonomous vehicles has improved the performance
of their applications. The execution of XAI within autonomous vehicles will
lead to embracing the fact that fully autonomous vehicles can be more benefi-
cial in applications such as ITS. The human perspective added to ML and DL
models used in autonomous vehicles will eventually lead to the introduction
of fully autonomous vehicles due to the trustworthiness introduced by XAI.
It is highly recommended that XAI be applied to other tasks served by
ML models, such as classification, segmentation, lane recognition, and path
planning. This will result in fewer traffic collisions, less traffic, and a more
eco-friendly world.
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Chapter 5
Emerging applications and

future scope of internet of
vehicles for smart cities
A Survey
Jyoti Sharma, Manish Bhardwaj,
and Neelam Chantola
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the era of the internet, transportation systems can be seen as a mix of tra-
ditional and technological systems where traditional consists of autonomous
vehicles and technological consists of connected vehicles [1–3]. Autonomous
vehicles focus on intravehicle communication, whereas connected vehicles
focus on intervehicle communication. The motivation behind developing a
transportation system always remains safety by overcoming several issues
and challenges in existing systems. The evolution of IoV started with the
invention of wheels and continues through self-driving cars ranging from
light to heavy vehicles [4]. In the initial years of the invention of automobiles,
evolution has been very slow, but in the last two decades, it has grown expo-
nentially after merging Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
and the transportation sector. ICT has significantly reduced some issues like
congestion, safety, security and infotainment on the road to avoiding any
casualties happening on the roads. It is leading to smart transportation and
advanced traffic management systems aimed at smart cities [5–8]. When ICT
is merged into the transportation system, it is called Intelligent Transporta-
tion System (ITS). This new term evolved in the 19th century. In the 20th
century, a significant innovation was observed in ITS, and an infrastructure-
less network of vehicles was invented, termed the CITS, where C stands for
cooperative. Later, it was termed the Vehicular Ad hoc Network, which was
a form of a Mobile Ad hoc Network. It created the concept of intervehicle
communication. Then, in 2010, with the invention of IoT, a third layer of the
internet cloud of vehicles was added on top of the vehicular cloud, starting
a new technology in transportation system called the Internet of Vehicles
(IoV). Figure 5.1 shows the changes in and years of technological inventions
in the transportation system. The invention of the internet cloud in interve-
hicle communication is the basis of IoV and the future of IoV, i.e., cloud-
based IoV (CIoV) [9]. At the same time, the internet cloud is the platform
of the frameworks IoV and CIoV. In CIoV, all transportation solutions are
based upon machine learning and Artificial Intelligence [10].
100 DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-5

Emerging applications and future scope of IoV for smart cities 101
Figure 5.1 Evolution of IoV.
Due to the advancement of Information and Communication Technologies

(ICT) and using lots of sensors in modern vehicles, the Intelligent Transport
Systems (ITS) have evolved and become key to the development of smart
cities [11]. Its sole purpose is to gather, detect and disseminate the vehicles’
data to improve safety, security, efficiency and privacy while providing other
services like infotainment [12–14].
Safety of the road can be ensured by providing prior information about
traffic on the road, pedestrians walking on the road and exact information
about the weather. Security is to protect the vehicle’s information from any
suspicious attack. Privacy is to keep the vehicle’s authenticity secure. Privacy
can be a subset of security. When we discuss the Internet of Vehicles, we first
start with the Internet of Things because vehicles can be considered things.
The Internet of Vehicles can be considered a vehicular version of IoT where
things are replaced by vehicles. Furthermore, vehicles are a mobile entity, and
vehicles on roads do not follow any infrastructure, which is the same as the
infrastructure-less network of mobile phones. So we can say it is a vehicular
version of Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET), termed VANET [15–17].
So, it can be concluded that VANET takes the attributes of the Internet of
Things and Mobile Ad hoc Network. ITS is to provide intelligent services
and innovative technologies to an infrastructure-less, dynamic and self-
organized network of vehicles. In this chapter, we review the architecture,
issues, challenges, applications and scope of IoV.
The interrelationship between IoT, MANET, VANET and IoV is shown
in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Hierarchy of different technologies.
IoT is the global communication network of different entities like mobile

phones, home appliances, sensors, cameras, industrial instruments, vehicles
(road, air and marine) and all living things incorporated in making smart
homes, smart devices, smart offices, smart cities, smart healthcare industry,
etc., as shown in Figure 5.3.
MANET is a subgroup of IoT where things are replaced with mobile
entities like mobile phones. These mobile entities in MANET are connected
together wirelessly and without the pre-establishment of a physical infrastruc-
ture network. So MANET comes under the category of an infrastructure-
less network [18]. These mobile entities work as nodes in the network, and
all nodes communicate using sensors or cameras embedded in phones with
the help of multi-hopping routing protocols [19]. These routing protocols
are specially designed for dynamic and frequently changing scenarios. Rout-
ing protocols designed for wired networks are not capable of coping with
the issues and challenges of infrastructure-less wireless networks [20–24].
These are:
• No static topology.
• Limitation on bandwidth (it is very low).
• Distributed control.
• No stable communication channel.
• Security threats.
• Limited storage and power.
• Shared communication channel causing information loss.
The requirements of such infrastructure-less networks have been increas-

ing rapidly in recent years, so researchers are constantly working on the
Figure 5.3 IoT areas focusing on smart transport.
Figure 5.4 VANET as a subgroup of MANET.
issues and challenges existing in MANET, like energy consumption, utiliza-

tion of bandwidth, efficient routing and security protocols, and a significant
improvement can be seen in comparison to the initial phase of MANET. As
we have already seen, VANET is a variant of MANET where mobile nodes
are vehicles, so challenges present in MANET are more or less present in
VANET (see Figure 5.4). As compared to MANET, changes in the topology
and the mobility of nodes in VANET are higher. VANET allows units with
the aim of an efficient, congestion-free, safe transportation system [25].
Figure 5.5 Layered architecture of IoV.
With the increase in technology, intervehicle communication is extended

to vehicle-to-pedestrian and vehicle-to-grid communication, connecting with
the concept of IoT, which later led to IoV. Figure 5.5 shows the top-down
invention hierarchy [26]. It represents the relationship of the Internet of
Things (IoT) with VANETs. It indicates that VANET is a sub-type of the
IoT with the attributes of MANET and ITS. With the innovation of Electric
Vehicles, a new research field is emerging: the Internet of Energy (IoE). IoE
is the future of IoV [27–29].
IoV is the large-scale version of VANET. IoV provides various services
ensuring safety, security and infotainment services. These services’ require-
ments change with the changes in types of roads. Table 5.1 lists all those
services and entities’ communication. These services are as follows:
While moving on the highways or expressways:

• Speed monitoring of vehicles and self-adjustment (intravehicle and
V2V).
• Climate sensing during driving (V2I).
• Estimated arrival time with updated route information.
• Seamless internet connectivity is of utmost importance to ensure the
smooth functioning of all applications while traveling on expressways
and highways.
Table 5.1 Services Required Depending upon the Road Type
S. No. Services Highways or Intracity Roads Communication

Expressways
1 Speed monitoring Highly required Not required Intravehicle
and ensured highly communication
(V2D)
2 Self-adjustment Highly required Not much V2V
in case of high required
speeds
3 Climate sensing Highly required Not required V2I
during long
travel
4 Toll notification Required Not required V2R
5 Estimated time Highly required Not much V2I
updates required;
sometimes
required if a
deadline is
necessary
6 Route updating in Not required Highly required V2R,V2D
case of bad road
conditions
7 Vehicle Not required Highly required V2R
adjustment in
case of bad road
condition
8 Traffic rule Not required Highly required V2V,V2P,V2I
violations
9 Driver health Required Required V2P
status
• Notification of arrival at toll booths.

• Current status of location.
• Current vehicle loads indicator on highways.
• Best and alternate route suggestions in case of road blockage ahead.
While moving on city roads:

• Triggering alert to violate traffic rules.
• Vehicle self-monitoring.
• Moderate connectivity is enough if moving on city roads.
• Auto-adjusting the vehicle to road conditions.
• Connectivity problems.
• Driver health status.
5.2 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE OF IOV
Kaiwartya et al. proposed a five-layer architecture: perception, coordination,

artificial intelligence (AI), application and business. Figure 5.5 depicts the
layered architecture.
1. The perception layer gathers data from the various actuators in the
area, such as sensors inside the car (for example, speed, direction and
position of the car, as well as driver attitudes) and outside the car (for
example, traffic environments and weather conditions), and securely
transmits the information to the coordination layer [30–33]. This layer
consists of numerous gadgets, smartphones, roadside units (RSUs),
roadside actuators (RAs) and other components of the intelligent
infrastructure.
2. The coordination layer ensures information gathered from the percep-
tion layer is transferred for processing in artificial intelligence securely
and in a unified structure (5G). The network layer is crucial to the
Internet of Vehicles [34]. It is comprised of a module to manage the
disparate networks connecting the various components of the intel-
ligent infrastructure and guarantees the ability for autonomous data
exchanges. WAVE, 4G and 5G, Wi-Fi, WLAN, Bluetooth and satellite
networks are among the networks that smart automobiles employ for
communication. These networks transfer data from the artificial intel-
ligence layer to the perception layer.
3. The IoV ecosystem’s AI layer, represented by the virtualized cloud sub-
structure, is its brain. It is in charge of managing the data from the
coordinating layer and uses algorithms to make decisions to examine
this aggregating data. In the cloud environment, it oversees a variety of
services based on a careful examination of the information obtained. In
order to assess the collected data and determine what action is neces-
sary at any given time, it uses ML, AI and cloud computing. It consists
of specialized equipment, big data analysis tools and cloud computing
components like self-driven vehicles that use image processing to detect
objects on the road.
4. The application layer creates intelligent applications that inform end
users of what the AI layer has learned. The IoV technology is commer-
cialized by the application layer. The AI layer’s outputs are used to give
end users applications like remote car control, multimedia watching
services, driving aids and safe driving apps, among others. This layer
disseminates user data and sends it to the business layer for further
processing [35].
5. The business layer employs a business model that assesses the bud-
get planning for operating the applications by analyzing the statistics
of the applications using various techniques like use case diagrams,

graphs, differentiation tables, flowcharts, etc. The architecture’s last
layer is in charge of communicating consumer experience insights to
the development organization [36, 37]. It comes with a selection of
tools to help the firm make decisions about resource use and invest-
ment, forecast future business trends and advise future initiatives.
5.3 LITERATURE SURVEY
Habib et al. [38] reviewed the popular and developing IoV frameworks
and network layered structures. A novel, modern design of the Internet of
Vehicles (IoV) model has been proposed to assess the efficiency of the IoV
ecosystem as a network structure, encompassing the processes of detecting,
collecting, storing, processing acquired data, and ultimately utilizing the ser-
vices. The client layer, communication layer, cloud layer and cater service
layer are the four levels that make up CIoV. The primary features of the IoT
application ecosystems, which can be implemented for various and diverse
communication models, are taken into consideration when approaching
CIoV. The CIoV protocol suite was presented for each layer in the design as
a case study, taking operational and security dimensions.
Sharma et al. [39] presented an IoV communication system that consists
of three zones: the car zone, the collaboration zone and the smart city zone.
In order to achieve this, we predetermined an in-car gateway design that per-
mits communication and information sharing across these three zones. This
in-car gateway’s hardware and software architecture were presented. Our
novel architecture might support a number of cutting-edge services, includ-
ing driverless driving. As a result, in the preceding section, key informa-
tion flow and functions for autonomous driving services were emphasized.
To support our proposal, we also suggested an autonomous lane-changing
method. We want to use our gateway in the targeted network to verify its
effectiveness in future work.
Bhardwaj [40] presented a seven-layered architecture for IoV. This paper
first identified the key components of the IoV ecosystem, outlining their func-
tions and proposing a model for how they interact. It also introduced a net-
work paradigm made up of the environmental model and the intra-vehicular
model. This study developed a protocol stack that meets the standards
needed for interoperability across all parties and incorporates current proto-
cols into the IoV ecosystem. It concluded by presenting a situational analy-
sis and a sequence diagram that illustrate how the suggested seven-layered
architecture might be used in a practical IoV situation. It made the case
that the suggested architecture will help readers understand the interaction
model, network model and layered architecture. IoV will encourage the
fusion of the automotive and IT industries.
In Kumar et al. [41], it was suggested that vehicles having IoV capabilities
might scan the passengers for any potential health hazards, such as a driver
who is intoxicated or patients who require medical attention, and then notify
the appropriate health care services or authorities. Ensuring that the driver is
in a state that is safe for driving will significantly reduce the rate of careless
driving and traffic accidents. Pressure sensors can adjust the wheels to the
appropriate working situations, good reflex frameworks can be integrated
and special actuators can improve the cabin’s interior environment. Addi-
tionally, it is possible to link the driver’s identity to the car so that only the
driver may operate it. If the car is stolen, all available information will be
relayed to the driver, including whether the car is in motion or parked. IoV
may also implement a smart template matching system that makes it simple
for traffic police to identify the vehicle, ensuring theft protection.
A machine learning-based Delimited Anti-Jamming approach was put
forth by Sunil Kumar et al. (2019) and was useful in scenarios involving
vehicular traffic. The discriminating signal of the jamming car is found
and filtered to determine the specific location of the affected vehicles. The
research in question specifically developed a model for a vehicular interfer-
ence system emphasizing the geolocation of cars in the defined jamming
circumstances. To assess the performance, the existing methods and the sug-
gested anti-jammer method were compared. The proposed approach proved
to perform better than existing approaches based on a variety of perfor-
mance factors.
Bhardwaj et al. [42] defined CIoV as a network-centric framework for
intelligent cars, wherein vehicles are primarily thought of as context-aware
agents under the vehicular networking notion. It is a sensory network made
up of road components like cars and other related infrastructure that allows
for little human engagement while receiving real-time information from the
road and covering the physical world, including people and the environ-
ment. It used integrated cognitive algorithms and in-vehicle applications to
observe real-time data in live broadcasts and do computations like pattern
matching. This evolving architecture facilitated and maintained data for
vehicle-to-vehicle and thing-to-thing communication in each cloud utiliz-
ing cutting-edge machine learning techniques like deep learning, artificial
neural networks and data mining, this heterogeneous database was used for
knowledge discovery.
5.3.1 Applications of IoV in smart cities

IoV is used to make transportation systems advanced and automated. After
IoV, communication entities have been broadened to two or more by using
different technologies like MANET technologies for mobile communication,
N geospatial technologies for fetching locations and Sensor Networking for

exchanging sensed information like temperature, driver status, parking sen-
sors, etc. [43–45]. Before IoV, only intravehicle autonomous communication
was available in VANET, which was not enough to develop smart cities.
IoV has given rise to Vehicle to Everything (V2X). Now, IoV has become
an important application of ITS. Further, IoV has vast applications, from
autonomous to automated, connected vehicles. These technologies are com-
bined with real-time communication between all entities. IoV applications
can be divided into various perspectives, including safety, efficiency, comfort
and infotainment.
1. Safety-centric IoV applications: IoV ensures safety as one of its require-

ments. Safety parameters are how vehicles respond before and after
detecting a threat to collision. IoV implements Cooperative Collision
Avoidance Systems (CCAS) that detect collisions with the help of sen-
sors and instructs drivers to take required actions. For instance, if there
are traffic jams, accident-prone roads or accidents, a V2V communi-
cation takes place, and an emergency message is triggered to alert the
drive to take certain actions. Gope and Sikdar proposed the controlled
remote access cloud computer architecture system to make CCAS more
effective [46].
2. Efficiency-centric applications: Applications that are efficiency-based
seek to increase the mobility of vehicle objects inside an IoV network.
The timing of traffic signals at intersections based on the volume of
traffic to minimize waiting times is an example of such an application.
In Churi and Pawar [47], it was suggested that a V2V-based strat-
egy be used by grouping cars as they approached the intersection. To
determine the timing cycle for traffic signals, the density of cars within
the cluster is computed and the data is transmitted to the controllers.
By scheduling the signalized intersection to maximize both traffic effi-
ciency and fairness, another work in Kagalwalla et al. [48] offered a
fuzzy logic technique. They employed a two-stage process. A green-
phase selector was created in the first step to choose the next green
phase. Another illustration of efficiency-based applications is provided
for cooperative driving, which suggests modeling vehicle trajectories in
advance for those close to traffic signals to decrease halting frequency
and travel duration and enhance the travel volume of the road in accor-
dance with traffic circumstances and the situation surrounding nearby
vehicles.
3. Comfort-centric IoV applications: Comfort-based IoV applications
are designed to provide drivers with information to make their jour-
neys more joyful and comfortable. This could include information on
the weather, route navigation, parking lots and the locations of tour-
ist information kiosks, restaurants, gas stations and other facilities.
Applications based on information and entertainment are intended to

provide drivers and passengers with information about amusement.
Access to the internet and other file-sharing services fall under this cat-
egory. Due to the dynamic and evolving nature of the vehicle objects in
the IoV network, it is currently difficult to provide vehicles with access
to the global internet and maintain the information. In order to provide
QoS-enabled internet access in vehicle networks, Vidhi et al. [49] sug-
gested a VANET to internet protocol. Their strategy made use of the
IEEE 802.11p EDCA protocol and the Prediction-based Routing (PBR)
algorithm.
4. Infotainment-centric IoV applications: Information and entertainment
are combined under the term “infotainment”. In-vehicle infotainment
(IVI) refers to all available information and entertainment systems
for use in automobiles. Social networking sites, navigation and other
entertainment-related technologies are all connected to mobile devices.
As voice recognition, the IoT and automobiles come together, IVI has
been expanding in recent years. When a driver issues a voice command
to check the weather, music or timetable, the route guide can be con-
sulted. Anyone with access to the internet can operate a home appli-
ance while on the go using IoT networks.
For large-scale data gathering, transfer and processing from smart items
within the smart city environment, the IoV can be employed as a practical solu-
tion to meet the needs of smart cities. The vehicle nodes inside the IoV do not
experience the resource limitations of limited battery power and information
processing as do traditional wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Vehicles serve
as mobile smart nodes or objects inside the sensing network within the IoV.
5.4 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF IOV
There are lots of challenges and issues with existing IoV technology. The
rapid evolution of the Internet of Vehicles is breaking down many barriers on
the path to building smart cities, but several significant challenges still remain.
1. Security: According to our expertise, the most important and challeng-

ing step in developing an IoT system is assuring security. The key obsta-
cles the sector faces in terms of security for connected vehicles continue
to be new difficulties. Since IoV networks are self-configuring and
connected to the internet directly, they confront a number of security-
related difficulties. Due to the movable nature of the deployed devices,
the topology of these networks is likewise dynamic. Due to internet
connectivity, nodes are extremely vulnerable to outside threats. Based
on the data provided by the nodes, unauthorized users are capable of
engaging in malicious conduct. As a result, interruptions by the mali-

cious can lead to catastrophic outcomes like accidents.
2. Protracted product lifetime: The time it takes to develop and release
a linked car is a major barrier for manufacturers among all the issues
with connected vehicles. It will still take months to release each new
smart car onto the market, even though this time will shorten as IoV
technology develops.
The extended connected car production cycle may make it difficult
for manufacturers to monitor market developments constantly and
provide timely upgrades.
3. Stability: Having a stable connection is crucial for the Internet of Things
with autonomous vehicles because network bottlenecks, DoS attacks
and communications issues can all seriously impair the infrastructure’s
functionality. Manufacturers must address the issue of mobility and
ensure that all nodes can send and receive data regardless of the speeds
and locations of all cars.
If any piece of hardware is compromised or uncooperative, stability
may also suffer.
4. Processing enormous volumes of information: Big data is a benefit of IoV
technology, but managing the continuous influx of data presents serious
difficulties for providers. Cloud computing can be hampered, and the
system can be damaged by insufficient storage or slow network speeds.
5. Integrity: Across disciplines, integrity can mean many various things,
but in networking, it refers to a trustworthy multiparty interaction.
It describes the position in which a network node or other entity
acknowledges the reliance of others. Any network party must, there-
fore, offer information regarding the situation, such as the accuracy of
the data given the circumstances. This idea or signature is complicated
in a vehicle network and is dependent on precision, timeliness, acces-
sibility and interoperability. Additionally, integrity is varied as a result
of the C-introduction the IoV’s massive amounts of data. Integrity is
more crucial than ever because of the multifaceted and expanding con-
nectivity within and outside the transportation system of the smart city.
5.5 FUTURE SCOPE OF IOV
Traditional Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is limited to the concept of intra- and

inter-connecting vehicles and the infrastructure of roads to share informa-
tion about the vehicles and roadside units and their observation globally and
provide internet-based services to the users, such as infotainment. However,
it is generally recognized that the concept of a single internet connection and
its limited service is insufficient to meet demand and expectations. Further-
more, by applying cutting-edge technology, the internet cloud can be used to
give users the ability to feel, comprehend, learn and think independently of
the physical and social worlds. This assumption gave rise to the Cloud-based
Internet of Vehicles (CIoV) paradigm, which enables cognitive computing
capabilities for networks using technologies like software-defined network-
ing, artificial intelligence, machine learning and similar ones. Its primary goal
is to create a link between the social environment, which includes human
demand, awareness and social behavior, and the transportation system,
which includes vehicles and road infrastructure. In the context of smart cit-
ies, the evolved CIoV is working to integrate the vast real physical environ-
ment with digital control by sensing, comprehending and programming it.
As a result, information loss and host or device control loss are also possible
outcomes. Any information security breach poses a risk to commuters’ per-
sonal relationships as well as their lives on the road. Absolute security must
be achieved to develop a transportation system for network nodes, peers and
the cloud to share trustworthy and authentic information.
5.6 CONCLUSION
The application of machine learning, artificial intelligence and cloud comput-

ing has given new dimensions to the Internet of Vehicles. This chapter cov-
ered the technological, social, security, safety and trust issues and challenges
with the traditional IoV and presented the future scope of IoV’s contribu-
tion to making smart cities smarter. Also, new technology brings some new
expectations and new challenges, so futuristic IoE and V2E also have some
challenges due to the heterogeneous entities added to make IoV into V2X.
IoV was only serving as the global network of vehicles along with RSUs, but
V2X includes intravehicle communication, inter-vehicle communication and
communication from vehicle to pedestrian, vehicle to infrastructure, vehicle
to home and vehicle to everything. This chapter illustrated how the evolu-
tion of the Intelligent Transportation System has evolved into a connected
architecture from an autonomous architecture and from VANET to IoV, then
IoV to CIoV. Overall, the chapter concluded that Cloud, ML and AI-based
IoV is capable of reducing human dependency and fatal crashes to a large
extent. Cloud-based IoV now has much more to explore.
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Chapter 6
Future issues and challenges

of internet of vehicles
A Survey
Manish Bhardwaj, Sumit Kumar Sharma,
Nitin Kumar, and Shweta Roy
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is an offshoot of the Internet of Things (IoT)

that resulted from the rising prevalence of cellular networks in vehicles, their
subsequent reconstruction, and their connectivity to the IoT [1]. Through
the IoV, intelligent transportation systems, pedestrians, and autonomous
objects near the road are able to communicate with one another and share
data in real time by linking physical devices, network transmission media,
and cloud platforms. This data is used to reduce the financial burden of
operating and maintaining transportation systems, improve public safety,
enhance traveler convenience, and provide solutions to the problems posed
by increasing urbanization [2]. The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) was developed
from the concept of Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs), which allowed
for the emergence of wireless connections between vehicles on their own.
Smart and connected vehicles require a stable network to function in the IoV.
The IoV interacts with the groundwork, other cars, and pedestrians in the
area. A smart city ecosystem is made possible by the large amounts of data
generated by this communication and saved in the cloud for easy access and
analytics [3]. There is a pressing need to realize the full interoperability of
all entities within the IoV ecosystem so that it can gain the advantages of
a completely integrated environment. IEEE defines interoperability as “the
capacity of two or more systems or components to share information and
use the information that has been exchanged” [3] in their glossary of soft-
ware engineering vocabulary. Data sharing and transfer between IoV entities
are assumed to be trustworthy based on this definition. Data exchanged
between these parties also needs to be useable to underpin IoV services and
applications [4]. In spite of this, seamless integration of components in the
IoV is difficult due to the variety and complexity of applications and end
nodes using varying data formats and internal architecture. With its inher-
ent heterogeneous connections of cyber and physical components operating
in highly dynamic contexts, IoV is a large-scale, decentralized network [5].
116 DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-6

Future issues and challenges of internet of vehicles 117
Previous studies have looked into issues with vehicle communication with
everything else (V2X). Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure
(V2I), vehicle-to-roadside units (V2R), vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P), vehicle-
to-grid (V2G), vehicle-to-building (V2B), device (V2D), and cloud (V2C)
communications are all part of V2X, as indicated in Figure 6.1. Efficient
implementation of IoV applications will be possible after the obstacles of
integrating these heterogeneous entities have been overcome. Vehicular net-
works are also defined by their inherent volatility and their inherent vari-
ability [6]. Since this changeability impacts data transmission in the network,
maintaining consistent communication is challenging. Moreover, the growth
of communication networks and Artificial Intelligence (AI) will lead to
enhanced capabilities in traffic management systems. With this development
comes the need for IoV-connected organizations to meet varying QoS criteria
for things like real-time traffic monitoring, low-latency communication, and
a few missed packets.
A counterintuitive interaction framework is presented by the interaction
of IoV entities, which does not ensure frictionless interactions and real-
time information sharing. Services, such as collision avoidance systems and
Figure 6.1 Basic architecture of the Internet of Vehicles.

emergency services, are made possible by IoV thanks to the involvement of

application domains with varying needs and information models. Vehicles
in the Internet of Things (IoT) interact with a wide variety of other devices
that have varying technological specifications and adhere to a variety of
protocols. In this case, coordinating vehicle movement and ensuring the
safety of road users requires flawless application interactions and informa-
tion exchange across the network [7]. A technological hurdle in the IoV
ecosystem is reaching a consensus among the various entities involved in
this interaction. A completely connected ecosystem that enables real-time
applications is now unattainable due to the fragmented nature of the device
market and the fact that different entities within it use incompatible interac-
tion standards and protocols.
Vehicle use has increased as the population rises. The result would be
more congestion and the potential for more accidents. This is a huge dif-
ficulty that people face on a regular basis. Within the past decade, mobile
ad hoc networks have been differentiated into what are known as vehicular
ad hoc networks (VANETs) (MANET). V2V and V2R communications are
utilized in VANET to transmit data from vehicle to vehicle and vehicle to
roadside. The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) has emerged from the IoT as a means
to improve VANET functionality and cut down on traffic and road accidents
(IoT). The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is an upgraded version of the Internet
of Things (IoT) designed to address complex problems in the modern urban
transportation system. Travel itineraries and access to networks are two
more services that drivers, passengers, and those in traffic management can
get, thanks to IoV. IoV refers to the linking of different road networks via
wireless networking technology.
Intelligent transportation system (ITS) technology has advanced to the
point that it can now be used to enhance the traffic monitoring system, pro-
vide more accident protection, and provide a more convenient dashboard for
drivers. Expanding on the concept of the Internet of Things, the Internet of
Everything (IoE) is a method of utilizing the internet to link together actual
hardware and end-user products. To accomplish these tasks, it is believed
that, in the near future, all gadgets will be online and will communicate with
one another using D2D technology. IoE relies heavily on the following tech-
nologies, particularly direct-to-device (D2D) connections.
Communications between machines (M2M), machines and humans
(M2H), and humans themselves (P2P) depict the many links and interdepen-
dencies among people, objects, and data. IoE is widely utilized now because
of its fast response time and high performance. Smart traffic monitoring, a
smart parking system, and self-driving automobiles are only a few of the key
uses of IoE in the transportation sector and road networks [8]. IoE has also
been put to use in several areas of healthcare, such as patient-specific health
monitoring, intelligent drug recommendation systems, and smart clinical
care systems. Smartwatches, belts, and bands allow people to track their
health data remotely. Doctors and clinical care systems receive the data gath-
ered from a variety of smart healthcare devices and use it to take appropriate
action. These days, you can buy a wide variety of intelligent wearable devices
that measure everything from blood pressure and glucose levels to heart
rate and temperature to how much you walk around throughout the day.
In addition, IoE is utilized in numerous smart home applications, including
window/door/room temperature/light/security alarm management. All the
aforementioned programs need to have a fast response time in order to send
the signal to the user or server. Efficient high-wireless networks are required
to perceive and collect varied data from IoT devices [9]. These days, wireless
network technologies like 4G and 5G have undergone tremendous improve-
ments and advancements. Thanks to recent developments in wireless net-
working technology, physical devices may now detect signals and send them
to the client and server in a timely fashion. In addition, the 5G network is
utilized to fix problems with wireless connections and delays in data trans-
mission between the various Internet of Things devices and the user or server.
The 5G network is essential in advancing IoT to IoE technology. Everyday
life is being revolutionized by the implementation of cutting-edge technolo-
gies like the Internet of Things (IoT), the Internet of Everything (IoE), and
the Fifth Generation Mobile Network (5G cellular).
In this study, we contribute the following:
• Discuss all the parts of the IoV environment that are important for
achieving interoperable and smooth integration.
• Based on a scan of existing literature, we provide the interoperabil-
ity criteria for IoV and evaluate potential research avenues moving
forward.
• Propose five groups of interoperability issues in IoV that prevent us
from achieving the goals of a unified IoV ecosystem.
• Provide a summary of the literature’s interoperability approaches and
the difficulties that still exist in putting them into practice.
• Discuss the unresolved issues and highlight upcoming research direc-
tions in IoV cooperation.
6.2 LITERATURE SURVEY
Here, we first survey the prior literature on interconnection between various

platforms, the Internet of Things (IoT) domain, and IoT applications. Before
talking about the IoV interoperability work, various literature reviews will
be discussed in what follows:
In various works, authors investigated potential applications and platform-
specific interoperability solutions. Perumal et al. [10] present a solution based
on simple object access protocol technology (SOAP) for interoperability
issues in the smart home environment. Moon et al. [11] suggest building a
service called ubiquitous middleware connection, and Park et al. [12] pro-
pose a method called video production room bridge adapter. Difficulties
about incompatibility between in- and out-of-house gadgets are addressed
by Park et al. using a paradigm that uses virtual network systems in the
omnipresent home. In the context of smart manufacturing, Zeid et al. [13]
zero in on the difficulties of interoperability. The authors investigate the
semantic and semantic interconnection of factories and the cloud in produc-
tion, along with the architectural model solutions provided by prominent
platforms, as Industries 4.0 and the Industrial Internet Consortium (IIC).
Relationship (network connectivity), interaction (data syntax), semantic
(data understanding), dynamic (context changes), cognitive (action match-
ing), and conceptual are the five layers of interoperability that make up
the adaptation framework presented by Pantsar-Syva Niemi et al. [14] for
situation-based and self-adaptive applications in a connected world (model-
ing and abstraction). However, the aforementioned projects are likely to only
apply to smart homes, smart factories, and smart environments rather than
the IoV as a whole.
Noura et al. [15] provide a comprehensive overview of the difficulties
inherent in interconnecting heterogeneous devices and the solutions avail-
able across the various IoT platforms. Tools supplied by adapters/gateways
can be used, such as mediators; virtual networks can be formed on top of
the physical layer; networking technologies, open APIs, and service-oriented
architectures can all be found at the network layer [16]. According to Lee
et al. [17], worldwide standards that have been created and adopted by
official bodies are necessary for achieving interoperability and security in
the IoT.
As a result, Jain and Bhardwaj investigate and synthesize the worldwide
norms for IoT interoperability and security [18].
In order to tackle the issue of semantic interoperability in the Internet of
Things, Rahman et al. [19] categorize current solutions into ontology, mid-
dleware, and the Semantic Web. Additionally, outstanding research issues
are highlighted, and frameworks and tools for assessing and evaluating IoT
interoperability are described by Bhardwaj and Ahalawat [20].
Lack of resources, using proprietary technology, network complexity, dif-
ferent security requirements, and heterogeneous devices are all mentioned as
potential obstacles to tackling IoT interoperability by Konduru and Bhara-
magoudray [21]. Google Weave, IoTivity, Alljoyn, and Apple Home Kit are
just a few of the open-source technologies, frameworks, and APIs that the
authors highlight as having been developed with the intention of resolving
interoperability difficulties in the IoT. However, proposed IoT solutions are
insufficient to meet interoperability concerns in IoV because of the unique
difficulties associated with device-to-device communication in this domain.
Issues and responses to IoV interoperability have been explored and

implemented before, and this work refines the application of IoT interoper-
ability to the surface transportation field. The cross-domain, cross-syntactic,
and cross-semantic interoperability are presented by Hussain et al. [22].
Increased execution time, latency, and a lack of mobility support are some of
the drawbacks the authors highlight when discussing interoperability tech-
niques. By underlining the absence of standards that may enable smooth
interconnection of IoV components, Hussain et al. [23] investigate the ele-
ments that make interoperability problematic. They offer a seven-tiered
taxonomy of IoV interoperability, with the lowest level being non-interop-
erability and the highest level being complete interoperability at the techni-
cal, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, dynamic, and conceptual levels. As an
additional step toward interoperability in IoV, they recommend looking into
IoT middleware solutions. However, the authors did not explain the middle-
ware solution or how it can fix the problem of IoV incompatibility. In their
definition of “smart cities,” Datta et al. [24] characterize vehicles as “con-
nected resources” that provide services like traffic management and pollu-
tion detection. According to the authors, a fully linked IoV that connects
customers, autos, and computing platforms were unable to be developed
due to a lack of universal architecture and standards, as well as the pres-
ence of data silos. To deal with these issues, they suggest an IoT architecture
that employs open standards for interoperability in the IoV, such as SenML,
oneM2M, and semantic web technologies [25]. They also detailed the phases
of operation for the proposed framework and how it may be utilized as a
guide for creating IoV apps.
However, the heterogeneity of devices and data conveyed in the IoV eco-
system and the changing architecture of the IoV were not taken into account
by the offered solutions [26]. Different from prior efforts, our study seeks to
unify the assumptions, challenges, methods, and research difficulties in the
field of IoV interoperability.
The authors of this chapter provide a thorough analysis of the needs of
interworking heterogeneous entities in the IoV and propose a comprehensive
taxonomy of interoperability in IoV, taking into account the heterogeneity
and dynamic topology of vehicular networks. Additionally, we provide a
review of outstanding issues in the pursuit of a fully functional IoV ecosystem.
6.3 IOV ECOSYSTEM
The ecology of the Internet of Vehicles and the various nodes involved in
its communication is covered in this section. The authors also detail the
IoV ecosystem, including its users, apps, and platform. Figure 6.2 shows the
Internet of Vehicles layered architecture with a security layer and provides a
Figure 6.2 Internet of Vehicles layered architecture with a security layer.
more nuanced look at how the framework’s layers can be used to structure
the IoV ecosystem.
Because it provides a framework for integrating “things,” intelligent
vehicles, humans, and the encompassing infrastructure via channels such as
the internet and the Internet, IoV makes it possible for vehicles to connect
with other entities in their operational environment. Interactions between
cars (V2V), the grid (V2G), buildings (V2B), roadside units (V2R), and the
cloud (V2C) are all made possible by the IoV, which enables the develop-
ment of highly interconnected, heterogeneous systems capable of running
a wide range of applications and services [27]. Because of this, the various
components of the ecosystem are able to share knowledge and collaborate to
build an advanced infrastructure suitable for smart city services. To reduce
traffic and pollution, ease traffic congestion, free up parking spots, and cut
costs, IoV is expected to increase ride-sharing services. When compared to
ITS, IoV is distinguished by its capacity to turn every car on the road into a
self-contained computing, storage, and networking node that can exchange
data with other cars, pedestrians, and roadside infrastructure.
Several architectural levels for IoV have been proposed based on the
interaction of communication nodes. Layers of the architecture include per-
ception, the network, and the application. To enable communication and
interoperability, each layer requires collaboration from multiple levels. At
the perception layer of IoV, there is a plethora of flawless data sources (het-
erogeneous devices). At the application layer, there is a suite of programs and
tools for analyzing the information gleaned from these devices [28]. Con-
nectivity, data extraction, transmission, and security between the two higher-
level layers are all made possible by the network layer, making it a crucial
component of IoV operations. Effective V2X communication is enabled by
the network layer’s central location, which allows it to cater to the needs of
all the other levels and devices [29].
The edge devices, such as sensors, actuators, and the related computational
resources, are hosted by the perception layer, the biggest drop. This layer is
responsible for perceiving and collecting data by way of the vehicles’ in-built
sensors, which can record data about the surrounding environment, such
as highway and traffic conditions, obstacles, and driving habits. Due to the
volume and variety of information collected by the perception layer’s sen-
sors, collaboration amongst IoV entities is essential for making the most of
available resources. In addition, the layer facilitates the digitization of analog
data for subsequent processing, storage, and dissemination. Using wireless
and wired connections, smart objects process the gathered data locally, typi-
cally in real-time, and disseminate the results to other devices in the same
layer or network [30]. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, and radio-frequency are all
utilized for wireless connectivity at this layer, while standard serial interfaces
like I2C, SPI, and Ethernet are used for cable connectivity. Because devices
in the perception layer employ a wide variety of communication technolo-
gies and protocols, achieving interoperability is essential to ensuring that
sensed data is transmitted quickly and effectively throughout the network.
Sensors and other IoV devices should be able to reliably interact with one
another and join the automotive network on the fly if there is commonality
at the perception layer [31]. Adopting standards would also guarantee that
equipment can be managed and connected regardless of their core platform,
specifications, or models.
This layer utilizes network technology to determine the paths sensor data
must take to reach the various services that make up the IoV. Communication
is facilitated at this level via portals, switches, hubs, and routing devices [32].
Technologies such as 4G/LTE, 5G/6G, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi are used to send
information to programs in heterogeneous networks. Other technologies
include wireless access in vehicle environment (WAVE) and international
standardization for microwave access (WiMAX). There are benefits and
drawbacks to each of these technological options. Examples include WAVE’s
ability to connect devices via dedicated short-range communications (DSRC),
which necessitates a mobility layer that can handle things like handoffs and
ensures that traffic is managed in a way that doesn’t degrade network qual-
ity of service.
6.4 INTERNET OF VEHICLES APPLICATIONS
There are two main categories for IoV applications: (1) ITS applications and
(2) smart city apps. In this article, we’ll go over the various uses for IoV and
how they’re categorized. The uses of ITS encompass a wide range of technol-
ogies that can be applied to the transportation system to improve its depend-
ability, efficiency, safety, and sustainability without disrupting the existing
infrastructure. There are five broad types of ITS-related IoV applications:
1. Safety Applications: These applications focus on enhancing road safety

by utilizing vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I)
communication to exchange information about potential hazards, such
as accidents, road obstacles, or adverse weather conditions. Examples
include collision warning systems, emergency brake assistance, and
lane departure warning systems.
2. Traffic Efficiency and Management: These applications aim to improve
traffic flow, reduce congestion, and enhance transportation efficiency.
They often involve real-time data collection, analysis, and dissemina-
tion to optimize traffic signal timing, manage traffic flow, and provide
dynamic route guidance to drivers. Examples include adaptive traffic
signal control, congestion prediction systems, and dynamic route guid-
ance applications.
3. Environmental Sustainability: These applications focus on reducing
the environmental impact of transportation by promoting eco-friendly
driving behaviors, optimizing vehicle routes to minimize fuel consump-
tion and emissions, and supporting the adoption of alternative fuel
vehicles. Examples include eco-driving assistance systems, electric vehi-
cle charging station locators, and emission monitoring applications.
4. Driver Assistance and Comfort: These applications aim to enhance
driver comfort, convenience, and overall driving experience. They may
include features such as advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS),
infotainment services, remote vehicle diagnostics, and maintenance
reminders. Examples include adaptive cruise control, parking assis-
tance systems, and in-car entertainment services.
5. Commercial and Logistics Applications: These applications target the
commercial and logistics sectors, focusing on optimizing freight trans-
portation, fleet management, and supply chain operations. They may
involve real-time tracking of vehicles and shipments, route optimization,
load balancing, and delivery scheduling. Examples include fleet track-

ing and management systems, cargo tracking solutions, and logistics
optimization platforms.
Applications of IoV that prioritize safety aid in increasing the likelihood of

avoiding mishaps by vehicles. Common automotive safety features are often
referred to as “collision avoidance” systems [33]. Past efforts look at IoV
apps that prioritize user safety, such as forward vehicle identification and
collision warning systems techniques like active learning and symmetry uti-
lizing computer-aided learning or night vision. The safe integration of these
technologies has been because the IoV ecosystem of mission-critical applica-
tions is not negotiable. Vehicles can talk internally and externally with other
vehicles and road users, alerting them to the possibility of or actuality of a
collision for the sake of safety.
The importance of a timely and accurate diagnosis cannot be overstated.
Data from vehicle diagnostic systems is crucial for identifying and fixing any
potential points of failure of the machinery within a car [34]. Fault alerts
can be sent to users and other forms of artificial intelligence, such as their
smartphones and the screens installed in cars. Remote diagnosis must be suc-
cessfully implemented. End nodes must be connected invisibly. Networked
and diagnostics software needs to be tightly integrated into the system as a
whole. Transmission means must be dependable to run smoothly to check
and identify problems in real time.
Autonomous vehicle security is a common concern, including assaults
on both availability and integrity, denial Sybil attacks, denial-of-service
assaults, and spoofing effects on entity and safety application quality of ser-
vice, meaning “the IoVs.” Protection applications for IoV guarantee that by
meeting these requirements, communications are safe and secure. Standards
ensuring privacy, verifiability, accessibility, and incorruptibility are essential
in various domains, particularly in technologies involving data handling,
communication, and verification [35]. To help the productive security in
IoV implementation, including ISO/IEC 27001:2013 Telecommunications
Standards in Europe and WAVE Institute elucidates risk profiles, informa-
tion architectures, secure ITS communication, and certificate formats. Addi-
tionally, security-focused solutions to problems with IoVs have included the
introduction of encryption, intrusion detection systems, and digital signature
methods to ensure privacy, identity, and traffic data integrity and an internal
catastrophe recovery environment.
Information and entertainment (infotainment) apps offer vehicle users
the latest news, entertainment, etc., giving them the possibility to stay pro-
ductive or enjoy in-flight entertainment, which could make the trip more
enjoyable [36]. Applications that provide these services are crucial, and in
light of media streaming and IoV entities that function together, seamlessly
personalized and geo-targeted services are possible, providing content to

people in a moving car.
IoV’s quick data sharing between nodes makes it a desirable tool for use in
smart cities. In order for smart cities to gather, transport, and evaluate mas-
sive amounts of intelligence data from embedded sensors, IoV can be used.
In addition, unlike conventional wireless sensor networks, the cars in IoV are
not limited by issues like battery life or information processing capabilities.
Each IoV communication object is thought to serve four functions [37].
Each node in an IoV network is linked to others in the same topology to
facilitate resource sharing among them. Connectivity in the IoV relies on the
peer-to-peer relationships between vehicles [38].
Vehicle objects make service requests to IoV and operate as consumers of
those services.
Data collector devices gather information produced by smart nodes
and send it to servers. Since each smart object in IoV has limited access to
resources like computing, memory, and power, the communicating nodes
employ a distributed computing model to pool their resources and perform
more complex computations.
6.5 SUMMARIZED CHALLENGES AND FUTURE

RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Although a lot of work has gone into solving interoperability problems in

IoV, researchers are always looking for new ways to make it easier to con-
nect devices and solve the key problems that arise in real-time. Emerging
technologies that will aid in the implementation of a fully integrated, secure,
and interoperable IoV ecosystem are still in the early stages of development
because IoV is still in its infancy, and the whole spectrum of unique tech-
nologies involved is evolving. In this part, we detail some of the outstand-
ing research questions that have yet to be answered and propose potential
avenues for answering those questions.
• Security
Due to the increasing number of technological gadgets installed in cars, it

is no longer sufficient to simply lock the doors and windows. When it comes
to creating a fully linked IoV ecosystem, security is a big worry for automak-
ers and tech enthusiasts alike. Cybercriminals love cars because they can do
all sorts of bad things with the information they steal from them [39]. The
IoV relies on wireless media for information sharing and computationally
heavy operations, leaving the ecosystem vulnerable to attack.
Additionally, a variety of entities linked to the standard comms infrastruc-
ture may pose potential threats. While the interoperability of IoV platforms
Figure 6.3 Security challenges and requirements of IoV.
makes it easier to handle data in IoV infrastructure, it also makes the system
more susceptible to cyber threats. Secured packet delivery in the network
requires security methods such as cryptography for application data trans-
fer and other approaches that do not affect the quality of service of IoV
infrastructure. Figure 6.3 shows the security requirements of the Internet of
Vehicles.
• Scalability
Solutions for IoV must be easily scalable; otherwise, the argument for
their adoption would collapse under the weight of the resources needed to
construct or modify them. High scalability in design technology, i.e., archi-
tectures that can switch between centralized and decentralized control
modes depending on network demands, is also required because the network
contains a wide variety of vehicular nodes and deployment environments
to process data and ensure sustainable service. There needs to be a standard-
ization of services to intelligently manage, distribute, and secure data from
connected devices, all while keeping operational costs low so that solutions
can adapt to the unpredictable nature of the IoV’s traffic [40]. Flexible and
optimized search engine designs are necessary for managing requests and
retrieving data needed by linked nodes, in addition to developing a standard-

ized scheme for storing vehicle data, like the cloud platform. Furthermore,
effective admission methods need to be created for dynamic networks where
nodes can join and leave the network at any time in order to decrease the
latency of joining a network and accept node requests.
• Trust Management
Trust between the communicating entities in the IoV is necessary for them
to cooperate based on mutually understood context data. The storage and
computation of trust-related information creates overhead that causes laten-
cies in nodes with limited computing and storage capabilities due to the need
for regular updates by trust evaluation algorithms aiming to reduce the risk
of untrusted nodes in the network.
Algorithms for trust management for information credibility that are scal-
able and efficient, formalizing and optimizing entity reputation and avail-
able resources, are needed to meet this problem. Solutions that leverage the
decentralized capabilities of blockchain are interesting techniques that can
provide a safe framework for efficient and scalable trust management. More-
over, the design of trust management models should take semantic interoper-
ability into account.
• Artificial Intelligence
Improving the cognitive performance of IoV applications and tackling

complicated challenges like routing, resource management, and task offload-
ing are made possible using AI methodologies like deep and reinforcement
learning. To increase network security and efficiency, IoV nodes can learn to
make rational decisions using AI.
However, the use of AI techniques in IoV is far from simple, as they rely
significantly on sensor data, which can be influenced by factors such as com-
plex traffic situations, poor network topology stability, and electromagnetic
interference from natural or manmade sources. For instance, snow might
influence the performance of light detection and ranging systems, leading
to incorrect input for object categorization from the AI subsystem. To back
IoV applications, we need to develop AI algorithms that are resilient in
uncertain operating situations and robust in urban settings. Additionally, AI
algorithms are computationally intensive, necessitating high-powered, high-
energy-consumption computing resources like graphics processing units.
The creation of high-performance hardware resources with low energy
utilization is necessary for IoV for large-scale commercial AI applications,
despite the fact that hardware innovations like field-programmable gate
arrays boost the performance of GPUs.
• Semantics and Syntax of Data
The solutions we looked at take different tacks when it comes to manag-

ing data. However, the syntax, semantics, or absence of data is often incon-
sistent with these approaches. Addressing this difficulty requires a defined
schema to guarantee a common, formal data syntax throughout the IoV
ecosystem. Context extraction that works well requires a standard schema
to handle variations in data syntax. In order to support IoV applications, it
is helpful to combine data normalization and data fusion techniques with the
creation of distributed data analytic modules that efficiently manage noise
reduction and error correction. Additionally, ontologies that can provide
consistent data formats for multimodal IoV data require technologies like
web semantics. Cross-platform data interchange between IoV applications
might also benefit from open APIs that permit devices operating in different
domains to interact.
• Cross-Domain Integration
The availability of services to ecosystem users can be further improved by

integrating other areas, such as smart homes, ITS, and health.
Existing vertical domains’ applications and services need to be supported
by others using a variety of communication protocols and Quality of Service
(QoS) criteria. However, because solutions in these areas are typically created
independently, interoperability is often difficult to establish. A standardized
foundation for intelligent device production is essential for cross-platform
and cross-domain integration. Also, similar to the BIG IoT API for general
IoT platforms, a uniform interface for accessing data should be provided via
application programming interfaces and resource discovery tools.
In order to foster collaborations between disparate domains and improve
cross-platform access to data, it is necessary to adopt vertical silos for IoV
platforms and provide users with domain-specific interfaces.
• Emerging Technology Adaptation
Low-latency networks like the IoV, 5G, 6G, and mmWave offer superior
connection with increased data transmission rate, decreased communication
delay, powerful detection capabilities, and greater security. Integration of
these technologies to serve vehicle applications requires an understanding
of channel measurements in dynamic situations, impacts of signal obstruc-
tions, and dynamics of antenna directionality. If these technologies were inte-
grated with preexisting vehicular networks such as Cellular V2X, WiMax,
and DSRC, as well as architectures like NDN, SDN, and SIoV, the IoV’s
quality of service would be greatly enhanced. Data for channel measurement
is increased due to the interaction of these technologies with current ones,

which complicates data processing and the knowledge of the nature of com-
munication channels. Wireless channel modeling and data management can
both benefit from the use of deep learning methods like generative adver-
sarial networks.
6.6 CONCLUSION
Integrating heterogeneous entities that may support these services and

applications and addressing interoperability difficulties in IoV are essential
for ensuring sustainable services. In this study, we go into the difficulties
of interoperability in IoV and provide a comprehensive taxonomy of these
obstacles. To gain a competitive edge in the smart city ecosystem, we give
a detailed overview of the various approaches that have been presented to
handle IoV interoperability. We argue that IoV interoperability, advanced
intelligence methods, flexible network architecture, and an appropriate har-
mony between security and privacy are essential. In order to realize the excit-
ing potential of IoV, it is necessary to overcome these obstacles and create an
ecosystem that improves the smooth, real-time communication of network
components.
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Chapter 7
Feature designing and security

considerations in electrical
vehicles utilizing explainable AI
Mandeep Kaur and Vinayak Goel
7.1 FEATURE DESIGNING FOR SMART ELECTRICAL

VEHICLES
i. User Interface Design for Smart Cars (A historical perspective of

explainable Artificial Intelligence—Confalonieri—2021 — WIREs
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery—Wiley Online Library,
2021)
User interface design plays a crucial role in the successful implementa-

tion of smart cars. As these vehicles become more advanced and incorporate
artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, it is essential to design user interfaces
that are intuitive, informative, and promote trust and transparency. In this
section, we will explore the key considerations and best practices for user
interface design in smart cars. The importance of user interface design is
quite critical in smart cars as it directly impacts the user experience and
safety of the vehicle. A well-designed user interface can enhance the driver’s
ability to interact with the car’s features and functions effectively. It should
provide clear and concise information, allowing the driver to make informed
decisions while minimizing distractions.
ii. Design Principles for Smart Car Interfaces (Phillips et al., 2020)
When designing user interfaces for smart cars, several principles should
be considered to ensure usability and effectiveness. These principles include:
a. Simplicity and Clarity
Smart car interfaces should be simple and easy to understand. The infor-
mation presented should be clear and concise, avoiding unnecessary com-
plexity. The use of intuitive icons, symbols, and visual cues can help drivers
quickly grasp the meaning of different controls and indicators.
134 DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-7

Feature designing and security consider. in EVs utilizing XAI 135
b. Consistency
Consistency in design is crucial to ensure that drivers can easily navigate

and interact with the interface. The placement of controls, the use of colors
and fonts, and the overall layout should follow established design patterns and
conventions. This consistency helps drivers develop mental models of how the
interface works, reducing cognitive load and improving usability.
c. Contextual Awareness
Smart car interfaces should be contextually aware, providing relevant

information based on current driving conditions. For example, the interface
can display real-time traffic updates, weather conditions, or nearby points of
interest. By tailoring the information to the driver’s context, the interface can
enhance situational awareness and assist in decision-making.
d. Feedback and Confirmation
Providing feedback and confirmation is essential to ensure that drivers under-

stand the actions they have taken and the system’s response. Visual and auditory
cues can be used to acknowledge user inputs, such as button presses or voice
commands. Additionally, the interface should provide clear feedback on the sta-
tus of the vehicle’s systems, such as battery charge level or engine temperature.
e. Minimizing Distractions
One of the primary concerns in smart car interface design is minimizing

distractions. The interface should prioritize essential information and func-
tions, reducing the cognitive load on the driver. Unnecessary alerts, notifica-
tions, or complex menus should be avoided to prevent driver distraction and
maintain focus on the road.
f. Integration of Explainable AI in User Interfaces (Clinciu and Hastie,

2019)
Explainable AI techniques can play a significant role in enhancing the user

interface design of smart cars. By providing transparent and interpretable expla-
nations of the AI algorithms and decision-making processes, drivers can better
understand and trust the system’s recommendations and actions. Here are some
ways in which explainable AI can be integrated into smart car user interfaces:
i. Visualizing AI Outputs
One approach to incorporating explainable AI in user interfaces is by

visualizing the outputs of AI algorithms. For example, if the smart car uses
AI for object detection, the interface can display the detected objects and
their confidence levels. This visualization helps drivers understand how the
AI system perceives the environment and makes decisions.
ii. Providing Contextual Explanations
Explainable AI can provide contextual explanations to drivers, helping

them understand why certain recommendations or actions are being sug-
gested. For instance, if the smart car suggests taking a specific route, the
interface can explain that the recommendation is based on real-time traffic
data or historical patterns. This contextual information helps drivers make
informed decisions and builds trust in the system.
iii. Interactive Explanations
Interactive explanations allow drivers to explore the AI system’s decision-

making process further. The interface can provide additional information
about the features or factors that influenced a particular recommendation or
action. By enabling drivers to interact with the explanations, they can gain a
deeper understanding of how the AI system works and its limitations.
iv. Error Handling and Recovery
Explainable AI can also assist in error handling and recovery in smart car
interfaces. If the AI system encounters an error or uncertainty, the interface
can provide explanations and alternative options to the driver. This transpar-
ency helps drivers understand the limitations of the AI system and enables
them to take appropriate actions.
iii. Usability Testing and Iterative Design (Natarajan et al., 2020)
To ensure the effectiveness of user interfaces in smart cars, usability test-

ing and iterative design are crucial. Usability testing involves observing and
collecting feedback from drivers as they interact with the interface. This feed-
back helps identify usability issues, areas of confusion, and opportunities
for improvement. Based on the feedback, the iterative design allows for the
refinement and enhancement of the interface to meet the needs and expecta-
tions of the drivers better.
User interface design is a critical aspect of smart car development. It should
prioritize simplicity, clarity, consistency, and contextual awareness while
minimizing distractions. The integration of explainable AI techniques can
enhance the transparency and trustworthiness of the interface. By visualizing
AI outputs, providing contextual explanations, enabling interactive expla-
nations, and assisting in error handling, smart car interfaces can empower
drivers to make informed decisions and interact effectively with the vehicle’s
AI systems. Usability testing and iterative design further ensure that the
interface meets the drivers’ needs and enhances their overall experience.
7.2 EXPLAINABLE RECOMMENDATIONS AND

DECISION SUPPORT
In the realm of smart cars, explainable AI plays a crucial role in provid-

ing recommendations and decision support to both drivers and passengers
(Alufaisan et al., 2020). The ability to understand and explain the reasoning
behind these recommendations is essential for building trust and ensuring
the safety and satisfaction of users.
i. Explainable Recommendations
Explainable recommendations in smart cars involve providing users with

suggestions and advice based on various factors such as traffic conditions,
user preferences, and historical data. These recommendations can range
from route suggestions to personalized entertainment options during the
journey. However, it is not enough to simply provide recommendations; it
is equally important to explain why a particular recommendation is being
made.
Explainable AI techniques can be employed to provide transparent and

interpretable recommendations. For example, a smart car system can explain
that a specific route is being recommended because it has the least traffic
congestion based on real-time data. By providing this explanation, users can
understand the rationale behind the recommendation and make informed
decisions.
ii. Decision Support
In addition to recommendations, smart cars can provide decision sup-

port to drivers in critical situations. For instance, when faced with a sud-
den obstacle on the road, the car’s AI system can analyze the situation and
provide guidance on the best course of action. This decision support can be
particularly valuable in emergency situations where split-second decisions
can make a significant difference in avoiding accidents.
Explainable AI techniques can enhance decision support by providing
clear explanations for the suggested actions. For example, if the AI system
advises the driver to brake suddenly, it can explain that it detected an immi-
nent collision based on sensor data. By understanding the reasoning behind
the decision, drivers can trust the system and act accordingly.
iii. Transparency and Trust
Using explainable AI in recommendations and decision support fosters

transparency and builds trust between humans and machines. When users
understand the logic behind the system’s suggestions, they are more likely to
trust and rely on the recommendations provided. This trust is crucial for the
widespread adoption of smart car technologies. Moreover, transparency in
recommendations and decision support can also help users identify potential
biases or errors in the system. By providing explanations, users can question
and challenge the system’s suggestions, leading to improvements and refine-
ments in the AI algorithms.
iv. User-Centric Design
To ensure the effectiveness of explainable recommendations and decision

support, it is essential to adopt a user-centric design approach. This involves
understanding the needs, preferences, and limitations of the users and tailor-
ing the recommendations and explanations accordingly.
User feedback and iterative design processes play a vital role in refin-
ing the recommendation and decision support systems. By collecting feed-
back from users, developers can identify areas for improvement and make
necessary adjustments to enhance the user experience. This iterative design
approach ensures that the recommendations and support for decisions align
with the expectations and requirements of the users.
v. Ethical Considerations
While explainable recommendations and decision support offer numer-

ous benefits, there are also ethical considerations that need to be addressed.
One of the primary concerns is the potential for overreliance on AI sys-
tems, leading to a loss of human agency and decision-making capabilities.
It is crucial to strike a balance between providing support and empower-
ing users to make their own informed choices. Additionally, privacy and
data protection are significant ethical considerations in the context of
smart cars. As AI systems collect and analyze vast amounts of data to pro-
vide recommendations and decision support, it is essential to ensure that
user data is handled securely and in compliance with privacy regulations.
Users should have control over their data and be informed about how
it is being used. Explainable recommendations and decision support are
integral components of smart car systems. By employing explainable AI
techniques, these systems can provide transparent and interpretable sug-
gestions, enhancing user trust and satisfaction. However, it is crucial to
consider ethical considerations and adopt a user-centric design approach

to ensure the responsible and effective use of these technologies. With con-
tinued advancements in explainable AI, the future of recommendations and
decision support in smart cars looks promising, offering users a safer and
more personalized driving experience.
vi. Trust and Transparency in Human-Machine Interaction
Trust and transparency are crucial aspects of human-machine interaction

in smart cars. As these vehicles become more autonomous and rely heavily
on Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems, it is essential to ensure that users have
confidence in the decisions made by the AI algorithms. Explainable AI plays
a vital role in building trust and providing transparency in the decision-
making process of smart cars.
vii. Importance of Trust in Human-Machine Interaction
Trust is the foundation of any successful human-machine interaction. In

the context of smart cars, users must trust the AI systems to make safe and
reliable decisions. When users have confidence in the technology, they are
more likely to embrace and adopt it. Trust is particularly crucial in situations
where the AI system takes control of critical functions, such as autonomous
driving.
Explainable AI helps establish trust by providing users with insights into
how the AI algorithms make decisions. When users understand the reason-
ing behind the AI’s actions, they are more likely to trust the system. This
transparency allows users to assess the reliability and safety of the AI system,
leading to increased trust and acceptance.
viii. Transparency in Decision-Making (Sovrano and Vitali, 2021)
Transparency is closely related to trust and refers to the ability to under-

stand and explain the decision-making process of AI systems. In the context
of smart cars, transparency is essential to ensure that users can comprehend
why the AI system made a particular decision. This understanding is crucial
for users to feel in control and have confidence in the technology.
Explainable AI techniques provide transparency by offering insights into
the internal workings of AI algorithms. These techniques enable users to
understand the factors considered by the AI system when making decisions.
For example, feature importance techniques can highlight the specific fea-
tures or inputs that influence a decision. This transparency allows users
to validate the decisions made by the AI system and identify any potential
biases or errors.
7.2.1 Building trust through explainable

recommendations
In addition to decision-making transparency, explainable AI can enhance
trust through explainable recommendations. Smart cars often provide rec-
ommendations to users, such as route suggestions or personalized settings.
By explaining the rationale behind these recommendations, users can better
understand why the AI system made a particular suggestion.
Explainable recommendations provide users with the opportunity to
assess the validity and relevance of the suggestions. For example, if the AI
system recommends a longer route due to traffic conditions, users can under-
stand the reasoning behind the recommendation and make an informed deci-
sion. This transparency helps build trust by empowering users to evaluate
and validate the recommendations made by the AI system.
7.3 ADDRESSING USER CONCERNS AND MISCONCEPTIONS
Trust and transparency in human-machine interaction also involve address-

ing user concerns and misconceptions about AI systems. Many users may
have reservations about relying on AI algorithms for critical tasks, such as
driving. It is essential to address these concerns and provide accurate infor-
mation to alleviate any misconceptions. Explainable AI techniques can help
address user concerns by providing clear explanations of how the AI system
works and the safety measures in place. By highlighting the robustness of
the AI algorithms and the extensive testing and validation processes, users
can gain confidence in the technology. Additionally, by addressing potential
biases or limitations of the AI system, users can have a more realistic under-
standing of its capabilities.
7.3.1 User education and training

User education and training are crucial to foster trust and transparency in
human-machine interaction. Users need to be informed about the capabilities
and limitations of the AI systems in smart cars. By providing comprehensive
training and educational materials, users can develop a better understanding
of how AI algorithms work and the benefits they offer.
User education can include explaining the underlying principles of AI,
the data used for training the algorithms, and the ethical considerations
involved. By empowering users with knowledge, they can make informed
decisions and have realistic expectations about the AI system’s performance.
This education also helps users understand the importance of transparency
and trust in the context of smart cars.
7.3.2 Continuous improvement and feedback

Continuous improvement and user feedback are essential to maintain trust
and transparency in human-machine interaction. Smart car manufacturers
should actively seek user feedback and incorporate it into the design and
development process. By listening to user concerns and suggestions, manu-
facturers can address any issues and enhance the transparency and trustwor-
thiness of the AI systems.
User feedback can help identify areas where the AI system may lack trans-
parency or where users may have difficulty understanding the decisions
made. By iteratively improving the explainability of the AI algorithms and
incorporating user feedback, manufacturers can build trust and ensure that
the technology meets user expectations.
In conclusion, trust and transparency are critical in human-machine inter-
action in smart cars. Explainable AI techniques play a vital role in estab-
lishing trust by providing transparency in the decision-making process. By
explaining the reasoning behind AI decisions and recommendations, users
can better understand and trust the technology. User education, continuous
improvement, and feedback are also essential to maintain trust and enhance
transparency in the evolving field of smart cars.
7.3.3 User feedback and iterative design

User feedback and iterative design play a crucial role in the development and
improvement of smart cars. As smart cars become more advanced and complex,
it is essential to gather feedback from users to understand their needs, prefer-
ences, and concerns. This feedback can then be used to iterate and enhance
the design of smart cars, making them more user-friendly, efficient, and safe.
7.3.4 Importance of user feedback

User feedback is invaluable in the development of smart cars. It provides
insights into how users interact with the technology, what features they find
useful, and what areas need improvement. By collecting feedback from a
diverse range of users, including drivers, passengers, and other stakeholders,
developers can gain a comprehensive understanding of the user experience
and identify areas for enhancement.
One of the primary benefits of user feedback is that it helps identify usabil-
ity issues. Users can provide valuable insights into the ease of use, intu-
itiveness, and overall user experience of smart car interfaces and features.
By understanding the pain points and challenges users face, developers can
make informed design decisions to improve the user interface and enhance
the overall user experience.
User feedback also helps identify potential safety concerns. Users may
encounter situations where the smart car’s behavior or response is unex-
pected or unsafe. By collecting feedback on these incidents, developers can
identify and address potential safety risks, ensuring that smart cars operate
reliably and securely.
Furthermore, user feedback can shed light on the effectiveness of explainable
AI techniques implemented in smart cars. Users can provide insights into the
clarity and comprehensibility of the explanations provided by the AI system.
This feedback is crucial in refining and optimizing the explainability features
of smart cars, making them more transparent and understandable to users.
7.3.5 Gathering user feedback

To gather user feedback effectively, developers can employ various methods
and techniques. What follows are some common approaches used in the
automotive industry.
7.3.6 Surveys and questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are a popular method for collecting user feed-
back. Developers can design surveys to gather information about user pref-
erences, satisfaction levels, and suggestions for improvement. These surveys
can be distributed to a wide range of users, including smart car owners, fleet
operators, and even potential customers. The data collected from surveys can
provide valuable insights into user needs and expectations.
7.3.7 User interviews and focus groups

User interviews and focus groups allow developers to have direct conver-
sations with users to understand their experiences, opinions, and sugges-
tions. These qualitative research methods provide in-depth insights into user
perspectives and can help uncover valuable information that may not be
captured through surveys alone. By conducting interviews and focus groups,
developers can gain a deeper understanding of user needs and preferences,
enabling them to make more informed design decisions.
7.3.8 User testing and observations

User testing involves observing users as they interact with smart cars in real-
world scenarios. This method allows developers to observe user behavior, iden-
tify usability issues, and gather feedback on specific features or functionalities.
By conducting user testing sessions, developers can gain firsthand insights into
how users interact with the technology and identify areas for improvement.
7.4 ONLINE COMMUNITIES AND SOCIAL MEDIA
Online communities and social media platforms provide a platform for

users to share their experiences, opinions, and suggestions. Developers can
actively monitor these platforms to gather feedback and engage in discus-
sions with users. This approach allows developers to tap into a larger user
base and gain insights from a diverse range of perspectives. Iterative Design
Process
User feedback is most valuable when it is used to drive an iterative design
process. Iterative design involves continuously refining and improving the
design of smart cars based on user feedback and testing. This process allows
developers to address user needs and concerns, enhance usability, and opti-
mize the overall user experience.
The iterative design process typically involves the following steps:
i. Collecting User Feedback
As discussed earlier, user feedback can be collected through various meth-

ods such as surveys, interviews, user testing, and online communities. It is
essential to gather feedback from a diverse range of users to ensure a com-
prehensive understanding of user needs and preferences.
ii. Analyzing and Prioritizing Feedback
Once user feedback is collected, it must be carefully analyzed and priori-

tized. Developers should identify common themes, pain points, and areas for
improvement. Feedback that aligns with the overall goals and objectives of
the smart car project should be given higher priority.
iii. Designing and Implementing Changes
Based on the analysis of user feedback, developers can start designing and
implementing changes to address the identified issues and improve the user
experience. This may involve modifying the user interface, enhancing specific
features, or optimizing the explainability of AI techniques.
iv. Testing and Evaluation
After implementing the changes, it is crucial to conduct testing and eval-

uation to assess their effectiveness. User testing sessions can be conducted
to gather feedback on the redesigned features or interface. This feedback
can then be used to refine the design further and address any remaining
issues.
v. Repeating the Process
The iterative design process is cyclical, and the steps mentioned previously
should be repeated multiple times. Each iteration builds upon the previous
one, incorporating user feedback and continuously improving the design.
This iterative approach ensures that smart cars evolve and adapt to meet the
changing needs and expectations of users.
7.4.1 Incorporating explainable AI in user feedback

Explainable AI techniques can be incorporated into the user feedback pro-
cess. Users can be provided with explanations of the AI system’s decisions
and recommendations, and their feedback on the clarity and usefulness of
these explanations can be collected. This feedback can then be used to refine
and enhance the explainability features of smart cars, making them more
transparent and understandable to users.
In conclusion, user feedback and iterative design are essential components of
smart car development. By actively seeking and incorporating user feedback,
developers can create smart cars that are more user-friendly, efficient, and safe.
The iterative design process ensures that smart cars continuously evolve and
improve based on user needs and preferences. Incorporating explainable AI tech-
niques in the user feedback process further enhances the transparency and com-
prehensibility of smart cars, making them more trustworthy and user-centric.
7.4.2 Safety considerations in smart cars

Safety is one of the most critical aspects of smart cars (Nikitas et al., 2020).
As these vehicles become more advanced and autonomous, it is essential to
ensure that they operate in a safe and reliable manner. In this section, we will
explore the various safety considerations in smart cars and how explainable
AI can contribute to enhancing safety.
7.4.3 Importance of safety in smart cars

The primary goal of any smart car system is to provide a safe and secure
transportation experience for both the occupants of the vehicle and other
road users. Safety considerations in smart cars encompass a wide range of
aspects, including collision avoidance, pedestrian detection, lane keeping,
and emergency braking, among others. By integrating advanced technolo-
gies and AI algorithms, smart cars can enhance safety by mitigating the risks
associated with human error and improving overall driving performance.
7.4.4 Safety challenges in smart cars

While smart cars offer numerous safety benefits, they also present unique
challenges. One of the main challenges is the complexity of the AI systems
that power these vehicles. Smart cars rely on a combination of sensors, cam-
eras, radar, and LiDAR to perceive the environment and make decisions in
real time. However, the complexity of these systems can introduce potential
vulnerabilities and safety risks. It is crucial to address these challenges to
ensure the safe operation of smart cars.
7.4.5 Explainable AI for safety in smart cars

Explainable AI plays a vital role in addressing safety concerns in smart cars.
By providing transparency and interpretability, explainable AI techniques
enable users to understand how the AI system makes decisions and takes
appropriate actions in safety-critical situations. What follows are some ways
in which explainable AI can contribute to safety in smart cars
7.4.6 Decision explanation

Explainable AI techniques can provide insights into the decision-making
process of smart cars (Michael, 2021). By explaining why a particular deci-
sion was made, such as applying emergency braking or changing lanes, users
can have a better understanding of the system’s behavior. This transpar-
ency allows users to trust the AI system and make informed decisions while
driving.
7.4.7 Error detection and diagnosis

Explainable AI can help detect and diagnose errors or anomalies in the
smart car system. By analyzing the internal workings of the AI algorithms,
it becomes possible to identify potential issues that may compromise safety.
For example, if a sensor malfunctions or a decision-making algorithm pro-
duces unexpected results, explainable AI can help pinpoint the problem and
take corrective actions.
7.4.8 Safety validation and certification

Explainable AI techniques can assist in the validation and certification of
smart car systems. Safety regulators and certification bodies require a thor-
ough understanding of the AI algorithms and their impact on safety. By pro-
viding interpretable models and explanations, explainable AI can facilitate
the evaluation and certification process, ensuring that smart cars meet the
necessary safety standards.
7.4.9 Privacy and data protection

Safety in smart cars also extends to the protection of personal data and pri-
vacy (Gade et al., 2019). As smart cars collect and process vast amounts of
data, it is crucial to ensure that this data is handled securely and in compli-
ance with privacy regulations. Explainable AI can contribute to privacy and
data protection by providing transparency in data handling and allowing
users to have control over their personal information.
7.4.10 Collaborative safety

Collaborative safety is another aspect that can benefit from explainable AI
in smart cars. By sharing information and insights about the driving environ-
ment and potential hazards, smart cars can work together to enhance safety.
Explainable AI can facilitate this collaboration by providing interpretable
models and explanations that enable smart cars to communicate and coor-
dinate their actions effectively.
7.4.11 Human-machine interaction for safety

The interaction between humans and smart cars is crucial for ensuring safety
(Zhu et al., 2018). Explainable AI can contribute to this interaction by pro-
viding understandable explanations to the users. By understanding the sys-
tem’s behavior and limitations, users can make informed decisions and take
appropriate actions to ensure their safety and the safety of others on the
road.
Safety considerations are of utmost importance in smart cars. Explainable
AI techniques can play a significant role in enhancing safety by providing
transparency, error detection, and validation capabilities. By understanding
the decision-making process and potential risks, users can trust the AI sys-
tem and make informed decisions while driving. Additionally, explainable
AI can contribute to privacy protection, collaborative safety, and effective
human-machine interaction. As smart cars continue to evolve, it is crucial to
prioritize safety and leverage the power of explainable AI to ensure a secure
and reliable transportation experience.
Explainable AI (XAI) has gained significant attention in recent years as
a crucial aspect of developing intelligent systems, including smart cars. The
ability to understand and interpret the decisions made by AI algorithms is
essential for ensuring transparency, trust, and safety in the deployment of
these systems. In the context of motor vehicles, XAI plays a vital role in
addressing security challenges and enhancing the overall safety of smart cars.
7.4.12 Security challenges in smart cars

Smart cars, equipped with advanced technologies and AI algorithms, offer
numerous benefits, such as improved safety, enhanced driving experience,
and increased efficiency. However, these advancements also introduce new
security challenges that must be addressed to ensure the integrity and reli-
ability of smart car systems.
7.4.13 Cybersecurity risks

One of the primary security challenges in smart cars is the vulnerability to
cyber-attacks (Hussain et al., 2021). As smart cars become more connected
and autonomous, they rely heavily on communication networks and exter-
nal systems, making them susceptible to various cybersecurity risks. Hack-
ers can exploit vulnerabilities in the car’s software, network connections, or
even physical components to gain unauthorized access and control over the
vehicle.
Cyber-attacks on smart cars can have severe consequences, including
unauthorized access to personal data, manipulation of critical systems like
braking and steering, and even remote hijacking of the vehicle. Therefore,
it is crucial to develop robust security measures to protect smart cars from
cyber threats.
7.4.14 Data privacy and protection

Smart cars generate and collect vast amounts of data, including personal
information, driving patterns, and location data. This data is valuable and
can be misused if not adequately protected. Ensuring data privacy and pro-
tection is essential to maintain user trust and prevent unauthorized access to
sensitive information.
Smart car manufacturers and service providers must implement strong
data encryption techniques, secure data storage practices, and strict access
controls to safeguard the privacy of users. Additionally, clear policies and
regulations should be in place to govern the collection, storage, and usage of
data generated by smart cars.
7.4.15 Malicious attacks on AI systems

The integration of AI algorithms in smart cars introduces a new dimension
of security challenges (Barredo Arrieta et al., 2020). Malicious actors can
target the AI systems in smart cars to manipulate their behavior and cause
harm. Adversarial attacks, where attackers intentionally manipulate input
data to deceive AI algorithms, can lead to incorrect decisions and potentially
dangerous situations.
Robust security measures need to be implemented to mitigate the risk of
malicious attacks on AI systems. This includes techniques such as anomaly
detection, intrusion detection systems, and continuous monitoring of the
AI algorithms’ performance. Additionally, explainable AI techniques can
help identify and understand any vulnerabilities or biases in the AI models,

enabling proactive measures to address them.
7.4.16 Supply chain security

Smart cars are complex systems that involve multiple components and soft-
ware from various suppliers. Ensuring the security of the supply chain is cru-
cial to prevent the introduction of compromised or malicious components
into the smart car ecosystem. A compromised component can potentially
compromise the entire system, leading to security breaches or vulnerabilities.
To address supply chain security challenges, smart car manufacturers
should implement rigorous vetting processes for suppliers, conduct regular
security audits, and establish secure communication channels with suppliers.
Additionally, the use of tamper-resistant hardware and software verification
techniques can help detect and prevent the use of compromised components.
7.4.17 Over-the-air updates

Over-the-air (OTA) updates have become a common practice in smart cars
to deliver software updates and new features (Meske et al., 2022). While
OTA updates offer convenience and flexibility, they also introduce security
risks. Malicious actors can exploit vulnerabilities in the OTA update process
to inject malicious code or gain unauthorized access to the vehicle’s systems.
To ensure the security of OTA updates, smart car manufacturers should
implement secure update mechanisms, including strong encryption, authen-
tication, and integrity checks. Regular security audits and monitoring of the
OTA update process are also essential to detect and prevent any potential
security breaches.
7.4.18 XAI for security enhancement

Explainable AI techniques can play a significant role in enhancing the secu-
rity of smart cars. By providing transparency and interpretability, XAI can
help identify and understand potential security vulnerabilities in AI systems.
XAI techniques such as feature importance analysis, rule extraction, and
model-agnostic explanations can assist in identifying potential attack vectors
and detecting anomalous behavior.
Furthermore, XAI can aid in detecting adversarial attacks by revealing
the vulnerabilities and limitations of AI algorithms. By understanding how
attackers can manipulate the input data to deceive the AI system, developers
can develop robust defenses and countermeasures.
Security challenges in smart cars are a critical concern that needs to be
addressed to ensure the safe and reliable operation of these vehicles. Cyber-
security risks, data privacy and protection, malicious attacks on AI systems,
supply chain security, and OTA update security are among the key challenges
that must be mitigated. The application of explainable AI techniques can

significantly enhance the security of smart cars by providing transparency,
identifying vulnerabilities, and aiding in the detection and prevention of
security breaches.
7.4.19 Explainable AI for safety and security

Explainable AI (XAI) plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and security
of smart cars. As these vehicles become more advanced and autonomous, it is
essential to understand how AI algorithms make decisions and explain those
decisions. In this section, we will explore the application of explainable AI
techniques in the context of safety and security in smart cars.
7.4.20 Enhancing safety with explainable AI

Safety is a paramount concern in the development and deployment of smart
cars. The ability to explain the decisions made by AI systems can greatly
enhance safety measures. By providing transparent and interpretable expla-
nations, XAI can help identify potential risks and prevent accidents.
7.4.21 Real-time risk assessment

Explainable AI can be used to assess risks in real time by analyzing various
data sources, including sensor data, traffic conditions, and historical acci-
dent data (Kabir et al., 2021). By employing interpretable models, such as
decision trees or rule-based models, XAI can provide insights into the factors
that contribute to potential risks. For example, if a smart car’s AI system
detects a pedestrian crossing the road, it can explain the decision-making
process, highlighting the factors that led to the detection and the subsequent
actions taken by the vehicle.
7.4.22 Error detection and diagnosis

Explainable AI techniques can also be employed to detect and diagnose
errors in smart car systems. By providing transparent explanations, XAI can
help identify the root causes of errors and enable developers to rectify them
promptly. For instance, if an autonomous vehicle fails to detect a stop sign,
XAI can explain by highlighting the features or conditions that led to the
error, such as poor lighting or occlusion.
7.4.23 Safety-critical decision support

In safety-critical situations, smart cars may need to make split-second deci-
sions that can have significant consequences. Explainable AI can provide
decision support by explaining the rationale behind these critical decisions.
For example, if a smart car needs to decide between swerving to avoid an

obstacle or maintaining its current path, XAI can provide an explanation
by highlighting the factors considered, such as the speed and distance of the
obstacle, road conditions, and the presence of other vehicles.
7.4.24 Strengthening security with explainable AI

Security is another crucial aspect of smart car development. As these vehi-
cles become more connected and autonomous, they are vulnerable to cyber-
attacks and malicious activities. Explainable AI can help strengthen security
measures by providing insights into potential vulnerabilities and detecting
anomalous behavior.
7.4.25 Intrusion detection and prevention

Explainable AI techniques can be used to detect and prevent intrusions in
smart car systems (Mankodiya et al., 2022). By analyzing network traffic
and system logs, XAI can identify patterns and behaviors that deviate from
normal operations. For example, if an AI system detects unauthorized access
attempts or unusual data transfers, it can explain by highlighting the specific
indicators of the intrusion.
7.4.26 Vulnerability assessment

Explainable AI can also be employed to assess the vulnerability of smart car
systems to cyber-attacks. By analyzing the system architecture, communication
protocols, and software components, XAI can identify potential weaknesses
and provide explanations for the identified vulnerabilities. This information
can then be used to strengthen the security measures and mitigate the risks.
7.4.27 Adversarial attack detection

Adversarial attacks, where malicious actors manipulate sensor inputs to
deceive AI systems, pose a significant threat to smart cars. Explainable AI
can help detect and mitigate these attacks by providing explanations for
the decisions made by the AI system. By analyzing the input data and the
decision-making process, XAI can identify anomalies and highlight adver-
sarial manipulations. This information can then be used to develop robust
defense mechanisms against such attacks.
7.4.28 Regulatory compliance and accountability

Explainable AI is not only crucial for safety and security but also for reg-
ulatory compliance and accountability in the smart car industry (Celino,
2020). As autonomous vehicles become more prevalent, there is a need for
regulations and standards to ensure their safe and ethical operation. XAI
can provide the necessary transparency and accountability to meet these
requirements.
7.4.29 Compliance with safety standards

Explainable AI techniques can help smart car manufacturers demonstrate
compliance with safety standards and regulations. By providing transparent
explanations for the decision-making process, XAI can enable regulatory
authorities to assess the safety measures implemented in the vehicles. This
transparency can also facilitate the certification process for autonomous
vehicles, ensuring they meet the necessary safety requirements.
7.4.30 Ethical decision-making

Smart cars often encounter ethical dilemmas on the road, such as deciding
between protecting the occupants or avoiding harm to pedestrians. Explainable
AI can provide insights into the ethical decision-making process by explaining
the factors considered and the trade-offs made by the AI system. This transpar-
ency can help ensure smart cars adhere to ethical principles and societal norms.
7.4.31 Accountability and liability

Explainable AI can also play a crucial role in establishing accountability and
liability in the event of accidents or malfunctions. By providing transparent
explanations for the decisions made by AI systems, XAI can help determine
the responsibility of different stakeholders, such as the vehicle manufacturer,
the AI system developer, or the human operator. This accountability can
facilitate the resolution of legal and insurance-related issues.
In conclusion, explainable AI is essential for ensuring the safety and secu-
rity of smart cars. By providing transparent and interpretable explanations,
XAI can enhance real-time risk assessment, error detection, decision support,
intrusion detection, vulnerability assessment, and adversarial attack detec-
tion. Furthermore, XAI promotes regulatory compliance, ethical decision-
making, and accountability in the smart car industry. As smart cars continue
to evolve, the application of explainable AI techniques will be crucial in
building trust and confidence in these advanced vehicles.
Explainable AI (XAI) has gained significant attention in recent years due
to its potential to enhance transparency and trust in AI systems. In the con-
text of motor vehicles, XAI can play a crucial role in ensuring the safety,
reliability, and ethical use of smart cars. By providing understandable expla-
nations for the decisions made by AI algorithms, XAI can help users, regula-
tors, and stakeholders gain insights into the inner workings of smart cars.
This section will explore the application of XAI in motor vehicles, focusing
on privacy and data protection.
7.4.32 Importance of privacy and data protection

in smart cars
Privacy and data protection are paramount concerns in the development and
deployment of smart cars (Sado et al., 2020). These vehicles collect and pro-
cess vast amounts of data, including personal information, driving behavior,
and location data. It is essential to ensure that this data is handled securely
and in compliance with privacy regulations to protect the rights and interests
of individuals.
Smart cars rely on AI algorithms to make critical decisions, such as autono-
mous driving, route planning, and predictive maintenance. These algorithms
require access to various types of data, including sensor data, GPS informa-
tion, and historical driving patterns. However, the collection and use of this
data must be done in a privacy-preserving manner to prevent unauthorized
access, misuse, or unintended disclosure.
7.4.33 Privacy challenges in smart cars

Smart cars face several privacy challenges that must be addressed to safe-
guard user data. Some of the key challenges include:
i. Data Collection and Retention (Graefe et al., 2022)
Smart cars continuously collect and store data from various sensors and
systems. The challenge lies in determining what data should be collected,
how long it should be retained, and who has access to it. Striking the right
balance between data collection for improving AI algorithms and respecting
user privacy is crucial.
ii. Data Anonymization and Pseudonymization (Lorente et al., 2021)
To protect user privacy, it is essential to anonymize or pseudonymize the

collected data. Anonymization involves removing or encrypting person-
ally identifiable information (PII) from the data, while pseudonymization
replaces identifiable information with pseudonyms. However, ensuring that
the anonymization or pseudonymization techniques used are robust enough
to prevent re-identification attacks is a challenge.
iii. Data Sharing and Third-Party Access (Clement et al., 2023)
Smart cars often rely on cloud-based services and external data sources
for various functionalities. This necessitates data sharing with third par-
ties, raising concerns about data security and privacy. Establishing secure
data-sharing protocols and ensuring that third parties adhere to privacy

regulations are critical challenges.
iv. Informed Consent and User Control
Users should have control over their data and be informed about how it
is collected, used, and shared. Obtaining informed consent from users for
data collection and processing is essential. However, designing user-friendly
interfaces that clearly communicate data practices and obtaining meaningful
consent can be challenging.
7.4.34 Role of explainable AI in privacy

and data protection
Explainable AI can contribute significantly to addressing privacy and data
protection challenges in smart cars. By providing transparent explanations
for the decisions made by AI algorithms, XAI can help users understand how
their data is being used and ensure that privacy is respected. Some ways in
which XAI can enhance privacy and data protection in smart cars include:
i. Transparent Data Processing
XAI techniques can provide insights into how AI algorithms process and
use data. By explaining the features and patterns that influence decision-
making, users can gain a better understanding of how their data is being uti-
lized. This transparency can help build trust and ensure that data processing
is in line with privacy regulations.
ii. Detecting and Mitigating Bias
AI algorithms can inadvertently introduce biases in decision-making,

which can have privacy implications. XAI techniques can help identify and
mitigate these biases by providing explanations for the factors that contrib-
ute to decision outcomes. This can help ensure fair and unbiased treatment
of individuals and protect their privacy rights.
iii. Reducing Overreliance on Sensitive Data (Liao et al., 2020)
Explainable AI can help identify the specific data features crucial for
decision-making. By understanding which features are most influential,
developers can design AI systems that rely less on sensitive data, thereby
reducing privacy risks. This can be particularly important in cases where
personal information needs to be protected.
iv. User Empowerment and Control (Doran et al., 2017)
XAI can empower users by providing them with understandable explana-

tions for AI decisions. This transparency allows users to assess the privacy
implications of data sharing and make informed choices about their data. By
giving users control over their data, XAI can help protect their privacy and
ensure compliance with privacy regulations.
7.4.35 Challenges in implementing XAI for privacy

and data protection
While XAI holds promise for enhancing privacy and data protection in smart
cars (Meteier et al., 2019), several challenges need to be addressed for its
effective implementation:
i. Complexity of AI Algorithms
AI algorithms used in smart cars can be highly complex, making it chal-

lenging to provide simple and understandable explanations. Developing XAI
techniques that can effectively explain the decisions made by complex algo-
rithms without sacrificing accuracy is a significant challenge.
ii. Balancing Explainability and Performance
There is often a trade-off between the explainability of AI algorithms and

their performance. Increasing the explainability of an algorithm may come at
the cost of reduced accuracy or increased computational complexity. Strik-
ing the right balance between explainability and performance is crucial for
the successful implementation of XAI in smart cars.
iii. Privacy-Preserving Explanations
Explanations generated by XAI techniques may inadvertently reveal sen-

sitive information about individuals or their data. Ensuring that explana-
tions do not compromise privacy while still providing meaningful insights is
a challenging task. Developing privacy-preserving XAI techniques that can
generate informative explanations without disclosing sensitive information
is an active area of research.
iv. Regulatory Compliance (Arya et al., 2019)
Implementing XAI in smart cars requires compliance with privacy regu-

lations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and other
regional data protection laws. Ensuring that XAI techniques and systems
adhere to these regulations can be complex, especially considering the evolv-
ing nature of privacy laws.
Privacy and data protection are critical considerations in the develop-
ment and deployment of smart cars. Explainable AI can play a vital role in
addressing privacy challenges by providing transparent explanations for AI
decisions. By enhancing transparency, XAI can help build trust, empower
users, and ensure compliance with privacy regulations. However, several
challenges must be overcome to effectively implement XAI for privacy and
data protection in smart cars. Future research and collaboration between
industry, academia, and regulators are essential to address these challenges
and realize the full potential of XAI in ensuring privacy and data protection
in smart cars.
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Chapter 8
Feature detection and feature

visualization in smart cars
utilizing explainable AI
Mandeep Kaur and Vinayak Goel
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the field of smart cars, explainable AI plays a crucial role in enhancing

transparency and trust in the decision-making process of these intelligent
vehicles. One important aspect of explainable AI is understanding the impor-
tance of different features and visualizing them to gain insights into how the
smart car makes decisions. Feature importance refers to the measure of the
contribution of each feature in the decision-making process of a smart car.
By understanding the importance of different features, we can gain valuable
insights into how the smart car perceives and evaluates its environment. This
knowledge can be used to improve the performance, safety, and reliability
of smart cars.
The importance of feature importance lies in its ability to provide a clear
understanding of which features have the most significant impact on the
decision-making process. This knowledge can be used to identify potential
biases or limitations in the smart car’s decision-making algorithms. By ana-
lyzing feature importance, developers can ensure that the smart car’s deci-
sions are fair, unbiased, and aligned with human expectations.
8.1.1 Feature visualization

Feature visualization (Adadi and Berrada, 2018) is another important tech-
nique in the field of explainable AI for smart cars. It involves visually rep-
resenting the learned features or patterns that the smart car uses to make
decisions. By visualizing these features, one can gain a deeper understanding
of how the smart car perceives and interprets its environment. One common
approach to feature visualization is using heatmaps. Heatmaps provide a
visual representation of the importance or relevance of different features in
the decision-making process. For example, in the context of autonomous
driving, a heatmap can show which areas of the environment are considered
more important by the smart car’s perception system. This information can
be used to identify potential blind spots or areas where the smart car may
158 DOI: 10.1201/9781003502432-8

Feature detection and visualization in smart cars using XAI 159
need additional sensors or improvements. Another approach to feature visu-

alization is using saliency maps. Saliency maps highlight the most important
regions or objects in an image contributing to the smart car’s decision. By
visualizing these salient regions, we can gain insights into the specific fea-
tures or patterns that the smart car focuses on when making decisions. This
information can be valuable for debugging and improving the performance
of the smart car’s perception system (Adadi and Berrada (2018).
8.1.2 Benefits of feature importance and feature

visualization
Feature importance and feature visualization (Gerlings et al., 2020) are inte-
gral components of Explainable AI (XAI) that offer multifaceted benefits in
enhancing the transparency and interpretability of machine learning models.
Feature importance elucidates the significance of different input variables
in influencing the model’s predictions. This not only aids in comprehending
the decision-making process but also facilitates the identification of key
factors driving model outputs. The insights garnered from feature impor-
tance can guide model refinement, inform feature engineering strategies,
and promote regulatory compliance by providing a clear rationale for the
model’s decisions. On the other hand, feature visualization translates com-
plex model outputs into intuitive graphical representations, offering a visual
understanding of the relationships within the data. This not only aids in
pattern recognition and anomaly detection but also serves as a powerful
tool for effective communication with non-technical stakeholders. Visu-
alizations enable interactive exploration, fostering collaboration between
humans and AI systems and facilitating the identification and resolution of
potential issues through a more accessible and transparent representation
of the model’s behavior. In combination, feature importance and feature
visualization contribute to the overarching goals of Explainable AI, foster-
ing trust, facilitating communication, and ensuring responsible and ethical
use of AI technologies.
The application of feature importance and feature visualization techniques
in smart cars offers several benefits:
1. Transparency: By understanding the importance of different features

and visualizing them, we can enhance the transparency of the smart
car’s decision-making process. This transparency is crucial for building
trust between the smart car and its users.
2. Debugging and Improvements: Feature importance and visualization
techniques can help identify potential biases, limitations, or areas
for improvement in the smart car’s decision-making algorithms. This
knowledge can be used to debug and enhance the performance, safety,
and reliability of smart cars.
3. User Understanding: Feature visualization techniques can help users

understand how the smart car perceives and interprets its environment.
This understanding can empower users to make informed decisions
and interact more effectively with the smart car.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Feature importance and visualization tech-
niques can assist in meeting regulatory requirements for transparency
and accountability in the deployment of smart cars. By providing clear
explanations of the decision-making process, smart car developers can
ensure compliance with legal and ethical standards.
8.1.3 Challenges and limitations

While feature importance and feature visualization techniques offer valuable
insights into the decision-making process of smart cars, there are also chal-
lenges and limitations to consider:
1. Complexity: Smart cars operate in complex and dynamic environ-

ments, making it challenging to determine the importance of different
features accurately. The interactions between features and the context
in which they occur can significantly impact their importance.
2. Interpretability vs. Performance: There is often a trade-off between
the interpretability of the smart car’s decision-making process and
its performance. Highly interpretable models may sacrifice some
level of performance, while more complex models may be less
interpretable.
3. Data Availability: The effectiveness of feature importance and visual-
ization techniques relies on the availability of high-quality and diverse
training data. Limited or biased data can lead to inaccurate or mislead-
ing feature importance rankings.
4. User Understanding: While feature visualization techniques aim to
enhance user understanding, there is a risk of overwhelming users
with complex visualizations. It is essential to design user-friendly
interfaces that effectively communicate the relevant information
without overwhelming the user. Feature importance and feature visu-
alization techniques are valuable tools in the field of explainable AI
for smart cars. They provide insights into the decision-making pro-
cess, enhance transparency, and empower users to understand and
interact effectively with smart cars. However, challenges such as com-
plexity, interpretability-performance trade-offs, data availability, and
user understanding must be carefully addressed to fully leverage the
benefits of these techniques. By overcoming these challenges, we can
pave the way for safer, more reliable, and trustworthy smart cars in
the future.
8.1.4 Local explanations and counterfactuals

In the previous section, we discussed the importance of feature importance
and feature visualization in understanding the inner workings of smart cars.
These techniques provide a global view of the model’s decision-making pro-
cess. However, sometimes, it is necessary to dive deeper and understand the
local explanations for individual predictions. This is where local explana-
tions and counterfactuals come into play.
8.1.5 Local explanations

Local explanations aim to provide insights into why a specific prediction
was made by the smart car’s AI model. Unlike global explanations, which
provide an overview of the model’s behavior, local explanations focus on a
single instance or prediction. This is particularly useful when trying to under-
stand why a certain decision was made in a specific context.
One popular technique for generating local explanations is LIME (Local
Interpretable Model-Agnostic Explanations). LIME works by approximat-
ing the behavior of the AI model locally around the instance of interest. It
does this by perturbing the features of the instance and observing the result-
ing changes in the model’s predictions. By analyzing these changes, LIME
can identify the features that had the most influence on the model’s decision
for that particular instance.
Local explanations can be visualized using techniques such as heatmaps
or bar charts, which highlight the importance of each feature in the decision-
making process. These visualizations provide a clear and intuitive under-
standing of the factors that contributed to a specific prediction.
8.1.6 Counterfactuals
Counterfactual explanations (Colley et al., 2022) take local explanations a
step further by providing insights into what changes would need to be made
to an instance to achieve a different prediction. In other words, counterfac-
tuals answer the question, “What would need to be different for the model
to make a different decision?” Counterfactual explanations are particularly
useful in scenarios where the model’s decision is not aligned with the user’s
expectations or preferences. By generating counterfactuals, users can under-
stand the specific changes that would need to be made to the input features
in order to achieve the desired outcome.
For example, let’s say a smart car’s AI model predicts that a certain road
is safe to drive on, but the user disagrees and believes it is not safe. By gen-
erating counterfactual explanations, the user can understand what changes
would need to be made to the road conditions (such as reducing the speed
limit or adding additional signage) for the model to predict that the road is
unsafe.
Counterfactual explanations can be generated using optimization tech-
niques that aim to find the minimal set of changes required to achieve a
different prediction. These techniques take into account the constraints and
boundaries of the input features to ensure that the counterfactuals are real-
istic and feasible.
8.1.7 Benefits and applications

Local explanations and counterfactuals have several benefits and applica-
tions in the context of smart cars (Shin, 2021). Some of these include:
1. Improved Trust and Transparency: By providing local explanations

and counterfactuals, smart cars can enhance trust and transparency
between the AI system and the users. Users can understand why a cer-
tain decision was made and what changes would need to be made
to achieve a different outcome, leading to increased confidence in the
system.
2. User Customization and Personalization: Local explanations and
counterfactuals allow users to customize and personalize the behavior
of the smart car’s AI system. By understanding the factors influencing
the system’s decisions, users can make informed changes to the input
features to align the system’s behavior with their preferences.
3. Error Detection and Debugging: Local explanations and counterfac-
tuals can be used for error detection and debugging purposes. If the
smart car’s AI system makes a prediction that is clearly incorrect or
unexpected, local explanations can help identify the specific features or
factors that led to the erroneous prediction. This information can then
be used to improve the system’s performance and reliability.
4. Regulatory Compliance and Accountability: Local explanations and
counterfactuals can play a crucial role in regulatory compliance and
accountability. In situations where the smart car’s AI system is involved
in an accident or makes a decision that has legal implications, local
explanations and counterfactuals can provide evidence and justifica-
tion for the system’s behavior.
Overall, local explanations and counterfactuals are powerful tools for under-
standing the inner workings of smart cars’ AI systems at a granular level.
They provide insights into the factors that influence the system’s decisions
and allow for customization, error detection, and regulatory compliance. By
incorporating these techniques, smart cars can become more transparent,
trustworthy, and user-centric.
8.1.8 Model-agnostic explanations

Model-agnostic explanations are a powerful tool in the field of explain-
able AI for smart cars (Kaptein et al., 2017). These techniques allow us to
interpret the decisions made by any machine learning model, regardless of
its complexity or underlying algorithm. In this section, we will explore the
concept of model-agnostic explanations and their application in the context
of motor vehicles.
8.1.9 Understanding model-agnostic explanations

Model-agnostic explanations aim to provide insights into the decision-
making process of a machine learning model without relying on its internal
structure. These techniques focus on understanding the relationship between
the input features and the model’s output rather than interpreting the inner
workings of the model itself. By doing so, model-agnostic explanations offer
a more transparent and interpretable view of the decision-making process.
One of the key advantages of model-agnostic explanations is their versa-
tility. They can be applied to any machine learning model, including com-
plex deep learning models, without requiring any modifications to the model
architecture. This flexibility makes model-agnostic explanations particularly
useful in the context of smart cars, where different models with varying lev-
els of complexity may be employed for different tasks, such as object detec-
tion, lane detection, or decision-making.
8.1.10 Techniques for model-agnostic explanations

Model-agnostic explanations are essential in Explainable AI (XAI) as they
provide a means to interpret the decisions of diverse machine learning models
without relying on model-specific intricacies. Several techniques have been
developed to achieve model-agnostic explanations, offering transparency
and interpretability across a broad spectrum of algorithms. LIME (Local
Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations) perturbs input data and fits a
locally interpretable model to explain predictions within specific regions of
the input space. SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) values, rooted in
cooperative game theory, offer a comprehensive measure of feature impor-
tance by considering all possible feature subsets. Permutation feature impor-
tance involves the random shuffling of feature values to gauge their impact on
model performance, providing a simple yet effective model-agnostic method.
Counterfactual explanations generate instances with different predictions by
making slight changes to input features, shedding light on model decision
boundaries. Anchors, on the other hand, are interpretable rules that pre-
cisely define conditions under which a model’s prediction is reliable. These
techniques collectively empower users to understand and trust the decisions
of a wide range of machine learning models, fostering transparency and

accountability in AI applications. Several techniques have been developed
to provide model-agnostic explanations for machine learning models. These
techniques can be broadly categorized into two types: global explanations
and local explanations.
8.1.11 Global explanations

Global explanations aim to provide an overall understanding of how the
model makes decisions across the entire dataset (Shen et al., 2020). One
popular technique for global explanations is feature importance, which mea-
sures the contribution of each input feature towards the model’s output.
Feature importance can be calculated using various methods, such as permu-
tation importance, which evaluates the decrease in model performance when
a feature is randomly shuffled.
Another technique for global explanations is feature visualization, which
aims to visualize the relationship between the input features and the model’s
output. This can be achieved through techniques such as partial dependence
plots, which show how the model’s output changes as a specific feature var-
ies while keeping other features constant.
8.1.12 Local explanations

Local explanations focus on understanding the model’s decision for a spe-
cific instance or prediction (Ferreira and Monteiro, 2020). One popular
technique for local explanations is the use of surrogate models, which are
simpler and more interpretable models trained to approximate the behav-
ior of the original model. Surrogate models can provide insights into the
decision-making process of the original model by capturing its key features
and decision boundaries.
Another technique for local explanations is using counterfactual expla-
nations, which aim to identify the minimal changes in the input features
required to change the model’s decision. By generating counterfactual expla-
nations, we can understand the specific factors that influence the model’s
decision for a particular instance and potentially identify areas for improve-
ment or optimization.
8.1.13 A pplication of model-agnostic explanations

in smart cars
Model-agnostic explanations have numerous applications in the field of
smart cars, where transparency and interpretability are crucial for ensur-
ing safety, trust, and regulatory compliance (Giacomo, 2019). Let’s explore
some of the key applications of model-agnostic explanations in the context

of motor vehicles.
8.1.14 Safety and decision-making

Model-agnostic explanations can help improve the safety of smart cars by
providing insights into the decision-making process of the models responsible
for critical tasks such as collision avoidance or lane keeping. By understand-
ing the factors that influence the model’s decisions, engineers and regulators
can identify potential vulnerabilities or biases and take appropriate measures
to address them.
For example, using model-agnostic explanations, we can identify situations
where the model may fail or make incorrect decisions, such as misclassifying
pedestrians or failing to detect obstacles in certain lighting conditions. This
information can be used to improve the model’s performance and robust-
ness, ensuring safer driving experiences.
8.1.15 Regulatory compliance and accountability

Model-agnostic explanations can also play a crucial role in regulatory com-
pliance and accountability. In many countries, regulations require that the
decisions made by autonomous vehicles be explainable and transparent.
Model-agnostic explanations can provide the necessary insights to meet
these regulatory requirements, allowing authorities and stakeholders to
understand and verify the decision-making process of smart cars.
Using model-agnostic explanations, manufacturers and developers can
demonstrate that their models make decisions based on valid and reliable
factors rather than arbitrary or biased criteria. This transparency not only
helps build trust among users and regulators but also ensures accountability
in case of accidents or incidents involving smart cars.
8.1.16 User experience and trust

Model-agnostic explanations can significantly enhance the user experience
and trust in smart cars. By providing clear and understandable explanations
for the decisions made by the vehicle, users can have a better understanding
of why certain actions are taken, leading to increased trust and confidence
in the technology.
For example, imagine a smart car that explains why it decided to change
lanes or brake suddenly. By providing model-agnostic explanations, the car
can communicate its decision-making process to the driver, making the driv-
ing experience more transparent and understandable. This can help alleviate
concerns and fears associated with autonomous driving and foster greater
acceptance and adoption of smart cars.
Model-agnostic explanations are a valuable tool in the field of explain-

able AI for smart cars. These techniques provide transparent and interpre-
table insights into the decision-making process of machine learning models,
regardless of their complexity or underlying algorithm. By applying model-
agnostic explanations in the context of motor vehicles, we can enhance
safety, regulatory compliance, user experience, and trust in smart cars, pav-
ing the way for a future where intelligent vehicles coexist harmoniously with
humans on the roads.
8.1.17 Rule extraction and rule sets

Rule extraction and rule sets are powerful techniques used in the field of
explainable AI to provide interpretable explanations for the decision-
making process of smart cars (Hagras, 2018). These techniques aim to extract
human-readable rules from complex machine learning models, allowing
users to understand the reasoning behind the decisions made by the smart
car’s AI system.
8.1.18 Rule extraction techniques

Rule extraction techniques involve extracting rules from black-box models,
such as deep neural networks, to create a simplified and interpretable rep-
resentation of the model’s decision-making process. These techniques aim
to strike a balance between accuracy and interpretability, allowing users to
understand the factors that influence the smart car’s decisions.
One popular rule extraction technique is the “rule-based model” approach.
This technique involves converting the learned decision boundaries of a com-
plex model into a set of rules that can be easily understood by humans. The
rules are typically represented in the form of “if-then” statements, where the
“if” part represents the conditions that need to be met for a certain action to
be taken, and the “then” part represents the action itself.
Another rule extraction technique is the “rule extraction from decision
trees” approach. Decision trees are inherently interpretable models, and by
extracting rules from decision trees, we can gain insights into the decision-
making process of the smart car. The rules extracted from decision trees can
be used to explain the reasoning behind the smart car’s actions and provide
transparency to the users.
8.1.19 Rule sets for decision-making

Rule sets are a collection of rules that work together to make decisions. In
the context of smart cars, rule sets can be used to define the behavior and
decision-making process of the AI system. These rule sets can be created
manually by domain experts or automatically generated using rule extrac-

tion techniques.
One advantage of using rule sets is that they provide a transparent and
interpretable representation of the decision-making process. Users can eas-
ily understand the rules and the conditions under which certain actions are
taken by the smart car. This transparency helps build trust and confidence in
the AI system, as users can verify and validate the rules based on their own
knowledge and understanding.
Rule sets can also be updated and modified easily, allowing for iterative
improvements in the decision-making process of the smart car. As new data
and insights become available, the rule sets can be adjusted to incorporate the
new information, ensuring that the smart car’s behavior remains up-to-date
and aligned with the user’s preferences and requirements.
Furthermore, rule sets can be used to enforce safety and ethical consider-
ations in the decision-making process of smart cars. By explicitly defining
rules that prioritize safety and ethical guidelines, the smart car can make
decisions that prioritize the well-being of the passengers, pedestrians, and
other vehicles on the road.
8.1.20 Benefits and limitations of rule extraction

and rule sets
Using rule extraction and rule sets in smart cars offers several benefits
(Tambwekar and Gombolay, 2023). Firstly, these techniques provide trans-
parency and interpretability, allowing users to understand the decision-
making process of the smart car. This understanding can help build trust and
confidence in the AI system, as users can verify and validate the rules based
on their own knowledge and understanding.
Secondly, rule extraction and rule sets enable the customization and per-
sonalization of the smart car’s behavior. By defining rules that align with
the user’s preferences and requirements, the smart car can make decisions
tailored to the individual user’s needs. This customization enhances the user
experience and ensures that the smart car behaves in a way that is consistent
with the user’s values.
However, there are also limitations to the use of rule extraction and rule
sets in smart cars. One limitation is the complexity of the decision-making
process. Smart cars operate in dynamic and complex environments, where
the rules may need to consider a wide range of factors and variables. Creat-
ing comprehensive rule sets that cover all possible scenarios can be challeng-
ing and time-consuming.
Another limitation is the trade-off between accuracy and interpretability.
Rule extraction techniques aim to simplify complex models into interpre-
table rules, but this simplification may come at the cost of accuracy. The
extracted rules may not capture all the nuances and complexities of the origi-
nal model, leading to a potential loss of performance.
Furthermore, rule sets may not be able to handle situations that fall out-
side the predefined rules. In complex and unpredictable scenarios, the smart
car may encounter situations not covered by the existing rules. In such cases,
the smart car may need to rely on other decision-making mechanisms or
fallback strategies to ensure safe and reliable operation.
Despite these limitations, rule extraction and rule sets provide valuable
tools for enhancing the explainability and transparency of smart cars. By
enabling users to understand and validate the decision-making process, these
techniques contribute to developing trustworthy and user-centric AI systems
in the field of smart cars.
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Index
Numbers in italic indicate a figure and numbers in bold indicate a table.
3D mapping, 18 AI/ML, 18, 76

4G communication technologies, 106, Airbus, 85
119, 123 alerts, 2, 78–79
5G communication technologies, 53, context-aware, 40
77, 106, 119, 123, 129 fault, 125
6G communication technologies, 53, real-time, 40
60, 123, 129 unnecessary, 135
AlexNet architecture, 6
A algorithms
AI, 25–26, 35, 38–40, 50, 52, 65,
A*, 10
76, 87–88, 128, 135, 138–141,
accessibility, 4, 61, 111, 125
144–149, 151–154
accidents, 4–5, 16–20, 35, 50, 64, 74,
AI/ML, 76
75, 78, 80–81, 83, 94, 108–109,
AI-based, 1
111, 118, 124, 137, 149, 151, computer vision, 15
162, 165 DBSCAN, 13
pedestrian, 78 decision-making, 9, 145, 158–159
traffic, 17, 50, 74, 108 deep learning (DL), 9–12, 19
vehicle, 75 Dijkstra, 10
accountability, 26, 33, 35, 39, 45–46, integrated cognitive, 108
52, 60–61, 74, 150–151, 160, 162, localization, 9
164–165 machine learning (ML), 3, 9, 30,
accuracy, 9, 13–14, 16, 31, 35–37, 41, 50–51, 60, 76
55–56, 58, 61, 86, 88, 91, 94, mapping, 9
111, 154 ML-based, 60
vs. interpretability, 61, 166–168 probabilistic, 3
activation maximization, 25, 29, 33–34 RANSAC, 13
active learning, 125 State lattice, 10
ADAF, 53 trust evaluation, 128
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), 2, vehicle, 60
81–83, 124 XAI, 10, 75, 88–92
Adaptive Dehazing (AD), 59 Alljoyn, 120
adaptive traffic signal control, 124 alternative fuel vehicles, 124
advanced driver assistance systems ANFIS models, 56
(ADAS), 124 APIs, 120, 129
adversarial attack detection, 150–151 Apple Home Kit, 120
171
172 Index
artificial intelligence (AI), 1, 53, 60, 73, human-AI interaction in, 16–17
85, 100, 106, 112, 117, 125, importance of AI in, 3–6
128, 134 levels of autonomy of, 1–3, 2, 77, 82
algorithms, 25–26, 35, 38–40, 50, 52, perception system in, 13, 15–16, 15,
65, 76, 87–88, 128, 135, 138–141, 20, 37, 158–159
144–149, 151–154 protocol architecture, 52
in autonomous vehicles, 3–6, 47 safety and reliability in, 5, 16–20, 18,
black-box, 26 38–39, 46, 50
integration of, 5, 20, 27, 29, 147 security, 125
malicious attacks on, 147–148 sensor fusion and data integration in,
systems, 5, 19, 25–30, 33–34, 36, 12–15
39–40, 42, 45, 47, 53–54, 59, 66, XAI in, 34–35, 35, 45–47, 50–65,
76, 136–142, 144–146, 148–151, 73–95
153, 159, 162, 166–168 see also specific types of autonomous
techniques, 9–12, 50, 79, 128, 143 vehicles; smart cars
see also AI/ML; explainable artificial
intelligence (XAI) B
artificial neural networks (ANN), 84, banking, 54, 74
87–88 108 Bayesian Convolutional LSTM, 6
AS-DBSCAN, 13 Bayesian neural networks, 37–38
Association for Computing Machinery
Berkeley DeepDrive eXplanation
(ACM), 7, 46
(BDD-X) dataset, 55, 55
attention heat maps, 58
best practices, 43–44, 46–47, 134
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV), 56
bias, 52, 54, 61, 73, 138–140, 148, 153,
automated navigation technology, 56
158–160, 165
automated robotics bus, 84
Big Data, 76, 111
automation, 46, 95
analysis, 18, 106
driving, 18, 46
black box models, 26, 57, 61–62
levels of, 1–3, 2, 52, 80
blind spots, 158–159
Automotive Safety Integrity Levels
blockchain, 54, 56, 128
(ASILs), 19
construction, 56
autonomous driving (AD), 1, 2, 5, 9, 12,
technology, 53
15–17, 19–20, 42, 45–46, 50, 51,
Brake Control Module (BCU), 83
54–56, 58–62, 64–66, 65, 79, 83,
107, 139, 152, 158, 165
vision-based, 54 C
autonomous driving systems, 16–17, 19, cameras, 1, 9, 12–13, 15, 50, 53, 82,
59–60 83–85, 102, 145
integration of, 17 smart, 84
autonomous electric helicopter, 85 video, 80
autonomous electric tram, 84 cargo tracking, 125
autonomous microbus, 84 CARLA driving benchmark, 58
autonomous underground vehicle, 84 central computing unit (CCU), 80
autonomous underwater vehicle Cloud-based Internet of Vehicles
(AUV), 85 (CIoV), 100, 101, 107–108, 112
autonomous vehicles (AVs), 1–20, cloud computing, 77, 106, 111–112
50–65, 73–95 collision warning systems, 124–125
adoption of, 36, 39–40 comprehensibility, 27, 42–43, 47,
AI techniques and deep learning 142, 144
algorithms in, 9–12 computer-aided learning, 125
AI-driven decision making in, 6–7 computer vision, 3, 9, 15, 33–34, 59
data integration in, 12–15 congestion prediction systems, 124
Index 173
connected cars, 111 multi-dimensional, 50

connected vehicles, 50, 76, 100, multimodal IoV, 129
109–111, 116 normalization, 129
Controller Area Network personal, 145, 147
(CAN bus), 82 privacy, 5, 145, 147–148, 152
Convolutional Neural Networks processing, 61, 76, 130, 153
(CNNs), 6, 8, 13, 20, 58, 74–76, protection, 138, 145–146, 151–155
90–92, 94–95 real-time, 1, 14, 45, 108, 124, 137
Cooperative Collision Avoidance RELLIS3D, 14
Systems (CCAS), 109 security, 5, 152
Cooperative Intelligent Transportation sensitive, 61, 153
System (CITS), 100, 101 sensor(y), 3, 12–13, 20, 123, 128,
counterfactuals, 88, 161–164 137, 149, 152
cross-domain integration, 129 sharing and third-party access, 116,
cybersecurity, 18, 62; risks 147–148 126, 152–154
cyber threats, 5, 127, 147 silos, 121
sources, 15, 52, 123, 149, 152
D storage, 147
syntax, 120, 129
data
traffic, 12, 125, 136
accident, 149
transfer, 127, 150
analog, 123 transmission, 117, 119, 129
analysis, 4, 18, 58, 106, 129 transparency, 46
anonymization and user, 106, 138, 152
pseudonymization, 152 vehicle, 128
autonomous, 106 visual, 9, 15
availability, 160 see also privacy and data protection
biased, 160 DBSCAN algorithm, 13
cloud, 12 debugging, 34, 159, 162
collection and retention, 19, decision explanation, 145
123–124, 152–153 decision-making, 3–4, 6, 9, 17, 31–32,
collector devices, 126 35, 37, 41–43, 50, 52–54, 58,
distributed, 129 64–65, 135, 138, 153, 163
encryption, 147 AI-driven, 4, 6, 20, 25
exchange, 76, 106, 116, 122 algorithms, 9, 145, 158–159
extraction, 123 automated, 54, 74
formats, 116, 129 biases in, 153
fusion, 129 ethical, 17, 151
handling, 125, 146 logic, 60
historical, 137, 149 mechanisms, 168
immutability, 56 path, 88
informed consent and user processes, 6, 9, 27, 30, 33–34, 36–39, 42,
control, 153 54, 56, 86, 135, 139, 141, 145–146,
input, 33–34, 87–89, 147–148, 149–151, 158–161, 163–168
150, 163 real-time, 6, 12, 38
integration, 12–15 rule sets for, 166–167
integrity, 125 safety and, 165
intelligence, 126 systems, 73
interchange, 129 transparency in, 139–140
location, 147, 152 see also decision explanation;
management, 20, 53, 129–130 decision support; decision
mining, 108, 134 trees (DT)
174 Index
decision support, 137–139, 151 iterative design, 141

safety-critical, 149–150 malicious attacks on, 147–148
decision trees (DT), 30, 36, 58, 73, 149, privacy and data protection in,
166 145–146
decomposability, 89 safety in, 144–146, 149–150
dedicated short-range communications safety validation and
(DSRC), 123, 129 certification, 145
deep learning (DL), 6, 7, 8, 88, 95, 108 supply chain security, 148
algorithms, 9–12, 19 user concerns and misconceptions,
approaches, 14 140–142
architecture, 14 user education and training, 140
methods, 130 user feedback, 141–143
models, 19, 56–57, 163 see also online communities and
networks, 59 social media; smart cars
systems, 58 Electric Power Assisted Steering System
techniques, 6, 12, 16, 19–20 (EPAS), 83
technologies, 19 emergency brake assistance, 124
see also deep learning computer emergency services, 118
vision (DLCV) energy/fuel consumption/management,
deep learning computer vision 4–5, 56, 103, 124
(DLCV), 59 Engine Control Module (ECU), 18, 82
deep neural networks (DNNs), 6, 31, ensemble models, 36
33, 36, 60, 73–74, 77, 88, 166 error detection and diagnosis, 145, 149
Deep Q-Network, 56 ethical considerations, 3, 46,
Delimited Anti-Jamming approach, 108 138–140, 167
DENSE dataset, 13–14 European Union General Data
design processes, iterative, 138, Protection Regulation (GDPR),
143–144 61–62, 154–155
device-to-device (D2D), 78, 120 explainability, 27–39, 51–54, 59–62,
Dijkstra Algorithm, 10 62, 65–66, 73–74, 79, 88–89, 94,
direct-to-device (D2D), 118 141–144, 168
discrimination, 61 interpretability vs. transparency, 27, 28
key concepts in, 27–29, 27
DL techniques, 6, 12, 20
measuring fidelity, comprehensibility,
integration of, 20
and trustworthiness, 42
Dyna, 65
metrics for evaluating, 41–42
dynamic route guidance, 124
model transparency, 27, 28
performance vs., 35–37, 154
E
tailoring metrics to specific use
edge computing, 53 cases, 42
edge devices, 123 trustworthiness, 27, 28–29
edge intelligence (EI), 53 explainable artificial intelligence (XAI),
electrical vehicles (EVs) using XAI, 25–47, 26
134–155 algorithms, 10, 75, 88–92
continuous improvement, 141 approaches to developing XAI
decision explanation, 145 models, 29–30
error detection and diagnosis, 145, challenges of implementing in
149 autonomous vehicles, 34–35, 35
explainable recommendations, error detection and diagnosis, 149
137–140 evaluation and validation, 40–42, 41
feature designing for smart electrical feature importance analysis, 32–33
vehicles, 134–137 fundamentals, 25
Index 175
handling uncertainty, 37–38 XAI frameworks, 76

human-AI interaction, 39–40 XAI method for convolutional neural
incorporating in user feedback, 144 networks in self-driving cars,
integration of in user interfaces, 74–75
135–137 explainable recommendations, 137–138
interpretability vs. transparency, 28 building trust through, 140
introduction to, 26 Explainable Security (XSec), 62–63, 64
methods, 86–88 explanation completeness, 41
model transparency, 28, 30–31 explanation fidelity, 41–42, 47
performance and explainability,
trade-offs between, 35–37 F
in privacy and data protection in, feature detection and feature
153–155 visualization, 158–168
real-time risk assessment, 149 benefits and applications, 162
regulatory compliance, 45–46, 155 benefits and importance of, 159–160
rule-based systems, 31–32 challenges and limitations, 160
safety and reliability, 38–39 counterfactuals, 161–162
for safety and security, 149–150 global explanations, 164
for security enhancement, 148–149 local explanations, 161, 164
SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) model-agnostic applications, 164–165
and LIME (Local Interpretable model-agnostic explanations,
Model-agnostic Explanations) 163–164
methods, 25, 29, 32–33 regulatory compliance and
significance of, 26–27 accountability, 165
simulation and testing, 44–45 rule extraction and rule sets, 166–168
trustworthiness, 28–29 safety and decision making, 165
user studies, 43–44 in smart cars utilizing XAI, 158–168
visualization techniques, 33–34 user experience and trust, 165–166
see also explainable artificial feature importance, 33, 61, 64, 87, 139,
intelligence (XAI) applications in 158–161, 163–164
autonomous vehicles see also feature importance analysis
explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) feature importance analysis, 25–26, 29,
applications in autonomous 32–33, 148
vehicles, 7, 73–95 SHAP and LIME methods, 32–33
AV components and design, 79–86 Federated Deep Reinforcement
challenges of implementing and Learning (RL) model, 56
limitations, 34–35, 35, 61–64 Federated Learning (FL), 58–60
current state of, 52–60 of XAI models (FED-XAI), 59–60
future trends, 64–66 feedback loops, 40
integration of, 38–39, 46–47, 57, fidelity, 42
116, 135–136 see also explanation fidelity
Internet of Vehicles (IoV) network Fifth Generation Mobile Network (5G
architecture, 77–79 cellular), see 5G communication
IoV structure and need for XAI-IDS, 76 technologies
methods and algorithms, 86–92 finance, 30, 32–33
models to improve overall system Finland, 84
performance, 92–94 fleet tracking and management, 125
practical implementation of Ford Motor Company, 58
XAI-based models, 76–77 Forward Collision Warning (FCW),
prospects and future directions, 2, 81
50–66 fuel efficiency, 4
176 Index
G of DL techniques, 20
gaming, 65 IoV, 119, 125, 129
Gaussian occupancy mapping, 14 of probabilistic models, 38
Gaussian process, 14 of safety mechanisms, 39
gaze estimation, 55 sensor, 4, 14
GazeMobileNet model, 55 of vehicle components, 80, 116
Global Positioning System (GPS), 12, of vehicle security and safety, 18
15–16, 18, 50, 78, 80, 152 of XAI, 38–39, 46–47, 57, 116,
Google Weave, 120 135–136
GPS, see Global Positioning System (GPS) Intelligent Transportation System (ITS),
ground segmentation, 14 84, 95, 100–101, 101, 104, 109,
112, 116, 118, 122, 124–125, 129
H see also Cooperative Intelligent
Transportation System (CITS)
hacking, 5 Intelligent Transport System (ITS), 74,
handover, 16–17 77, 101
Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment Intelligent Vehicle Motion Planning
(HARA) process, 18–19 (IVMP), 60
healthcare, 26–33, 54, 74, 102, 118–119 intelligent vehicles, 58, 122, 158, 166
human-AI interaction, 16–17, 39–40 interaction technologies, 52
in AVs, 16–17 Internet of Autonomous Vehicles
designing user-friendly XAI interfaces, 40 (IoAV), 53
ensuring positive user experience, 40 Internet of Energy (IoE), 104, 112
human-centric, 41, 54 Internet of Everything (IoE), 118–119
human drivers, 1, 3–4, 6, 15–17, 39, 53 Internet of Things (IoT), 18, 53, 84,
human-driving learning methods, 54–55 100–102, 103, 104, 107, 110–111,
human error, 17, 50, 144 116, 118–121, 129
human factors, 16–17, 80 interoperability, 120–121
human-machine interface (HMI), 16, 139 Internet of Vehicles (IoV), 53, 76
hybrid AI models, 36 AI-based, 112
applications, 124–126
I applications and services, 84–85
IEC 61508, 18 autonomous vehicle components and
image recognition, 53 design, 79–83
image segmentation, 33 Cloud, 112
Industrial Internet Consortium communication system, 107
(IIC), 120 current issues, 85–86
Industries 4.0, 120 directions, 126–130
Information and Communication ecosystem, 121–124
Technologies (ICT), 100–101 emerging applications for smart cities,
information exchange, 118 100–112
infotainment, 100–101, 104, 109–111, evolution of, 101
124–125 future issues and challenges of,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics 116–130
Engineers (IEEE), 7, 8, 11, 46, future research interoperability, 119,
110, 116 121, 130
integration future scope of, 111–112
of AI, 5, 20, 27, 29, 147 integration, 119, 125, 129
of autonomous driving systems, 17 issues and challenges of, 110–111
chassis, 52 layered architecture of, 104,
cross-domain, 129 106–107, 117, 122
data, 12–15 ML, 112
Index 177
network architecture, 77–86 localization, 12, 16, 52

security challenges and requirements algorithms, 9
of, 127 logistic regression, 30, 73
see also Cloud-based Internet of logistics optimization, 125
Vehicles (CIoV) Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), 6
interoperability, 107, 111, 116, Bayesian Convolutional, 6
119–121, 123, 126, 129–130 low-latency
cross-domain, 121 communication, 117
cross-semantic, 121 links, 79
cross-syntactic, 121 networks, 129
IoT, 120–121 transmission, 53
IoV, 119, 121, 130
semantic, 120, 128 M
interpretability, xv, 27, 30–32, 35–36, machine-centric, 54
53–54, 58, 60–62, 66, 86, 88–89, machine learning (ML), 3, 16, 100, 108,
145, 148, 159, 163–164, 167 112
vs. accuracy, 61, 166–168 algorithms, 3, 9, 30, 50–51, 60, 76
local vs. global, 54, 87–88 models, 29, 35–36, 73–74, 77, 86, 89,
vs. performance, 36, 160 93, 95, 159, 163–164, 166
real-time, 35 machine-to-human (M2H), 118
vs. transparency, 27–28, 27, 30–32, 89 machine-to-machine (M2M), 118
interpretable neural networks, 54 malicious attacks, 56, 147–148
inter-vehicle model, 78, 112 mapping algorithms, 9
intra-vehicle model, 78 Markov Decision Process (MDP), 11, 65
intrusion detection, 56, 76, 125, 147, 151 see also uncertain Markov Decision
and prevention, 76, 150 Process (uMDP); uncertain
in-vehicle infotainment (IVI), 110 Partially Observable Markov
IoTivity, 120 Decision Process (uPOMDP)
ISO 26262, 18–19 mask generation, 92
iterative design process, 138, 143–144 metrics, 14, 58
iterative learning, 3 comprehensibility, 42
for evaluating explainability, 41–42
J evaluation, 42, 47
human-centric, 41
Japan, 84
quantitative, 41
tailoring to specific use cases, 42, 47
L
technical, 43
Lane Change Assistant (LCA), 81 trust, 58
Lane Departure Warning (LDW), 2, microwave access (WiMAX), 123, 129
81, 124 middleware, 120–121
Lane Keeping Assist (LKA), 81, 83 military systems, 54, 74
language translation, 53 Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET),
layer-wise relevance propagation (LRP), 100–104, 103, 108, 118
76–77, 87 mobility, 3–4, 20, 50, 103, 109, 111,
liability, 5, 17, 151 121, 124
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), model-agnostic methods, 54, 93, 163
1, 9, 12–16, 15, 18, 50, 53, 80, 82, model inquiry, 92–93
82, 84, 128, 145 model-specific methods, 54
LIME (Local Interpretable Model- model transparency, 25–31, 27, 33–34
agnostic Explanations), 25, 29, limitations and use cases, 30
32–33 transparent models in XAI, 30
linear regression, 30, 73, 88 “Molly Problem,” 64
178 Index
N wireless sensor (WSNs), 110, 126

National Highway Traffic Safety WLAN, 106
Administration (NHTSA), 46 see also 4G communication
National Institute of Standards (NIST), 76 technologies; 5G communication
natural language explanations, 40 technologies; 6G communication
network(s) technologies; artificial neural
architecture, 130 networks (ANN); Bayesian
automotive, 123 neural networks; Controller
Bluetooth, 78, 106, 123 Area Network (CAN bus);
bottlenecks, 111 Convolutional Neural Networks
cellular, 116 (CNNs); deep neural networks
communication, 102, 117, 147 (DNNs); Deep Q-Network;
components, 130 Internet of Vehicles (IoV);
connections, 147 interpretable neural networks;
connectivity, 120 Mobile Ad hoc Network
construction, 91 (MANET); Region-based
decentralized, 116 Convolutional Neural Networks
deep, 88 (R-CNN); Software Defined
deep learning, 59 Network (SDN)
dynamic, 128 non-transparent models, 31
generative adversarial, 130
global, 112 O
heterogeneous, 123 object recognition, 33
infrastructure-less, 101–102 obstacle avoidance, 53
IoT, 110 oneM2M, 121
IP, 78 One-Shot Federated Learning, 58
layers, 73–74, 76, 106–107, 120, 123 online communities and social media,
low-latency, 129 143–155
model, 90, 108 open-source technologies, 120
neural, 35, 58, 74–76, 93 optimization, 56, 80, 164
nodes, 111–112, 122 logistics, 125
output, 92 numerical, 6
paradigm, 107
platforms, 125
quality of service, 124
route, 124
road, 118
techniques, 10, 162
satellite, 106
traffic flow, 4
security, 128
OR-based filtering, 13
self-organized, 101
over-the-air (OTA) updates, 4, 148
sensor(y), 108–110, 126
size, 91
P
social, 110
speed, 111 Park Assist (PA), 81, 82
structure, 107 Park Distance Control (PDC), 81
topology stability, 128 passenger safety, 38, 50
traffic, 150 path planning, 9, 18, 53, 95
vehicle, 110–111 pedestrians, 3, 5, 9, 17, 19, 38–39, 74,
vehicular, 108, 117, 121, 129 101, 116, 122, 151, 165, 167
virtual, 120 safety of, 38, 50
WAVE, 106, 123 pedestrian-to-pedestrian (P2P), 118
Wi-Fi, 106, 123 perception-action mapping, 51
wired, 102 perception systems, 13, 15–16, 15, 20,
wireless, 102, 118–119 37, 158–159
Index 179
performance, 4–5, 9–10, 13–14, 17, Random Selection, 56

45–46, 58–61, 62, 65–66, 73, 76, RANSAC algorithm, 13
84, 91, 94–95, 108, 118, 128, 140, real-time kinetic (RTK) sensors, 53
147, 158–159, 163–165, 168 real-time model explanation
cognitive, 128 generation, 38
driving, 3, 58, 144 real-time risk assessment, 149, 151
and explainability, trade-offs real-time traffic data/monitoring/
between, 35–37, 47, 154 updates, 117, 135–136
gaze vector estimation, 55 real-world testing, 44–45, 47
human, 53 recognition modules, 53
vs. interpretability, 36, 160 Region-based Convolutional Neural
prediction, 87 Networks (R-CNN), 6, 94–95
strategies for achieving balance, 36 regulatory compliance, 38, 45–47, 51,
system, 44, 92–94, 162 64, 66, 151, 154–155, 159–160,
pollution, 122 164, 166
detection, 121 and accountability, 150–151, 162, 165
post hoc explanation methods, 54, 62, industry standards and guidelines, 46
63, 64 regulatory frameworks for XAI
Prediction-based Routing (PBR), 110 integration, 46
predictive analytics, 4 reinforcement learning (RL), 7, 9, 11,
privacy, 11, 56, 101, 125, 130, 138, 60, 66, 128
146–147, 151 see also Federated Deep
challenges in smart cars, 152–153, 155 Reinforcement Learning (RL) model
data, 5, 145, 147–148, 152 reliability, 4–5, 9, 16–20, 18, 25, 29,
laws, 155 38–39, 41, 43, 50, 58, 64, 139,
preservation, 60 147, 151, 158–159, 162
regulations, 138, 146, 152–155 RELLIS3D dataset, 14
rights, 153 remote vehicle diagnostics, 124
risks, 153 resource management, 128
threats, 56 ride-sharing services, 122
see also privacy and data protection roadside actuators (RAs), 106
roadside units (RSUs), 50, 76, 78, 106,
privacy and data protection, 138,
111–112, 117, 122
145–147, 152–155
robotics, 65, 84
adversarial attack detection, 150
Robot Operating System (ROS), 14
cybersecurity risks, 147
robustness, 16, 25, 29, 41, 45, 55, 60,
malicious attacks, 147–148
140, 165
over-the-air (OTA) updates, 148
rule-based systems, 25–26, 29, 31–32,
role of XAI in, 153–155
36, 38
security challenges, 146–147 rule-based approaches to XAI, 31–32
probabilistic algorithms, 3 scalability and complexity, 32
probabilistic models, 37–38 rule extraction, 88, 148, 166–168
public transportation, 84 benefits and limitations of, 167–168
techniques, 166–167
Q rule sets, 32, 166–168
quality of service (QoS), 110, 117, benefits and limitations of, 167–168
124–125, 127, 129 for decision-making, 166–167
R S
Radio Detection and Ranging SAE J3016, 1–3, 2, 46
(RADAR), 1, 9, 12–16, 50, 53, safety, 3–4, 9, 16, 37–40, 42–43, 46–47,
80–83, 82, 145 50–52, 56, 74, 79, 100–101, 104,
180 Index
109, 112, 118, 124–125, 134, 137, security, 5, 18, 20, 53, 56, 60, 62,
144–146, 150–151, 158, 164–167 74, 76, 95, 100–101, 104, 107,
in AI-driven AVs, 17–20, 34 110–112, 119–120, 123, 125–127,
analyses, 18 129–130
applications, 124–125 of AVs, 18, 54, 56, 125
assessments, 46 challenges, 79, 127, 146–148
of AVs, 5, 16–17, 18, 19–20, 36, 38, 46 challenges in smart cars, 146–148
benefits, 144 enhancement with XAI, 148–150
-centric, 109 explainable, 64
collaborative, 146 in EVs using XAI, 134–155
compliance with standards, 151 framework, 53
-critical, 35, 38–39, 60, 145, 149–150 of IoV, 127
and decision-making, 165 layer, 121, 122
ecosystem, 39 loopholes, 74
enhancing with XAI, 144, 146, operational, 18
148–149 network, 128
features, 125 protocols, 103
functional, 18 telecommunication, 50
human, 25 threats, 56, 102
human-machine interaction for, 146 vehicle, 18
measures, 79, 140, 149, 151 vulnerabilities, 54
mechanisms, 20, 39, 45 of XAI, 63, 66
objectives, 19 see also cybersecurity; over-the-air
parameters, 109 (OTA) updates; supply chain
passenger, 38, 50 self-attention-based model, 59
pedestrian, 38, 50 self-driving
protocols, 20, 39 automobiles, 118
public, 17, 39, 116 conditions, 57
regulators, 145 dataset, 55
requirements, 41, 151 systems, 54–55
risks, 142, 145 technology, 5
road, 4, 13, 19, 77–78, 124 see also self-driving cars; self-driving
in smart cars, 144–146, 149, 159, 165 vehicles (SDVs)
standards, 5, 36, 45, 47, 145, 151 self-driving cars, 1, 3–5, 9, 74–75, 100
system, 7, 84, 139 self-driving vehicles (SDVs), 9, 60, 79, 86
validation and certification, 145 self-organizing neuro-fuzzy approach,
in XAI, 38–39 57–58
see also safety and reliability; semantics, 129
safety-critical semantic segmentation, 14, 55, 57, 57,
safety and reliability, 38–39 59–60
in AI-driven AVs, 17–20 Semantic Web, 120; technologies 121
in autonomous driving, 19 SenML, 121
of AVs, 5, 16, 18, 38–39 sensor fusion, 4, 7, 9, 12–15
integration of safety mechanisms, 39 sensors, 1, 3–5, 9, 12–16, 18, 52–53,
in modern transportation systems, 50 78–85, 101–102, 106, 109, 123,
safety considerations in XAI, 38–39 126, 145, 152, 159
safety-critical, 35, 38–39, 60, 145 parking, 109
decision support, 149–150 pressure, 108
saliency estimation, 92–94 real-time kinetic (RTK), 53
saliency maps/mapping, 25, 29, 33–34, see also cameras; Light Detection and
54, 93–94, 159 Ranging (LiDAR); Radio Detection
scalability, 31–32, 127–128 and Ranging (RADAR); sensor
Index 181
fusion; ultrasonic sensors (US); State lattice algorithms, 10

video cameras stereo depth generation, 56
SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations), Stop-and-Go Control (SAGC), 81
25, 29, 32–33 STRIDE threat model, 19
simple object access protocol (SOAP) structured adversarial attacks, 63
technology, 119–120 supply chain, 124
simulatability, 89 security, 148
simulation and testing, 44–45 system performance, 44, 92–94
real-world testing scenarios, 45
simulated environments for XAI T
validation, 44–45 traffic flow, 4, 124
situational awareness, 17, 135; driver optimization, 4
54–55 traffic jams, 4, 50, 109
smart cars, 111 traffic laws, 5, 76
accountability and liability, 151 traffic management, 118, 121
adversarial attack detection, 150 systems, 100, 117
design principles for, 134–137 traffic rules, 9, 51, 74, 105, 105
feature detection and feature transferability, 61–62, 66
visualization in, 158–168 transparency, 25, 27–29, 31–34, 36,
importance of privacy and data 38–39, 45–47, 52–54, 58, 61–62,
protection in, 152
74, 76, 89, 94, 134, 136, 138–141,
interfaces/user interfaces, 134–137
144–146, 148–149, 151, 153–155,
intrusion detection and prevention,
158–160, 162–168
150
data, 46
malicious attacks on, 147–148
vs. interpretability, 27–28, 27,
over-the-air (OTA) updates, 148
30–32, 89
privacy and data protection in,
model, 25–31, 27, 33–34
145–147, 152
trust
privacy challenges in, 152–153
building, 5, 16, 30, 36–39, 137, 139–141,
regulatory compliance and
151, 153, 155, 159, 165, 167
accountability, 150–151
building through explainable
safety considerations in, 144–146
recommendations, 140
safety standards, 151
community, 76
security challenges in, 146–147
supply chain security, 148 fostering, 26, 30, 33, 159
user interface design for, 134 issues, 112
user-centric design, 138 management, 55, 58, 128
vulnerability assessment, 150 mechanisms, 56
smart cities, 50, 51, 56, 84, 95, 116, metrics, 58
121–122, 124, 126, 130 public, 5, 37–38
IoV in, 100–112 user, 34, 42–43, 46, 138, 147
smart environments, 120 see also trustworthiness
smart factories, 120 trustworthiness, 25, 27, 28–29, 33, 42,
smart homes, 102, 119–120, 129 47, 52, 56, 59, 77, 94–95, 136, 141
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
1, 46 U
see also SAE J3016 ultrasonic sensors (US), 1, 12, 15–16,
Software Defined Network (SDN), 77, 50, 80
129 uncertain Markov Decision Process
solar-powered autonomous vehicles (uMDP), 85
(SAUVs), 85 uncertain Partially Observable Markov
speech recognition, 53 Decision Process (uPOMDP), 85
182 Index
uncertain Partially Observable vehicle-to-device (V2D), 117

Stochastic Game (uPOSG), 85 vehicle-to-driver (V2D), 78, 105
uncertainty, 37–38, 47, 136 vehicle-to-everything (V2X), 46, 60, 76,
epistemic, 19 78–79, 109, 112, 117, 123, 129
probabilistic models and uncertainty vehicle-to-grid (V2G), 78–79, 104,
management, 38 117, 122
uncertainty in AV context, 37 vehicle-to-home (V2H), 78–79
U-Net mode, 56 vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), 50,
United States, 46 78–79, 104, 105, 117, 124
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), 56 vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P), 78, 104,
user acceptance, 20, 40 105, 117
user-centric, 43–44, 47, 60, 138–139, vehicle-to-roadside (V2R), 78–79, 105,
144, 162, 168 117–118, 122
user concerns and misconceptions, vehicle-to-sensors (V2S), 78
140–142 vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), 6, 50, 78, 104,
continuous improvement and 105, 108–109, 117–118, 122, 124
feedback, 141 vehicle traffic, 50
gathering user feedback, 142 Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET),
importance of user feedback, 58, 100–101, 103–104, 103,
141–142 109–110, 112, 116, 118
user education and training, 140 Vehicular Cloud Computing (VCC), 77
VeRiMi dataset, 58
user feedback and iterative design, 141
video cameras, 80
user customization and
visualization techniques, 25–26, 29,
personalization, 162
33–34, 159–160
user experience, 40, 43–44, 47,
practical implementations, 34
134–138, 141, 143, 167
visualizing model decisions, 34
and trust, 165–166 VPL modules, 53
user-friendly interfaces, 40, 47, 153, 160 vulnerability assessment, 150–151
user interfaces, 39, 134–136, 141, 143
in-vehicle, 52 W
user privacy, 152
user studies, 43–44, 47 weather conditions, 3, 5, 13–14, 55–56,
conducting user-centric XAI 59, 84, 106, 124, 135
evaluations, 43
methodologies and best practices, X
43–44 XAI, see explainable artificial
user trust, xv, 34, 42–43, 46, 138, 147 intelligence (XAI)
user understanding, 43–44, 47, 160
Y
V Yolo V4, 55, 90–91, 94
vehicle diagnostic systems, 125
vehicle-to-barrier (V2B), 79 Z
vehicle-to-building (V2B), 78, 117, 122 ZigBee, 78, 123
vehicle-to-cloud (V2C), 117, 122 zone estimation, 55

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Explainable Artificial

• Discusses authentication mechanisms for camera access, encryption

The book is intended to provide researchers, engineers, and practitioners

Explainable AI (XAI) has developed as a subfield of Artificial Intelligence,

Deep Learning in Gaming and Animations

Artificial Intelligence for Solar Photovoltaic Systems

Smart Distributed Embedded Systems for Healthcare Applications

Medical Data Analysis and Processing using Explainable Artificial Intelligence

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/

2 Explainable artificial intelligence: fundamentals,

2.1 Fundamentals of XAI 25

2.4.1 Model transparency 28

2.19.1 Regulatory frameworks for XAI integration 46

3 Explainable artificial intelligence in autonomous

4 XAI applications in autonomous vehicles 73

5 Emerging applications and future scope of internet

5.1 Introduction 100

6 Future issues and challenges of internet of

6.1 Introduction 116

7 Feature designing and security considerations in electrical

7.1 Feature designing for smart electrical vehicles 134

7.4 Online communities and social media 143

8 Feature detection and feature visualization in smart cars

8.1 Introduction 158

We are delighted to launch our book entitled Explainable AI for Autono-

Kamal Malik is currently working as a Professor in CSE in the School of

Moolchand Sharma is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department

Cyber-Physical Systems (Taylor & Francis Group), International Journal of

Suman Deswal holds a Ph.D. from DCR University of Science &

Umesh Gupta is currently an Associate Professor at the School of Computer

his Master of Engineering (M.E.) from the National Institute of Technical

Deevyankar Agarwal is a lecturer at the University of Technology and Applied

Yahya Obaid Bakheet Al Shamsi is working as the Dean of Engineering at

Manareldeen Ahmed Subhranil Das

Zeinab E. Ahmed Vinayak Goel

Manish Bhardwaj Nitin Kumar

Neelam Chantola Rashmi Kumari

Manoj Kumar Mahto Jyoti Sharma

Shweta Roy Sumit Kumar Sharma

Autonomous vehicles, also known as self-driving cars, are automobiles equipped

Level 0: (No Automation/Human-Only Control) At Level 0, the control-

Everything ON Everything ON Feet ON

Hands OFF Eyes OFF Mind OFF

System can No drive needed Vehicle can operate

Figure 1.1 Six levels of autonomous driving according to SAEJ3016.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

AI (Artificial Intelligence) is crucial for self-driving cars due to its ability to

1. Real-time Perception and Decision-Making: Self-driving cars need to

5. Sensor Fusion and Integration: Autonomous vehicles utilize multiple

The advantages of applying AI in the context of autonomous vehicles are as

1. Safety Improvement: One of the primary advantages of AI in self-driving

5. Reduced Emissions: AI can optimize driving patterns and energy con-

There are certain limitations to the application of AI in different applica-

1. Technological Limitations: Despite significant advancements in AI,

Despite these limitations, ongoing research, advancements in AI, and collabora-

addressing these challenges to realize the full potential of autonomous vehicles

1.3 AI-DRIVEN DECISION MAKING

Making accurate decisions necessitates a comprehensive understanding of

Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of decision making in AVs.

4 XAI applications in autonomous vehicles 73

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

1.5 SENSOR FUSION AND DATA INTEGRATION

1.8 SAFETY AND RELIABILITY IN AI-DRIVEN

2.10 CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING XAI

2.11 TRADE-OFFS BETWEEN PERFORMANCE