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CHAPTER ONE
RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
Research is a systematic and careful study or investigation of an issue, question or
problem. It is a process of finding out more information about a specific problem or
topic. Research is said to be systematic because there is an acceptable way of
conducting it i.e. there are certain stages or steps to be followed when conducting a
research. The following are common stages of a research process.

Identification and description of a research problem

Formulation of a research topic

Formulation of hypotheses

Statement of aims and objectives

Literature review

Design method of data collection

Collection of data using suitable method

Data analysis

Draw conclusions

Suggest recommendations based on your findings

Compile a report

Importance of research

Academic research enables students to participate in community development.

Facilitates new knowledge so that we can understand problems or concepts
better.

Helps to find out possible solutions to identified problems.

Research findings can be used in development planning and decision-making.

Research helps to evaluate development work.

Help to acquire people’s ideas, views and perceptions.

Choosing a research topic

When selecting a topic of research the researcher should consider the following:

Topic must be researchable.

The importance of the research i.e. is the topic worth researching about.

For some topics the researcher would need permission from individuals,
groups or organisations being studied.

Length of time the research would last.

Availability of resources needed to complete the research.

Methods of research
a. Quantitative methods
These are methods of investigation whereby the researcher emphasises numerical
methods of describing situations. These methods are therefore scientific or
mathematical in nature. They require a lot of statistical data in terms of numbers,
additions, measurements, calculations etc. Various scales are used to ensure accuracy
and precise description of situations. Examples of quantitative research ideas would
be rainfall amount, divorce rate, annual road accidents, population density etc.
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Advantages of quantitative methods

More accurate and precise.

Deal with facts not opinions.

Help the researcher to acquire scientific skills.

Can be repeated many times to verify findings.
Disadvantages of quantitative methods

Difficult to quantify people’s behavioural attributes.

Expensive equipment may be needed e.g. apparatus needed in laboratories.

Suitable for literate people only since it involves calculations.

Do not allow the researcher to add his or her opinion.

b. Qualitative methods
These are methods of investigating a problem whereby the researcher uses other
means of describing situations other than scientific or statistical data. Qualitative
research is done by researchers in the social and behavioural sciences as well as by
practitioners in fields concerned with issues related to human behaviour and
functioning. These methods involve the collection of people’s opinions, feelings,
views, ideas etc. Examples of qualitative ideas include students’ views towards
teachers, causes of teenage pregnancy and effects of poverty on children. Some of the
data may be quantified as with census data but the analysis itself is a qualitative one.
Advantages of qualitative methods

Offer more in-depth understanding of an issue.

Presents a true picture of a way of life e.g. people’s opinions, experiences and
ideas etc.

Allow researcher to add his or her opinion.

Generally cheaper because it needs less equipment than quantitative methods.
Disadvantages of qualitative methods

Less accurate.

Prone to researcher bias.

Not easily repeatable as they deal with people’s opinions and views.

Types of data
Data are pieces of information collected in order to answer the aims of an enquiry.
There are two main types of data; primary and secondary data.
a. Primary data: This refers to new or first-hand information that the researcher
collects on his own in the field without referring to other sources. Primary sources of
data include data collected using questionnaire, oral traditions, interview, eye-witness
account, archaeology etc.
b. Secondary data: This refers to second hand information collected from other
sources like books, diaries, internet, official documents, television, radio etc. In other
words this means that someone else has collected the data the researcher is going to
use. It is a good idea to keep a list of all the secondary sources used so that you can
name them in the bibliography.

Common methods of data collection

a. Interview
This method involves a two way discussion between the researcher and the
respondent. The researcher comes with preset questions and asks the respondent who
answers on the spot. The researcher then writes down the responses immediately.
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Things to remember when using interview:

Make an appointment in time so that you can be sure of meeting the
respondent.

Prepare your questions in time and make sure they are clear and precise.

Use a simple language that can be easily understood by the respondents.

Make a short introduction about yourself and your research topic including its
importance or aims.

Be friendly and patient throughout the interview.

Avoid ambiguous questions i.e. questions that have more than one possible
answers.

Include information on bio-data e.g. age, sex, marital status etc.

Avoid close-ended questions as they do not allow the respondent to further
elaborate responses.
Advantages of interview

Gives first hand information.

Allows researcher to ask follow-up questions.

Researcher presence allows further clarification of unclear questions.

Saves time because the respondent answers immediately.

High response rate because of the researcher’s presence.

Allows observation of non-verbal behaviour such as gestures and facial
expressions.

Suitable for both literate and illiterate people.
Disadvantages of interview

Researcher needs patience as some respondents may be rude and
uncooperative.

Presence of researcher may make the respondent shy and withhold sensitive
information.

Time consuming because the researcher has to spend time with the respondent
who may take a long time to answer even simple questions.

Researcher may ask leading questions.

Researcher needs skill to structure friendly, clear and precise questions.

Respondent may be pressed with time.

Travelling costs may be high.

Some respondents may fail to honour appointments.

b. Questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of preset questions which are sent to respondents to answer
at their own time. The same questions are usually given to the respondents in the same
order so that the same information can be collected.
The researcher may physically deliver the questionnaire to respondents or they may
be sent by post.
Things to remember when using a questionnaire

Make proper arrangement for the distribution and later collection of the
questionnaire.

Questions should be clear and precise.

Use simple language that can be understood by the respondent.

Questions should be presented in the same order throughout the questionnaire.

The questionnaire should have information on bio-data.
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An example of a questionnaire on the topic ‘Causes of HI V/AIDS in Kumaga

Village’.

My name is Motho Batho, a student of Gantsi Senior Secondary School. I am

carrying out a research to find out causes of HIV/AIDS in Kumaga. The purpose
of my study is to find out ways of helping all those affected and infected by the
pandemic.
Can you kindly answer the following questions.
Sex: ___________________
Age group (tick): [below 25]
[26-3 5]
[36-45]
[46+]
Ward:
__________________
1. What is HIV/AIDS?
2. Have you lost a relative or friend in your village due to HIV/AIDS?
3. What safety measures are you doing to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS?
4. Have you tested for HIV status?
5. If the answer to 4(above) is NO why have you not tested for HIV status?
6. What is your village community doing to help fight against HIV/AIDS?
7. Is there a clinic or any health institution in your village which offers education on
HIV/AIDS?
8. What do you think government should do to address HIV/AIDS problems in your
village?

Thank you for your assistance.

Advantages of a questionnaire

Gives first hand information

Saves researcher’s time because he or she is not required to be always present.

Respondents are not pressed with time as they can answer at their own
convenient time.

Respondent has plenty of time to think about the questions before answering.

Absence of researcher will make the respondent free to give sensitive
information.

Saves time as many questionnaires can be sent out at once.

Disadvantages of a questionnaire

The questionnaire may be lost due to respondent’s carelessness.

It is suitable for literate people only.

Wrong answers may be common due to absence of researcher for clarification.

Low response rate as some people may ignore the questionnaire.

Absence of researcher compromises chances of asking follow-up questions.

Only people who understand the language used can answer the questionnaire.

c. Observation (field research)

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In this method the researcher goes into the field to observe the event understudy.
Observation may be on a number of things. Examples of topics that can be studied
using observation are:
-Feeding habits of primary school students.
-Marriage ceremony of Baherero.
-Migration patterns of wild animals.
Things to remember when using observation:

Prepare in advance the method of recording you are going to use e.g. a video
camera or tape recorder.

Make sure you have all the materials and equipment you would need in the
field e.g. pen, paper, clip board etc.
Advantages of observation

Gives first hand information,

Visual evidence can be observed.

Gives more detailed understanding of an event in its natural setting.

Flexible because the researcher can choose a method of data collection that
suits the situation.
Disadvantages of observation

Can be time consuming e.g. observing seasonal migration of animals.

Results can be biased due to researcher’s misinterpretation or
misunderstanding.

It can expose the researcher to danger e.g. studying behaviour of gangsters.

Researcher’s presence may influence behaviour of animals or people being
studied.

Studies difficult to replicate and so results are difficult to verify.

Can only be used to study relatively small groups or communities.

d. Document study
In this method the researcher studies written materials to collect data concerning the
topic understudy. This includes newspapers, books, diaries, television etc. This
method involves the use of secondary data only. This is different from literature
review because literature review is not a method of data collection but is when a
researcher studies published articles to find out how other researchers have
approached the same topic.
Things to remember when using document studies

Make sure you use relevant sources.

Do not use outdated sources.

Indicate all the sources used.

Advantages of a document studies

Saves time as it provides already analysed information.

Detailed and specific information may be obtained.

Source materials may be used many times to ensure validity.

Less travelling involved.
Disadvantages of a document studies

Gives second hand information.

Information may be biased due to researcher’s misunderstanding or
misinterpretation.

Information may be outdated.

Suitable for literate people only.
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Reference materials may not be readily available or source materials may have
partial information.

e. Experiment
This is a method of data collection that is mostly used in natural sciences but can also
be used in social sciences. It involves the use of scientific equipment especially in
laboratories to test hypotheses under highly controlled conditions established by the
investigator.
Advantages of experiment

Gives first hand information.

Can be repeated many times to verify findings.

Results are free from researcher bias.

There is visual evidence.

Influence of specific variables can be controlled.
Disadvantages of experiment

Some experiments may be expensive due to need of specialised equipment.

Time consuming because it needs careful preparation.

Cannot be used to test human behaviour, opinions, feelings etc.

Takes place in a special setting e.g. in a laboratory.

Some chemicals may be toxic or corrosive and therefore need proper handling.

Suitable for trained and literate people only.

f. Survey
In a survey the researcher moves from place to place in search of information. It is
slightly similar to observation in that in a survey the researcher compares observed
variables. In a survey a sample is used to represent the whole variables understudy. A
sample is a fraction or representative of the total variables being studied.
Things to remember when using a survey

Prepare the method of sampling that you are going to use.

Sample size should not be too small.

Eliminate bias in selecting a sample.
Advantages of survey

Gives first hand information.

Quick because a sample is used.

Allows wider coverage of responses.

Flexible because the researcher can determine sample size.

Allows for precise comparisons to be made between the answers of
respondents.

Disadvantages of survey

Time consuming as it involves lots of travelling to different study areas.

If sample size is too small it may not be a true representation of the whole
group studied.

Researcher may be biased in choosing a sample.

Can be disturbed by extreme weather conditions.

Common methods of data presentation

After data collection the researcher has to present findings in a particular manner.
Data is commonly presented in statistical or graphical form. If data is presented in a
written report the following format must be followed:
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Title: It explains what the research is about.

Acknowledgements: This is whereby the researcher gives thanks to all those
people, institutions or organisations that contributed to the completion of the
research.

Table of contents: This shows the order in which the information is going to
be presented. It shows page numbers for different sections of the research.

Objectives/Aims: This refers to information that the researcher wants to
gather by conducting that particular research i.e. what the researcher wants to
find out. Commonly they include causes, effects and possible solutions of a
particular problem.

Introduction: A brief explanation of what the research is about. It may also
explain the importance of the research or what made the researcher to carry
out such a research.

Literature Review: It involves reading about what other previous researchers
have written about your research topic.

Methodology: These are research tools or instruments used to gather in
information.

Data presentation or analysis: Here the researcher writes down the results or
findings of the study. The findings must be related to the aims of the study
written at the beginning of the research. Data may be presented verbally,
graphically, statistically or through a written report.

Conclusion: This is a summary of all the findings.

Recommendations: The researcher suggests or prescribes what should be
done to address the problem that has been studied or identified. Usually the
word ‘should’ is used to indicate recommendations.

Bibliography: This is a list of all the written sources that have been used in
the study e.g. Tlou, T and Campbell, A (1997). A History of Botswana.
Gaborone, Macmillan.

Common steps taken by the researcher with the data after collecting it

Compile the data

Analyse or interpret data

Make conclusions from findings

Make recommendations

Present report to relevant authorities

File the data

Graphical methods of data presentation

a. Pie chart
It is a circular diagram in which a circle is divided into sectors or slices of different
sizes. Pie chart shows how the whole item is divided into component parts. The
sectors are drawn in a clockwise direction from the top with each sector shaded in a
different way.

An example of a pie chart

A researcher carried out a research amongst 200 students to find out their favourite
fizzy drinks and recorded the results in the table below.

Drink Number of Angle (º)

people
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Coke 80 144
Sprite 20 36
Fanta 40 72
Iron brew 10 18
Others 50 90
TOTAL 200 360

A pie chart can then be drawn to show the distribution.

Favourite drinks for students

b. Bar chart
The same information can also be presented in the form of a bar chart. A bar chart is
made up of a series of bars which may be shown either horizontally or vertically.
An example of a bar chart
Favourite drinks for students
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c. Histogram
A histogram is constructed in the same way as a bar chart but the only difference is
that in a bar chart the bars are not joined together whereas in histogram the bars are
joined together.
An example of a histogram
Favourite drinks for students
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d. Divided bar graph

It is also known as composite bar chart and it is used to show variables that have been
grouped into more than one category i.e. it shows the total quantity or value of an item
and its constituent parts.
An example of a divided bar chart
A research was carried out amongst four form four classes in Gantsi senior to find the
ethnic groups to which students belong and the results are shown in the table below.

The above information can be shown in a divided bar chart as follows.

Ethnic groups in four classes

e. Line graph
This is a graph that shows continuous changes overtime. It is used to represent data
that either increases or decreases with time. Line graphs can be simple (showing one
feature) or multiple (showing many features).
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An example of a simple line graph

Village population in a period of 50 years

An example of a multiple line graph

Agricultural products from 1986 to 1996

f. Scatter graph
This is a graph that shows how two sets of variables are related to each other. For
example:
-population size and number of services
-level of education and earnings
-house price and distance from Central Business District (CBD)
An example of scatter graph
Relationship between house price and distance from CBD
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The scatter graph above shows negative correlation. The relationship is negative
because when distance from CBD increases the price of houses decreases.
An example of a positive correlation would be the relationship between length of time
taken to heat water and the temperature of the water as shown below.

The scatter graph above shows that when heating time is increased the temperature
also increases.
The scatter graph below shows no correlation between number of children and ages of
women. It is not possible to identify any consistent relationship between the ages of
women and number of children that they have.

g. Pictograph
In a pictograph a picture or symbol is used to represent the data. The number of times
a symbol occurs can represent the value or amount of variable.
An example of a pictograph
Common modes of transport on the Trans-Kalahari Highway
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(Key- one symbol represents 20 vehicles)

h. Flow line map
This can used to show volume of movement of goods, traffic or people between
places. Direction of movement is shown by an arrow. The quantity and volume is
shown by varying thickness of the line.

An example of a flow line map

Traffic flow between Francistown, Serule, Nata and Masunga

Summary
In this chapter we have learnt that:

Research is a process of carrying out investigation about a particular problem
or issue.

Research is important as it is used to find out new information or to
supplement existing knowledge on certain topics or issues.

There are two types of research; quantitative and qualitative.

Common methods of data presentation are bar graph, pie chart, histogram, line
graph and pictograph.
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Common methods of data collection are questionnaire, interview, document

study, experiment, survey and observation.

Revision Test
Question one
The data below shows populations, Gross National Product (GNP) and GNP per
capita of
six countries in 1995. Use the information to answer questions that follow.

Country Populations GNP GNP per

(millions) (millions) capita
(millions)
Germany 85.5 2 214 000 27 000
United Kingdom 58.5 1 093 950 18 700
South Africa 41.5 131 140 3 160
Namibia 1.5 3 000 ?
Kenya 27.0 7 560 280
Lesotho 2.0 1 540 ?
From World Development Report 1997, World Bank.

a. Name the method of data presentation used by the researcher? (1)

b. Which African country had the highest GNP per capita in 1995? (1)
c. Name the source of the information shown on the diagram. (1)
d. From the diagram describe the relationship between GNP and GNP per capita. (1)
e. The researcher used document study to collect information. What are the
disadvantages of using such a method of data collection? (3)
f. State three conclusions that can be made based on the results of the study. (3)
g. State three recommendations that can be made on the basis of the study. (3)
h. State two departments that the researcher could visit to gather information. (2)
i. Draw a bar chart to present populations of Germany, South Africa, United Kingdom
and Kenya in 1995. (7)
j. Outline the importance of population census in development. (3)

Ouestion Two
A researcher carried out a study to find out the effects of water shortage on the
lives of residents of Bonwapitse village.
a. State three possible aims of the study. (3)
b. The researcher decides to use a questionnaire as a method of data collection. State
three advantages of using a questionnaire. (3)
c. Suggest three possible problems that the researcher might have encountered in
carrying out the study. (3)
d. Suggest four possible solutions to water shortage in Bonwapitse village. (4)
e. Suggest three possible findings from the research. (3)
f. Suggest three steps that the researcher should do with the data after collecting it.
(3)
g. Design a questionnaire which can be used by the researcher to collect relevant
information. (6)
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TOTAL: 50 Marks
CHAPTER TWO
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS AND CONCERNS
Introduction
Environment refers to manmade and natural surroundings in which people, animals
and plants live. Human beings and animals cannot exist without interacting with the
environment in one way or the other. The environment is important because it
provides people with various natural resources that are used for various activities, for
instance, vegetation is important as it is used to make furniture, build houses, provides
fuelwood and act as windbreakers. Water is important for survival of all living things,
without water there would be no life.
The environment affects our lifestyle in a variety of ways, for instance, people living
around the Okavango swamps practice fishing, basketry, mixed farming and use of
dugout canoes (mekoro) because it is the environment that influences such activities.
This is called environmental determinism. However some scholars argue that within
environmental limits there are a set of opportunities which offer human beings
freedom of choice of action as opposed to determinism. This is called environmental
possibilism. Environmental possibilism implies that people may operate differently
within a specific environment despite the limitations of that environment in terms of
relief, topography, drainage and climatic conditions.
Management of the environment is the use of the environment in such a manner that
its quality is not compromised or degraded. It also means that the environment is used
in a sustainable manner. Sustainable use of resources ensures that resources are used
in such a way that the future generation will also benefit from such resources.
Mismanagement of the environment involves those activities that destroy the
environment such as littering, veldfires and overstocking.

Impacts of human beings on the environment

a. Pollution
This is the process by which any part of the environment is contaminated in such a
way that it is made potentially unhealthy, unsafe, impure or hazardous to the welfare
of organisms which live in it. Pollution usually occurs as a result of the presence of
too much of a substance in an inappropriate place at an unsuitable time. The effects of
pollution may be directly harmful to human beings and other organisms, for instance,
lead from car exhausts may cause brain damage in children. Pollutants can enter the
environment naturally (e.g. from volcanic eruptions) or through human activities (e.g.
burning of fossil fuels). Most pollutants from human activities occur in or near urban
and industrial centres.
Examples of pollutants are;
-Land pollutants: cans, plastics, untreated waste, oil spills.
-Air pollutants: fumes from industries and car exhausts, smells from untreated wastes
and pit-latrines.
-Water pollutants: toxic liquids from factories, oil spills, pit-latrines.

Effects of pollutants on the environment

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Death of plants and animals due to dumping of poisonous substances e.g.

animals may drink water containing toxic chemicals resulting in death.

Outbreak of diseases that result from pollution of water such as bilharzia and
cholera.

Air pollutants can worsen respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis and
bronchitis.

Water pollutants containing nitrates and phosphates can lead to excessive
growth of algae. This process is called eutrophication.

Exposure of leaves to air pollutants can breakdown the waxy coating that
helps prevent excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought
and frost.

Carbon monoxide reacts with haemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces
ability of blood to carry oxygen.

Land and water pollutants reduce the beauty of the land.

Excess gases such as carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere contribute
towards global warming.

b. Soil erosion
This is the washing away of top soil by agents of erosion such as wind, water and
animals such that the fertility of the soil is greatly reduced. Human activities that aid
soil erosion are deforestation, veldfires, overgrazing and poor farming methods such
as ploughing up and down the slope. Soil erosion is of concern because of the
following effects:

Plants’ growth become poor as nutrients have been washed away.

Change in landscape as more dongas and gullies develop. This may destroy
the scenic beauty of the environment.

Animals grow poorly especially herbivores because their pasture is reduced.

Increased flooding as top soil becomes compacted and hard making it difficult
for running water to infiltrate.

c. Deforestation
It refers to excessive cutting down of trees without replacing them. Trees can be cut
for timber, firewood, creation of settlements and clearing for agricultural purposes.
Trees play an important role in the ecosystem e.g. they provide shade and shelter to
animals, protect the soil from erosion and in the hydrological cycle they contribute to
the formation of clouds through transpiration. Destruction of vegetation has the
following negative impacts:

Exposes the soil to more erosion as trees bind soil particles together and also
act wind breakers.

Imbalance in the ecosystem as food for animals is destroyed.

Loss of resources such as medicinal plants and decorative plants.

Reduction in atmospheric oxygen needed by animals for inhalation.

Disruption of the hydrological cycle as less water returns to the atmosphere
through evapo-transpiration.

Burning of forests increases amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
which leads to greenhouse effect.

d. Extinction of species
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Some plants and animals are classified as endangered species. This means that they
are available in limited quantities and if people continue to over-exploit or kill these
animals they will eventually become extinct. Examples of endangered animals include
rhinos, elephants, tigers, lions, cheetahs, wild dogs etc. Killing of endangered animals
is prohibited by law through an international organisation called Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
Negative impacts of extinction of species are:

Loss of plants and animal species that are used for medicinal purposes.
Modern medicines have their genetic origin in wild species of plants and
animals and thus loss of species may mean loss of possible cures for diseases
such as HIV/AIDS.

Loss of hiodiversity exposes crops to pests and diseases and thus leads to
widespread famine and economic hardships.

Imbalance in the ecosystem as some plants and animals may die leading to
loss of habitat and food for other animals.

e. Ozone depletion
Ozone refers to a layer of oxygen found between 20km to 25km above the earth’s
surface. This layer protects the earth from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the
sun. Scientific studies have revealed that ozone layer is continuously being destroyed
by chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are mostly released from
refrigerators and air conditioning systems, spray cans and some liquid cleaning
detergents. Depletion of ozone layer exposes human beings and other living things to
dangerous radiation which has the following effects:

This would make the body more vulnerable to infectious diseases and some
forms of cancer.

A decline in forest productivity of the many tree species that are sensitive to
ultra-violet radiation.

Kills algae in the sea which are producers of all marine food chains.

Other environmental problems such as global warming and desertification have been
discussed under global crises in Chapter Seven.

Ways of sustaining the environment

Afforestation: This involves planting of trees especially in those areas that are
deficient of trees such as deserts and semi deserts. Tree planting activities may
be carried out by groups and individuals and are often sponsored by
government nurseries, for example, annual national tree planting activities.

Promote use of environmentally friendly sources of energy: Alternative
sources of energy such as coal, natural gas, electricity, solar power and
unleaded petrol may be used instead of relying heavily on use of fuelwood
which destroys the environment. Most of the people especially in rural areas
rely on fuelwood as a source of energy. Some people cut live plants and allow
them to dry before harvesting them for firewood. This practice speeds up
deforestation and desertification.

Establishment of woodlots: Rural dwellers are heavily dependent on
fuelwood and it is important that some areas may be fenced for planting of
trees that will provide rural people with firewood.
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Legislation: Government should establish and enforce laws that safeguard the
interest of the environment such as anti-pollution and anti-littering laws, for
instance, some countries have introduced a type of legislation called Polluter
Pays Principle (PPP) whereby the polluter pays full costs of the pollution-
reduction measures decided upon by public authorities to ensure that the
environment is kept in an acceptable condition. Serious penalties can also be
imposed on those individuals and industries that violate such laws. Legislation
and environmental conservation policies should be extended to the
international community, for example, in 1997 over 160 countries met in
Japan and signed the Kyoto agreement in which countries agreed to reduce
their emissions of carbon dioxide.

Education and awareness campaign: People need to be taught about the
importance of the environment and various ways of conserving it, for
example, through agricultural demonstrators farmers are taught good methods
of farming such crop rotation, ploughing across the slope and addition of
fertilisers. Students are taught about environmental conservation through
subjects such as Geography, DVS and Social Studies. Some pressure groups
often go around campaigning against mismanagement of the environment and
also giving people vital information concerning environmental conservation.

Use of ozone friendly aerosols and technology: People should promote the
use sprays and other utensils that contain less chlorofluorocarbons and other
greenhouse gases so as to minimise the rate at which the ozone layer is being
destroyed.

Promotion of ecotourism: This is a type of tourism that is concerned with
protecting and safeguarding the interest of the environment by the local
community. It is based on natural attractions of a particular area. Through
Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) the community
gets revenue from tourism and this creates a sense ownership and willingness
to protect the environment from degradation.

Game Farming: This is the rearing of wild animals in privately owned game
reserves. It is important because it can lead to conservation of endangered
species, prevents poaching, overstocking and overgrazing as movement of
animals will be controlled. Many animal species have been saved from
extinction through game farming.

Banning of trade on products from endangered species: People should he
forbidden from trading on products from of plants and animals that are
protected by law. This will discourage poaching and killing of animals such
elephants and rhinos for their ivory. For instance banning of ivory trade by
CITES has led to mushrooming of elephant populations across the world.

Establishment of recycling industries: The formation of such industries will
boost recycling and reuse of waste materials that would otherwise contaminate
the environment.

Construction of firebreaks: This is a strip of land cleared of trees in order to
prevent veldfires from spreading into a larger area.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

This refers to a process of investigating possible impacts of a planned project on the
environment before implementation. It involves weighing out the advantages and
disadvantages of a proposed project and if disadvantages outweigh the advantages
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then the plan can be abandoned or altered so as to minimise the disadvantages. EIA
involves visiting the site of a proposed project, studying the area and also asking
people about their views on the planned development. EIA law was enacted in May
2005 and it is now considered a government policy requirement especially when large
projects such as power stations, manufacturing industries, road construction and dam
construction are to be undertaken. EIA has been conducted in some projects such as
Letsibogo dam, North- South Water Carrier pipeline and before the establishment of
Sowa Mine.
Importance of EIA

Helps planners to identify problems that are likely to emanate from
development projects and address them before the physical implementation.
This saves government and other private developers money because some
projects often collapse soon after implementation because of an oversight on
certain potential problems.

Gives planners a chance to include people in decision making. Consultation
with other stakeholders and beneficiaries is important as it may cultivate a
spirit of ownership and responsibility among local people. The involvement of
people in decision making is a strong characteristic of good governance and as
such people will feel obliged to conserve or protect the resources.

Leads to long lasting projects as likely negative impacts are identified before
implementation. Planning of the project will ensure that likely negative
impacts that lead to the collapse of the project are addressed in advance. EIA
enables planners to take right measures to deal with expected environmental
problems.

Helps planners to identify the priorities of people. Involvement of people in
decision making is important as researchers come into direct dialogue with
people. This can facilitate exchange of views, ideas and perceptions. Ordinary
people can express their opinions which are critical in planning for the project.
Through contact with people the investigators can know what type or nature of
project do people want and whether the proposed project is in the interest of
the intended beneficiaries or not.

Planners can acquire important ideas or information from people on how to
mitigate problems. Through EIA investigators can acquire information which
is critical to the success or failure of the project. The contributions of local
people should not he undermined as they may have in-depth knowledge about
the physical and social conditions in their areas which maybe important in
planning.

Leads to conservation of both natural and manmade resources as it promotes
sustainable development by ensuring that land is used only to its capacity.
Many projects that have been done without EIA have collapsed due to poor
planning. Collapse of such projects leads to loss of valuable resources and
time.
Main types of environments in Botswana
Botswana’s natural physical environment can be divided into 5 main regions
characterised by distinct relief, soils, vegetation and human activities. These are:
a. Deserts (including semi deserts)
b. Hardveld (Eastern Margin)
c. Deciduous Forests
d. Swamps
e. Salt Pans
 20

Botswana’s main environmental regions

a. Deserts and semi-deserts

Physical characteristics

Low annual rainfall of less than 250mm.

Cold winters and hot summers.

Sandy and saline soils.

Short and scattered trees.
Importance of deserts to human life

Tourism: People often visit the desert to marvel at its unique landscape,
plants and sand dunes. Hunting areas have been reduced by establishment of
game reserves and national parks which are also a major tourist attraction.

Livestock farming: Presence of underground water makes it possible to drill
boreholes. This encourages livestock farming especially cattle and goats.
Arable farming is very limited because of the poor fertility of the soil.

Harvesting of veld products: People in deserts gather grapple plants
(Sengaparile) and Mosukujane for medicinal and commercial purposes.
Mosukujane is also used to make tea.

b. Hardveld
Physical Characteristics

Moderate annual rainfall of up to 550mm

Has many ephemeral rivers and Limpopo is the only perennial river.

Dominated by reddish brown loam soils.

Has tree savanna characterised by tall trees such as morula, mokoba, baobab
(mowana) and mophane.
Importance to humanlife

Mixed farming: Good rainfall and soils make the region suitable for both
arable and pastoral farming. Majority of farmers are subsistence but there are
commercial farms such as Talana, Tati, Tuli and Barolong farms.
 21

Harvesting of veld products: Natural vegetables common in this area are

thepe, rotlhwe and monyaku. There are also fruit trees such as moretlwa and
mowana. Mophane trees provide inhabitants with ‘phane’ which has been
used as a relish for a long time. ‘Phane’ is also used as cattle feed by
commercial pastoral farmers.

Mining: Mining is another important activity in the region. Major minerals
found in the area are diamonds, nickel, gold, copper and coal

Tourism: The region has some privately owned game reserves such as
Mashatu and Tuli. It also has places of historical interest such as Matsieng’s
footprints, Domboshaba and Toutswemogala. These areas attract a number of
tourists.

Pottery and carpentry: Inhabitants of the area make clay pots (dinkgo) using
a special type of clay soil found in the area. They also cut some tree species
such as Motswere and Mokoba to make utensils such as mortar (kika) and
pestle (motshe).

Construction of traditional shelters: The shelters in the area are made up of
mud walls supported by thick poles and rafters made from local tree species
such as Mophane. They also use available grasses for thatching.

c. Swamps
Physical characteristics

Hot and wet.

Dominated by wetlands such as Okavango delta and swamps.

Mean annual rainfall is between 400mm and 600mm.

Have plenty of fertile alluvial soils.

Common plants include papyrus, reeds, water lilies and tall trees.
Importance to humanlife

Mixed farming: People in the swamps grow crops for subsistence and they
also rear animals such as cattle and goats.

Tourism: The unique character of the Okavango delta together with its
diverse wildlife species has made the swamps the most important tourist
destination in Botswana. Other tourist attractions are Moremi Game Reserves
and Tsodilo Hills which are famous for ancient rock paintings.

Basketry: Inhabitants of this region make plenty of baskets from reeds and
other plants found in the region.

Fishing: People catch fish from the swamps and also harvest some edible
plants such as waterlilies (tswii).

Construction of shelter: People use reeds to construct shelter.

Canoeing: The abundance of water makes it possible to transport goods and
people to other areas using dug-out canoes (mekoro).

d. Deciduous Forest
Physical characteristics

Mean annual rainfall is 650mm.

Soil is alluvial and poorly drained.

There are tall trees with thick trunks e.g. mukwa and mukusi.
Importance to human life

Tourism: The main attractions are Chobe Swamps and river, Chobe National
Park and Linyanti Game Reserve. The area has an abundance of wildlife
species.
 22

Timber Production: Timber is cut from hardwoods and sent to the eastern
margin for processing.

Fishing: The perennial Chobe River provides inhabitants with plenty of fish.

Commercial Farming: People have taken advantage of fertile alluvial soils to
set up commercial arable farms e.g. Pandamatenga. Livestock farming is done
on a smaller scale because of pests, diseases and wild animals.

e. Salt Pans
Physical characteristics

Have some salt pans such as Makgadikgadi, Mababe depression and Ntwetwe.

Average winter temperature is 15◌ْ c and summer temperature is 25◌ْ c.

There is little vegetation; tall grasses and palm trees are common in salt pans.

Soils are mostly saline (salty).
Importance to human life

Livestock farming: Due to abundance of grass people rear livestock such as
cattle and goats

Tourism: Makgadikgadi Game Reserve and the unique landscape of the salt
pans arc the main tourist attractions.

Mining: The presence of soda ash has led to establishment of a mine in Sowa
Town.

Harvesting of veld products: Due to the presence of tall grasses inhabitants
of Salt Pans cut grasses for thatching purposes.

The role of stakeholders in caring for the environment

Stakeholder: These are individuals, groups or organisations that have been given the
responsibility to carryout a particular task. In this context this refers to all individuals,
groups and organisations that are concerned with the preservation of the natural and
physical environment.
a. Government

Government has made some laws that are meant to protect the environment
e.g. in 2005 government approved an act which makes it compulsory to
conduct EIA for any project that affects the environment. Some laws also
make it illegal to mismanage the environment e.g. anti-poaching and littering
laws. People who mismanage the environment are penalised.

Various departments have been formed to look after various natural resources
e.g. Department. of Water Affairs to monitor and conduct the use of water,
Forestry Department to protect the vegetation and Wildlife and National Parks
to protect animals and other natural tourist attractions.

Sponsoring workshops and seminars that address environmental issues.

Construction of firebreaks to prevent the spread of veldfires to other areas.

Encouraging national tree planting activities to reduce deforestation and
desertification.

Introduction of environmental education in schools and the community.
Through extension services farmers are encouraged to practice good farming
methods such as fencing communal grazing areas and rotational grazing.
Students are also enlightened about environmental conservation through
subjects such as development studies, geography and social studies.

Encouraging the use of alternative sources such as solar power, electricity and
natural gas.
 23

b. Non-Governmental Organisations
These are private organisations that are not profit-oriented. Examples of NGOs
concerned with environmental conservation are Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS)
and Somarelang Tikologo.
Their role is to:

Advise the government on formulation environmental conservation policies.

Conserve important natural resources i.e. they protect endangered species of
plants and animals and control depletion of non-renewable resources such as
minerals.

Give local communities technology and information that is environmentally
friendly.

Sponsor workshops concerned with environmental education.

Educate communities about proper use of natural resources.

Carryout research on environmental protection and conservation of resources
e.g. Somarelang Tikologo

Encourage woodland conservation among communities e.g. Forestry
Association of Botswana.

c. Individuals and local community

Cleaning up their surroundings by picking up of wastes such as plastics, cans
and papers.

Planting trees especially in deforested areas such as deserts.

Educating other people about the importance of the environment and the need
for sustainable development through kgotla meetings and workshops.

Practice environmentally friendly activities like recycling litter such as cans,
paper, bottles etc.

Practising good farming methods such crop rotation and controlling stocking
rate.

Promoting use of environmentally friendly sources of energy such as solar
power and electricity.

Formation of community-based environmental watchdogs such as Green-
Scorpion and Changate Conservation and Development Trust.

International Community:
All people throughout the world have the responsibility to care for the environment
because other environmental issues like ozone depletion, desertification and global
warming affect the whole world regardless of where they occur. The international
community can care for the environment through:

Formation of more international organisations that promote environmental
conservation worldwide. Examples of international organisations that care for
the environment are Green Peace, World Wildlife Fund and CITES etc.

Formulation of international laws that govern the use of natural resources e.g.
banning of international trade on products from endangered plants and animal
species.

Conducting international workshops or conferences to address environmental
issues.

Sharing information and technology that is environmentally friendly with
other countries.

Summary
 24

In this chapter you learnt that:

The environment is very important as it determines people’s way of life.
People get various resources from the natural environment such as water, food
and building materials.

The environment is misused by human beings through negative practices such
as pollution, deforestation, poaching and veldfires.

Ways of sustaining the environment include education, afforestation,
legislation, ecotourism, game farming and construction of firebreaks,

Botswana’s physical environment can be divided into Deserts, Hardveld,
Deciduous forests, Swamps and Salt Pans.

The main stakeholders in environmental conservation are government, NGOs,
individuals and the community.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms/concepts:
a. natural resources
b. environmental determinism
c. ozone depletion
d. environment
e. sustainability
(5)
2. Discuss the importance of Environmental Impact assessment.
(10)
3. Explain five ways in which the government promotes environmental conservation.
(l0)
4. State five ways in which people mismanage water resources.
(5)
5. Discuss the importance of vegetation in the ecosystem
(10)
6. Discuss five ways in which the swamps are important to the people living in and
around the swamps.
(10)

CHAPTER THREE
POPULATION DYNAMICS
Introduction
Population refers to the total number of people living in an area at a particular time.
The scientific study of human population is called demography. Demography deals
with the distribution of population over space and time. It uses statistical and
scientific data analysis of the population. Demographers study the characteristics of
human populations especially the way people are distributed in terms of different ages
and the ratio between males and females.
Botswana’s population size has increased overtime but its growth rate has been
declining steadily. Between 1971 and 1981 Botswana’s population grew at 4.5% per
annum, between 1981 and 1991 it grew by 3.5% and between 1991 and 2001 it grew
by 2.4%. The size of the population a country has influences that country’s
development in many ways, for instance, a large population may mean an abundance
of labour and it may also mean more mouths to feed. This means that a large
 25

population may have both negative and positive influences on a country’s economic
development. Countries always want to control the growths of their populations in
order to strike a balance between population size and available resources.

Factors influencing fertility rate

Fertility rate refers to the number of live births that a woman is capable of producing
during her reproductive period. The term used to describe the biological capacity to
reproduce is fecundity. It can refer to the biological capacity of both females and
males to reproduce. Fertility refers to the actual childbearing of a woman. Fertility
rate can differ from one woman to other depending on various factors. Some of the
factors influencing fertility rate are related directly to the belief and value structures
of a given society, whilst others might be related to the political and economic
structures.
Social factors:

Religion: Some churches like Roman Catholic do not allow their members to
use artificial contraceptives such as pills and condoms. As a result members of
such churches are likely to have many children.

Education: Less developed countries experience a high fertility rate due to a
large number of uneducated people who generally have little or no knowledge
about the use of contraceptives and family planning. Educated women tend to
bear children at a later stage than uneducated ones because they want to attain
certain qualifications before they can establish families.

Preference for a particular sex: Some families may want to have a certain
number of boys or girls. If they fail to have the preferred sex ratio they will
continue to bear children with the hope that they will achieve the desired
number of boys or girls. This often results in larger numbers of children than
initially planned for. Traditionally male children were more preferred because
they inherited family name and property.

Early childbearing: When women bear children at an early age they are more
likely to have many children by the time they reach menopause.

Economic factors:

Country’s level of development: Developed countries generally have low
fertility rates because they can afford to provide their people with enough
contraceptives to prevent frequent and unwanted pregnancies. Such countries
can also afford other measures of controlling fertility rate such as providing
incentives for smaller families. On the other hand undeveloped or poor
countries cannot afford to provide their people with enough resources to curb
fertility rates and as a result they tend to have high fertility and birth rates.

Desire for wealth: Some families may decide to limit the numbers of their
children for economic reasons e.g. when a family wants to buy expensive
items such as cars, houses and other luxurious items they avoid having many
children so that they cannot pressurise their budgets.

Economic returns: Some families regard children as economic investments
rather than a liability. They want to have many children so that when they
retire or reach old age such children can support and protect them.
Cultural Factors:

Use of family labour: Traditional societies encouraged large families because
most of their economic well-being was based on availability of labour at
 26

family level including child labour. For such families a large number of
children is an advantage because they are used to provide labour in various
activities.

Gender inequality: Traditionally the role of women was to stay at home and
look after children. The number of children a family desired was decided by
the husband only. In most cases men wanted to have many children as they
thought it symbolised their virility or sexual power.

Factors contributing to rapid population growth

Population growth is mainly determined by the difference between the birth rate and
the death rate. When the birth rate is higher than the death rate then the population
increases. This simply means that when there are more people born than those dying
then there will be a rise in population. This results in natural increase in population.
If the death rate is higher than birth rate there would be negative growth or natural
decrease. Immigration also contributes to population growth; when there is a higher
number of people coming into a particular settlement (immigrants) than those leaving
(emigrants) the population of the settlement will increase. This explains why urban
settlements in Botswana have a higher population growth rate than rural settlements.

Factors leading to high birth rates:
- early childbearing
- use of family or child labour
- lack of use of contraceptives
- old age security
- lack of education on family planning
- desire for a particular sex
- religious beliefs against use of contraceptives
- population policy promoting population growth

Factors leading to low death rates:
- improved quality of health services and facilities
- better nutrition and diet
- emergence of old age homes and allowances
- improved standards of hygiene
- improved supply of clean water.

Effects of high population on the environment

The natural environment is a resource upon which people depend for their daily lives.
People live on the environment and the environment depends on how people utilise it
for better or worse. Thus it is the environment that supports people for all their socio-
economic and political activities. The following are some of the negative effects of
human growth on the environment:

Shortage of land: As population grows land does not grow. A high
population needs land for various purposes such as farming, creation of
settlements and industries. Population growth results in too many people
scrambling for limited available lands which will result in rapid depletion
and degradation of resources such as vegetation, water and soil.

Urbanisation: Many people will move from rural to urban areas in search
of better living standards. As a result there is going to be overcrowding in
towns which will lead to problems such as traffic congestion, overuse of
resources and encroachment of industries into residential areas.
 27

Development of slums: When population increases beyond control there

will be shortage of housing which will force people to establish illegal
settlements called slums or squatter camps. Squatter camps are usually
characterised by poorly planned houses, unsanitary surroundings and high
level of pollution (water, land, air and noise).

Pollution: A high population will increase amount of waste in the
environment. Drinking water is often contaminated due to leakage from
sewage pipes and this may give rise to various diseases such as cholera
and bilharzia. Some industries also have a habit of discarding untreated
waste in unauthorised areas which also pollutes the land, air and water. It
is also costly for the district or town council to clean up contaminated
surroundings.

Overuse and extinction of resources: Increased population may lead to
more exploitation of resources in order to maintain the ever-growing
population. Some resources like minerals are non-renewable and therefore
if finished take millions of years to regenerate. This will compromise the
ability of the future generation to benefit from the same resources.
Population increase leads to over-harvesting of natural resources such as
phane and fuelwood. Some plants and animal species can end up being
extinct due to over-use.

Rise in unemployment: A high population will increase the number of
unemployed people and thus increase the number of dependants who will
pressurise the working population’s budget. Unemployment will also give
rise to social ills such as prostitution, crime and street children. The
government’s budget will be overstretched as it will be forced to support
destitutes.

Shortage of basic amenities: A high population will put pressure on
limited schools, clinics and hospitals. The number of teachers, doctors and
nurses may not be enough to satisfy the needs of the high population. The
government will have to provide more health and educational facilities
which may lead to reduced investment in other important economic sectors
such as agriculture and manufacturing.

Land use conflicts: A high population may create conflicts over the use of
some resources. For instance, illegal settlements on the outskirts of large
towns may create conflicts between the squatters and the town council.
Due to shortage of land people may end up creating settlements on
agricultural land and thus creating conflicts with affected farmers.

Possible solutions to rapid population growth

Promotion of family planning and use of contraceptives: There should
be enough education on the available family planning methods and their
accessibility to people in remote and rural areas should be increased.
Education will encourage people to make intelligent decisions on family
planning. Provision of relevant information and counselling regarding
sterilisation, HIV/AIDS and STDs should be availed to people in both
towns and villages.

Legislation: The government can formulate some laws on maximum
number of children that a couple should have. Early marriage should be
discouraged to prevent early childbearing which generally results in high
fertility rates.
 28

Incentives for smaller families: Small-sized families should be given

rewards so as to discourage large families e.g. in China the government
supports all those couples that have only one child by offering free
services such education and medical aid to the child.

Education: All people especially women should be educated about the
dangers of a high population. Educated women are likely to marry later
and have fewer children through wise planning and proper use of
contraceptives.

Development of rural areas: To reduce population growth due to
migration all regions should be developed equally. There is need to
provide basic amenities such as schools, hospitals, roads and
telecommunication networks in rural areas so as to reduce accelerated
rural-urban migration. Government can formulate some policies that will
encourage industries to locate in rural areas such as tax holidays,
subsidies and increase allowances for civil servants who work in rural
areas. Creation of employment in rural areas will also reduce migration of
rural dwellers to urban areas.

Emancipation of women’s rights (gender equality): Equality for women
is very important; women who have high social and economic
opportunities tend to have fewer children than those of lower status.
Improved status of women will make them take part in decision-making
concerning family size unlike in the past when that decision was taken by
men only.

Impacts of HIV/AIDS on the population

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus whereas AIDS means Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS is a disease that results from the impacts of the
HIV virus on the body. HIV attacks the body’s immune system making it vulnerable
to multiple infections including those that the immune system would naturally
prevent. There are no specific symptoms of the disease as it can manifest itself in
multiple incurable illnesses. At present there is no cure for HIV/AIDS and the disease
is virtually in every country in the world. HIV/AIDS has the following negative
impacts on the population:

Increased death rate: HIV/AIDS has no cure and therefore many of its
victims end up dying.

Reduces the workforce: The disease mostly kills people who are
economically active and thus reducing skilled personnel.

Reduction in life expectancy: The most affected age group is between 18 and
45 and therefore death of such people results in decline in life expectancy.

Pressure on government budget: Government spends a lot of money in
buying preventive medication such as ARV drugs as well expenditure on
education and awareness campaigns.

Loss of breadwinners: Families may lose their only providers resulting in
increased poverty.

Increase in dependent population: Death of important family members may
lead to increase in the number of orphans and destitutes who may also need
government support.
 29

Stigma and discrimination: Some people tend to have a negative attitude

towards victims of HIV/AIDS and end up discriminating them in family and
community activities.
(Impacts of HIV/AIDS have been explained further in Chapter 5)

Importance of population census

A population census is an official counting of people in a country at a given period of
time. The first Population and Housing Census was taken in Bechuanaland
Protectorate in 1904 by the British Government. Censuses are held every ten years to
update the statistical data as population characteristics such as birth rate, death rate,
and density are dynamic. A census is important for the following reasons:

Enables identification of changes in the structure of population (e.g. birth
rate, death rate, life expectancy etc.) as well as causes for such changes

Census data is needed for planning in various social and economic sectors
such as agriculture, health and education. For example, knowledge of age
and number of children in a particular village may be used to project how
many classrooms will be needed in the village and how many teachers in
the next five or more years.

In elections census data helps in delimitation of parliamentary
constituencies and councillors’ wards. This prevents a situation whereby
one electoral constituency can have too many electorates whilst others
have very few.

A census can be used to identify where various developments are mostly
needed. Usually such developments and services are mostly needed where
there are more people. Knowledge of population size in a particular village
or town will also determine how big the amenities should be.

Significance of population and development planning

A country’s development is affected by population variables such as size,
composition, fertility rate, mortality rate, density and spatial distribution. A large
population may be advantageous as it provides a large pool of labour for different
activities. This will increase competition for jobs and as a result the most qualified
people will succeed in gaining employment. Such education will also encourage many
people to take their education seriously. Furthermore a large population increases
market for locally produced items and this is an advantage to local businessmen. On
the other hand a large population may create too much pressure on resources such as
water, housing and limit access to education and health opportunities. A country
whose population is dominated by the young and the very old has to spend a lot of
money providing them with services such as education, health, and old age pension.
The 2001 census shows that 36.7 % of population in Botswana is below the age of 15
years.
Planning takes a very long time thus how the country will be developed requires
planners to have all the necessary information regarding the population projections or
estimates for the future. In Botswana development planning is done every 5 years.
Development plans are done for the following reasons:

For budgeting purposes: Government has to know how much money would
be required by each sector and each constituency. This is done by using census
data which will enable planners to determine the needs of each sector.

For prioritising development funds: This enables the government to know
where resources are needed most.
 30

Population Policy
This refers to government’s decisions and measures which are intended to change the
characteristics of population such as its size, growth rate, composition, spatial
distribution etc. In countries that are underpopulated their population policies aim at
increasing population growth rate. Most policies in developing countries are generally
meant to reduce population growth rate.
Importance of population policy

A controlled population will ensure a balance between population and
available resources

It would permit future population projections which are needed for
development planning and thus help in prioritising development.

A population policy would lead to an increase/decrease in population because
relevant measures such as family planning, sterilisation, marriage age etc. will
be put in place.

Relevant legislation will be put in place so as to help population regulation
e.g. one child per couple in China.

It enables all stakeholders to work towards a common goal e.g. government,
private institutions and NGOs will put in place similar measures towards a
common goal of either increasing or decreasing population growth rate.

Population Policy in Botswana

Developing countries have adopted national population policies so that their people
can gain the benefits of development. The rapid growing rates of population of
developing countries today are causing the number of people to rise faster than
economic growth and thus development and population growth need to be tackled
together. Botswana’s population policy aims at maintaining a balance between
population and resources. Botswana’s population is characterised by high birth rates
and high dependant populations. The money gained in Botswana’s fast growing
economy is used to cater for the rapid growing population by providing more schools,
hospitals, housing and clean water. This reduces investment and promotion of other
economic sectors. Having realised the problem of a rapid growing population, the
government of Botswana has come up with several strategies to contain the rapid
growing population. The efforts by government to reduce population growth rate
include the following:

Education: Government has introduced topics such as ‘Population’ and ‘Family
Planning’ in the school curriculum to sensitive people about the impacts of a high
population. Educated people usually have smaller families, and educated women
not only have smaller families, but they are better able to give their children better
food and health than uneducated women. Also, infant mortality rate among
educated women is lower than that of uneducated women.

Women Empowerment (gender-equality): The status of women has been
improved so that they cannot be seen only as childbearers. In recent years women
have been given more rights and job opportunities and this has reduced their
fertility rates.

Family planning and use of contraceptives: Health institutions such as hospitals
and clinics have been improved so as to raise the standard of living and increase
access to better and safe methods of birth control. Through family planning
education the government tries to encourage teenagers to delay parenthood, men
 31

and women to use contraceptives and parents to have only the number of children
that they can support.

Improved health and family care: If clean water, sewage disposal, adequate
nutrition, medical services, maternity and infant care, and immunisation
programmes are introduced, fewer children will die in infancy. People will then
see no need to have many children as security.

Decentralisation: To reduce population growth due to migration government has
made efforts to develop rural areas so that they match urban areas in terms of
infrastructure and services. The government has made efforts to balance regional
development through tax rebates and subsidies for industries that locate in rural
areas. Remote Area Service Allowance (RASA) also makes rural areas attractive
to civil servants.

Increased employment opportunity: Better employment opportunities will
ensure money for the people and will give them more security. As people become
wealthier they will see no reason in having many children as an economic
investment.

Maternity leave policy: According to government labour policies working
women can take three months maternity leave on full payment for a maximum of
three children only. Beyond three children women are not paid full salaries. This
is aimed at reducing frequency of childbearing among working women.

Population Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another either permanently or
temporarily. Migration is one of the factors contributing to rapid population growth of
certain areas. However, migration does not contribute to rapid growth of world
population but contributes to distribution of world populations. There are two types of
migration:

International migration: This is the movement of people from one country to
another e.g. from Botswana to South Africa.

Internal migration: Movement of people from one place to another within a
country. Internal migration can take the following forms:
-Rural to rural
-Rural to urban
-Urban to urban
-Urban to rural
In any migration there are pull and push factors. Pull factors are favourable
conditions which attract people into a new area and usually lead to voluntary
migration. Push factors are unfavourable conditions which force people to a new area
and usually lead to involuntary migration. In Botswana the commonest form of
internal migration is rural to urban. People move from rural to urban areas for the
following reasons:
Pull factors:

Employment opportunities: Urban areas are more developed than rural areas
and offer better chances of employment. There is a belief that there are better
paying jobs in urban areas and therefore people look down upon jobs in rural
areas in favour of those in urban areas.

Educational facilities: Most of the secondary and tertiary schools are in urban
areas and therefore people migrate to urban areas in search of further
education.
 32

Good medical facilities: Many referral hospitals in the country are found in
towns and cities e.g. Nyangabwe and Princess Marina Hospital in Francistown
and Gaborone respectively.

‘Bright light syndrome’: Some people are attracted by the unique lifestyle of
towns such as going to night clubs, parties and other recreational activities.
Some people associate town life with sophistication and therefore by moving
to towns they want to be seen as sophisticated.

Better infrastructure: Urban areas have good roads, telecommunication
networks and a variety of shops.

Push factors

Poor infrastructure in rural areas: Rural areas are characterised by untarred
roads, limited and often too expensive shops, poor telecommunication
networks etc. These factors often force people to migrate to urban areas for
better facilities and services.

Unemployment: Rural areas offer the least employment opportunities as they
are not as developed as urban areas. In rural areas most people are engaged in
small scale agriculture which is unreliable because of poor rainfall. On the
other hand urban areas are more industrialised and offer better employment
prospects.

Unreliable and inadequate rainfall: Subsistence farming is the backbone of
many rural areas’ economies and therefore if rains are inadequate there are
poor harvests and finally starvation. The entire population suffers leading to
involuntary migration.

Poor medical and educational facilities: Rural areas usually have little
health posts or clinics which may not provide all services leading to referral of
some patients to hospitals in urban areas. Frequent referral may lead to
permanent migration to urban areas. Tertiary schools may also be available in
urban areas only and people who want to further their studies would have to
relocate to urban areas or other developed settlements.

Fear of witchcraft: Traditional beliefs like witchcraft may drive some people
away from rural areas to urban areas with the hope that they cannot be reached
by witches.

Effects of rural-urban migration on rural areas

Positive effects

Remittances: Migrants employed in urban areas send part of their earnings to
relatives left behind in rural areas. This gives families in rural areas a chance
to buy basic needs such as food, clothes and other household items. In some
cases this is the only real source of income for rural families.

Transfer of skills, ideas and technology: Migrant workers bring in new skills
and technology that they have acquired in urban areas. This knowledge may
be used to stimulate development of rural areas e.g. formation youth clubs,
cash loans and business syndicates. Such developments may also deter other
people from migrating to urban areas.

Reduced pressure on available resources: Those rural areas that are
overpopulated may benefit from rural-urban migration as their populations
may be reduced leaving behind a smaller population which can be supplied
adequately by the available resources. This may contribute towards sustaining
both the natural and manmade resources.
 33

Investment of income in rural areas: Emigrants may invest their income in

rural areas e.g. by building shops, running public transports, entertainment
centres, opening saloons and other businesses. Such business will also
contribute a lot in providing employment opportunities for other rural dwellers
left behind.

Reduced family sizes: The relocation of some family members to urban areas
may lead to reduction in the size of the family which may mean fewer mouths
to feed. This reduction in size may also lead to reduction in family conflicts
which are more prevalent amongst large families.

Negative impacts

Brain-drain: Usually the most intelligent people migrate to towns leaving
rural areas with people who are less educated or intelligent enough to
initiate and implement important development projects.

Unequal distribution of resources: Migration will increase population in
urban areas and as a result development and resources will be channelled
towards the urban areas at the expense of rural areas. This will widen the
inequality between rural and urban areas in terms of basic facilities and
infrastructure.

Family breakdown: Migration may lead to separation of marital partners
for prolonged periods of time. One partner may leave for urban areas and
lose contacts with his or her spouse and this may result in extra marital
affairs and finally divorce. Absence of one partner especially the father
may also disrupt family life because disciplining of children is usually
done by fathers.

Decline in economic activities: As able-bodied men and women migrate
to towns for greener pastures much of the workload is left in the hands of
the young and very old. This reduces productivity especially agricultural
production as it is the backbone of rural economy.

Age and gender imbalance: Rural migration tends to leave rural areas
with a population dominated by females as well as the young and old. This
results in change in division of labour. The production of food from tilling
to cooking is left entirely in the hands of females. Some women often end
up doing masculine jobs such as destumping and fencing the fields. This
may also lead to a collapse in agricultural productivity.

Depopulation: Accelerated rural-urban migration may result in the decline
of the population of rural areas. Reduction in population may also mean
reduction in labour force and market. Some businesses may end up
collapsing due to shortage of market whilst others may relocate to places
that offer better market prospects.

Spread of diseases: Interaction between migrants and permanent rural
dwellers may result in spread of contagious diseases from urban areas to
the rural areas. Urban areas are home to people from diverse cultural
groups and nationalities and hence prone to numerous contagious diseases
which may be spread to rural areas by migrants.

Effects of rural-urban migration on urban areas

Positive effects
 34

Increased market: As many people migrate to urban areas urban

population increases and this increases potential buyers especially for local
products such as fruits, vegetables, dairy products, meat etc.

Increased labour force: An increased urban population will lead to plenty
of labour force with a variety of skills. This may benefit industries as they
will have a large pool of labour to choose from. Competition for
employment will ensure that only the most skilled people find employment
and this will motivate unskilled people to upgrade their educational
qualifications.

Exchange of skills and technology: Interaction of people from different
cultural and ethnic backgrounds may facilitate exchange of skills and
technology. Such skills may be needed for production of various goods in
urban areas.

Negative effects

Shortage of amenities: A high population will exert tremendous pressure
on basic amenities such as schools, clinics and hospitals. More schools and
hospitals will have to be built to cater for the ever increasing urban
population. Congestion in schools and hospitals will also compromise the
quality of services provided by teachers, nurses, doctors and other service
providers.

Depletion of natural resources: Increased urban population will lead to
pressure and overuse of resources such as land, water and food. Some
urban dwellers are still highly dependent on natural resources such as
fuelwood and increased demand for fuelwood would result in degradation
of the land due to deforestation and soil erosion.

Rise in unemployment: Job opportunities are not rising as fast as urban
population growth rate. Many of the urban people may not find
employment or may be employed in unstable sources of employment such
as construction whereas others may be engaged in unprofitable petty
trading. Failure to find employment may lead to illegal and anti-social
sources of income such as crime and prostitution.

Establishment of squatter settlements: Shortage of housing or
unaffordable rent prices may force people to establish illegal squatter
camps or slums. In these settlements houses are shacks made up of
available materials such as plastic sheets. Services such as water and
garbage collection may not be available hence the area is generally untidy.

Pressure on government budget: Due to high population government
will be forced to provide more basic services such schools, hospitals, roads
and telecommunication networks to majority of people who live in urban
areas. This reduces investment on other economic sectors such as tourism
and manufacturing.

Multiplication of diseases: High urban population may lead to various
environmental problems such as pollution. Many of the most serious
diseases in urban areas are ‘environmental’ because they are transmitted
through disease causing agents in the air, water, soil or food, or through
insects or animal disease vectors. Many diseases and disease vectors
multiply when provision of water, sanitation, drainage, garbage collection
and health is inadequate. Other contagious diseases such as tuberculosis
may be spread quite easily due high population.
 35

Land use conflicts: Rapid growth of urban areas may lead to loss of
agricultural land to housing or establishment of more industries. This will
create conflicts between the affected farmers and the Town Council or
Land Board. Some farmers may be reluctant to abandon their lands or
demand huge compensation if relocated.

Effects of international migration on the source country

Positive

Reduced pressure on available resources as many people migrate.

Gaining of foreign exchange as migrants send remittances in foreign
currencies.

Returning migrants may bring in new skills and technology vital for
development.

Investments by migrants in their home countries may stimulate economic
development.
Negative

Brain drain; the country may lose skilled manpower to other countries.

Loss of active population leading to reduction in productivity.

Poor developments due to shortage of skilled personnel.

Starvation due to mass exodus of breadwinners.

Family breakdown as some members never return.

Effects of international migration on the receiving country

Positive

Acquisition of skilled manpower such as engineers and doctors.

Abundance of labour which is a benefit to local industries.

Increased markets for local products.

Exchange of cultural knowledge which facilitates exchange of skills and
technology.
Negative

Loss of culture by immigrants as they interact with other cultures.

Increased social ills as some of the immigrants may not find jobs e.g.
Zimbabweans in Botswana are blamed for escalating crime and prostitution.

Spread of diseases from other countries e.g. HIV-AIDS, SARS and Ebola.

Increased pressure on manmade and natural resources such housing and water.

Competition for limited job opportunities with the local people

The trend of rural urban migration

This refers to the general tendency or direction of rural-urban migration. A large
volume of people migrate from rural to urban areas and the migration is selective in
the following ways:

Sex: Both men and women migrate equally for different reasons; men
mostly go to towns for better jobs so that they can support their families in
rural areas. During the colonial period it was mostly men who migrated to
the mines in South Africa especially after the introduction of hut tax.
Nowadays females also move to towns and for the same reasons as men
such as better employment opportunities. Males usually migrate to mining
towns such as Selibe Phikwe, Jwaneng, Orapa and Sowa town.

Age: Most of the people who migrate are aged between 15 and 45
(working age). This age group is the core of the working population and
 36

they mostly migrate to seek better employment opportunities. Younger

people within this age group mostly migrate to seek senior secondary and
tertiary education. Most of the tertiary institutions in Botswana are found
in urban areas and as such students who perform well in secondary schools
are forced to migrate to urban areas to further their education

Destination: Most of the rural migrants target specific urban areas such as
mining towns like Selibe Phikwe, Jwaneng, Sowa Town and Francistown.
In recent decades Gaborone as the administrative capital has attracted the
largest number of both local and international migrants. Gaborone offers
the best employment opportunities as it is home to all government
ministries, prominent NGOs and private institutions that employ thousands
of people.

Is there a change in the trend?

In some parts of the country there is still a massive movement of people from villages
to towns but in most parts of the country most of the movement is within the districts.
This is mainly because the government has embarked on decentralisation and thus
most districts now have their own headquarters which are developed. Due to
decentralisation people have access to a lot of facilities because they are within
considerable distance and therefore see no reason for migrating.

The role of stakeholders in addressing problems resulting from rural-urban

migration
a. Youth

Self employment: The youth can initiate their own businesses in rural
areas such as bakeries, saloons, poultry farming and tourism related
projects. This will bring income for the youth, create employment for other
youths, speed up development of the rural area and finally reduce the rate
of rural urban migration.

Formation of cultural and entertainment clubs: Rural dwellers can
form clubs such as traditional dance troupes e.g. Ditholwana and drama
clubs to keep culture existing. Drama clubs can also educate people about
the negative consequences of migration through plays. Apart from
entertaining and educating these clubs can also raise funds for other
development activities. Through these clubs the youth can also learn
managerial and leadership skills that will benefit them as they grow up.

Formation of sporting clubs: The youth can form different sporting clubs
such as football teams and organise tournaments. Such tournaments will
help to address the boredom that is normally associated with rural areas

Utilisation of government schemes: The youth can take advantage of
financial institutions such as CEDA and Department of Culture and Youth
to start their own businesses in rural areas. Such businesses will also speed
up development and generate employment for other people who would
otherwise migrate to towns to seek employment.

Voluntary service: Unemployed youth can take part in voluntary services
such being members of Village Development Committees and Drought
Relief Projects. They can also volunteer to work for various NGOs that
provide services to rural people such as Red Cross.
 37

Active participation in decision making: The youth can actively take

part in major decision making in their communities so that they can
advocate for the improvement of their lifestyles. They can also campaign
for positions of responsibility such being councilors and members of
parliament.

b. Government

Provision of clean water: A clean and reliable supply of water in rural areas
will reduce migration and frequency of diseases especially cholera, malaria
and bilharzia.

Encourage more industries to locate in rural areas: This can be achieved
government policies such as subsidies and tax rebates for industries that locate
in rural areas.

Increase recreational facilities in rural areas: Lack of entertainment is one
of the push factors of rural urban migration and as such provision of
entertainment facilities in rural areas will help make rural areas less boring e.g.
establishment of stadiums and youth centres in major villages.

Improvement of basic infrastructure: There is need to develop roads and
telecommunication networks so as to improve linkage between rural areas and
urban areas.

Establishment of social welfare facilities: An increase in the number of
social services will encourage more people to live in rural areas e.g. housing,
schools, post offices, banks, shops etc.

Education: People in rural areas need to be taught about the negative
consequences of migration. This can be done through kgotla meetings,
workshops and through the media.

Balancing of skilled manpower across all regions: Skilled manpower can be
equally spread and rotated across the country so that all regions can benefit.
There is a tendency by some civil servants to refuse to work in remote and
distant villages such as Seronga and Kachikau. Government has introduced
Remote Area Service Allowance (RASA) to those civil servants who work in
remote areas.

c. Non Governmental Orgaisations

Education: They can conduct kgotla meetings and seminars to educate
people about the effects of migration.

Provisions of basic needs: Some NGOs like Red Cross often donate
clothes, food, shelter and medicine to poor rural dwellers.

Creation of jobs: Some NGOs have branches in rural areas and this helps
in terms of development and creating employment.

Represent the interests of rural dwellers: Some international and local
NGOs advocate for the rights of rural people so that they cannot be ill-
treated e.g. Survival International and Ditshwanelo.

Causes of conflict over the use of natural resources

Overpopulation: Population increase has led to people exceeding available
resources and this can lead to shortage of resources such as land, water and
 38

fuelwood. Shortage of such resources can lead to people scrambling for

limited resources resulting in conflicts as everyone would like to have a share.

Forced removals: People have often been forcibly relocated to other areas in
order to pave way for development. Relocation of people has not always been
welcomed as other people tend to fight for their ancestral lands or demand
huge compensations. Forced relocations may create conflicts between people
and the district or town council e.g. the removal of Basarwa from Central
Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR) caused a lot of conflicts which resulted in
involvement of international organisations such as Survival International.

Unfair distribution of resources: Government or other stakeholders may be
biased in allocation of resources such as water and land. Some communities
may benefit whereas others may not have access to such resources. This may
create conflicts between the disadvantaged communities and the government.

Denied access to natural resources: In some regions people may be denied
the right to use certain resources by government or other stakeholders in
environmental conservation. For instance, some communities are often
prevented from fishing or harvesting grass for a specific period as a way of
giving resources a chance to recover. However, some people may continue to
use such resources despite being prohibited by the law. This can cause
conflicts between the public and environmentalists.

Lack of consultation: Some developments may be done in certain areas
without any prior consultation with people living in such areas. Such
developments may be done against the wishes of people or end up being done
in areas that are owned by individuals or reserved for other purposes. This will
cause conflicts between the residents and whoever makes developments.

Delayed allocation of resources: Concerned authorities may take a very long
time to allocate resources to people. Some people may become impatient and
allocate themselves resources such as land. In urban areas this has resulted in
establishment of squatter settlements. Squatters are usually evicted by the
town or district council resulting in conflicts between the squatters and the
council.

Illegal or mismanagement of resources: Unlawful or mismanagement of
resources can lead to conflicts between people and the government or
conservationists. For instance, some people hunt endangered species of
animals which may consequently lead to their extinction. On the other hand
some industries discharge toxic wastes which may be washed into nearby
streams and threaten the lives of aquatic plants and animals. Industries may
also discharge harmful gases into the atmosphere e.g. BCL mine releases
sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere and this has negative effects on people,
plants and animals. This can cause conflicts between the mining company and
the residents of Selibe Phikwe.

Ownership: In some communities residents often claim to be the owners of
all natural resources within and around their communities. In some cases they
do not want to share resources with members of other communities. This often
leads to conflicts between people from different communities. For example,
neighbouring communities often fight for resources such as grazing lands and
rivers.

Resources not benefiting the community: Some natural resources like
minerals may be extracted from areas belonging to certain communities. All
the profits made by the mine may not be used to improve the lives of residents
 39

of the communities within which the minerals are found. Conflicts may arise
between members of such communities and the mining company as the
residents would demand more benefits as they feel that the resources are
theirs.

Land-use conflicts: There have been several conflicts arising from the use of
land especially between farming communities and wildlife. Wild animals like
lions, hyenas and leopards often kill domesticated animals and destroy
people’s property and lives. The government only provides little compensation
for these losses and at times there might be no compensation and hence
conflicts may arise between farmers and wildlife department.

Ways of resolving conflicts arising from the use of scarce resources by various
stakeholders.
a. Government

Legislation: The government should formulate laws that protect the natural
environment e.g. firewood collection as well as the law on harvesting of veld
products such as thatching grass and phane.

Strict government policies: Enforce anti-pollution laws and punish those
individuals or organisations that pollute the environment. The government
should also be strict on land-use i.e. any individual or organisation which does
not use land according to its function should be quickly removed and
penalised.

Education: Government should educate communities through workshops and
kgotla meetings about the importance of resources and the need to preserve
them.

Negotiation and consultation: Government should consult or work hand in
hand with other stakeholders in order to find a common solution to
environmental issues. There should be a consensus between government and
the concerned parties.

b. Community

Form more clubs or organisations that campaign against environmental
mismanagement.

Educate the public about conservation through conducting workshops and
seminars.

Advise the government on environmental issues and assist in formulation of
policies.

c. Private Sector

More investment in conservation

Sponsor educational workshops and activities concerned with environmental
conservation

Assist the government in formulation of policies.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

The scientific study of human populations is called demography. It deals with
the distribution of population over space and time.

Fertility rate is influenced by factors such as religion, education, country’s
economic level of development and cultural factors.
 40

Factors that contribute to population growth are a high birth rate, a declining
death rate and when immigration is more than emigration.

A high population has some negative impacts on the environment such as land
degradation, extinction of resources, unemployment and landuse conflicts.

Migration has negative and positive impacts on both the destination and the
source area.

Causes of conflict over the use of natural resources can be caused by factors
such as overpopulation, unfair distribution of resources, overlapping landuses,
forced removals and denied rights to use natural resources.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms:
a. life expectancy
b. demography
c. population census
d. birth rate
e. push factors (5)
2. Explain how the following factors can lead to increased fertility rate:
a. religion
b. lack of education
c. desire for a particular sex
d. gender inequality
e. use of child labour (10)
3. Discuss five negative impacts of a high population on the environment. (10)
4. Outline five ways in which a population policy is important. (5)
5. Explain five strategies used by government to reduce rapid population growth in
Botswana. (10)
6. Discuss any five causes of conflict over the use of natural resources. (10)

TOTAL: 50 Marks

CHAPTER FOUR
THE FAMILY
Introduction
A family refers to a group of people related to one another by blood, marriage,
adoption or assimilation. Blood relatives are people related to each other by birth or
share common parents or grandparents. Marriage refers to legal joining of a man and
woman as husband and wife. Marriage does not only link the husband and wife, but
also links both the relatives of the wife and the husband. Adoption is whereby a child
is raised and lawfully owned by parents who are not biologically related to the child.
 41

Sometime a person can stay for many years with a family that is not related to him or
her by blood, marriage or adoption. The person can end up becoming a permanent
member of that particular family through assimilation.
The family is the smallest social unit in the society. Members are bound together by
the relationships involved in living together. The family plays an important role in
society. We first learn about identity in the family and it is the family that determines
the type of individuals we are. Moreover, in the family we learn the appropriate
behaviour of our various identities. We learn, for example, what behaviour is
expected from a boy or a girl. Each family has its own understanding about its role in
the wider society and it has its own feelings about it.
Family patterns in Botswana have changed overtime. For instance, in the past related
families lived in the same ward and there was a close relationship between members
of the same ward and the community in which they lived. Traditional extended
families are slowly being replaced by nuclear families. There are other changes in the
family in relation to aspects such as division of labour, marriage practices and rights
and powers of other family members.

Importance of the family

Provides a good environment for having children and cultivating them into
productive and responsible citizens. Through childbearing the family ensures
that the human race continues to exist. Reproduction ensures replacement of
those people that have passed away.

Provides an institution where the sick, disabled and the very old are cared for.
Disadvantaged people such as the sick, handicapped and the very old are
normally cared for by their immediate relatives such as brothers, sisters and
mothers.

Belonging to a family gives people identity. People identify themselves by
using family surname. Identity allows adults to know the biological parents of
their children therefore avoiding incest and delineation of descent.

Teaches children their cultural attributes such as language, norms, values,
religion, food etc. This is important for the preservation of culture. Culture is
very
important as it gives people an identity and a feeling of togetherness.

Promotes cooperation and assistance amongst individuals who are related i.e.
family members can assist each other in times of marriages, funerals,
weddings, sickness etc.

It is a productive and consumption unit as it provides family members with
basic needs such as food, shelter, medicine and clothes. Provision of such
needs ensures survival of family members.

Types of families
There are two major types of families: nuclear and extended.
a. Nuclear family: This is a family made up of parents and their children only. The
children may be born in a family or may have been adopted from relatives, non-
relatives or institutions such as Save Our Souls (SOS). Sometimes a nuclear family
may be made up of one parent, either the mother or the father. Such type of family is
referred to as single parent family. Single parent families can be brought by factors
such as:
• Death of one marital partner
• Desertion by one partner
 42

• Divorce or separation
• A deliberate choice to stay single
Traditionally death of a spouse did not affect the structure of the family because when
the husband died, his close relatives, or brother or cousin married the widow and
inherited the responsibilities of the dead husband. Similarly if a wife died, her
husband married one of her sisters or cousin. This is called ‘seyantlo’ in Setswana.
Nowadays this practice does not happen. Some parents see single parenthood as an
ideal situation and choose it as an alternative to dual parenthood.

b. Extended family: The extended family may consist of mother, father,

grandparents, children, cousin, nephews etc. Extended families are more common in
rural areas and they are generally larger than nuclear families. The head of the
extended family is usually the eldest member and in most cases it is the grandfather.

The need for socialisation at family level

Socialisation is the process in which an individual learns to become a member of a
society; acquiring its culture, learning how to fit into their society and developing
their identity. The process of socialisation begins in the family. Older members teach
younger generations good behaviour, society values, beliefs and customs so that they
become productive and responsible elders. When children attend schools, initiation
ceremonies, churches etc, they also learn about the culture of their society. The
process of socialisation can take place through various ways: guidance, counselling,
rewards, participation, imitation and discipline. Socialisation is important especially
for children because:

It teaches children cultural aspects such as language, technology, music,
religion, norms and values of their society. Norms are accepted standards of
behaviour and values are principles that guide people to know what is right or
wrong.

It promotes acceptance and tolerance amongst people. Through socialisation
people can learn to live harmoniously with others including people from
different cultures.

It equips people with lifelong skills which they can use to earn a living.
Through socialisation children can be taught practical skills such as
woodcarving, knitting, hunting, blacksmithing etc. These skills may be used to
earn a living from childhood to old age.

Through rewards or punishment socialisation cultivates moral behaviour
among people. Moral behaviour will ensure that people respect law and
authority. Traditionally wrong-doers were punished at the Kgotla as a way of
discouraging bad behaviour and practices.

Promotes family ties and relationships. A well socialised child is able to know
and respect elderly people within and outside the family. The child will
respect all his or her relatives and this will strengthen blood bonds between
relatives.

Division of labour in a traditional family set-up

In traditional families labour was divided according to gender and age. In the past
young boys helped the father and young girls helped the mother. Male and female
duties were accompanied by responsibilities. The father was responsible for conflict
resolutions, marriage negotiations and representing his family in community affairs
such as kgotla meetings and mephato. The mother on the other hand ensured that food
 43

was available and well cooked. She also cared for the well-being of the family
especially young ones and the very old. The mother ensured that laws made by the
father were obeyed by other members of the household.

Traditional duties and responsibilities of different family members:

Father -head of family
-makes rules and regulations and instills discipline on other family members
-look after livestock such as goats, sheep, and cattle.
-gave bride wealth for his sons and received it when his daughters got married
-removing stumps and fencing the fields
-provides basic needs such as food, clothes and shelter to the family
-negotiated marriages and organised social gatherings like funerals
Mother –assisted the father in making rules and regulations
-household chores such as cooking, cleaning, collecting firewood etc.
-caring for young children
-growing, weeding and harvesting of crops
-gathering wild fruits and berries
-building and decorating mud walls
-preparing girls for bojale
-preparation of food in social events such as funerals, marriages and dikgafela
Boys-assisted the father in herding livestock
-hunting of smaller animals such hares and rabbits
-ploughing
-milking goats and cattle
-collection of firewood
Girls-helped the mother in household chores such as fetching water and cooking
-milling
-collecting firewood
-sweeping the yard
-looking after young babies
-scarring birds away from the fields
Grandfather- head of the extended family
-settled disagreements between family members and passed judgement
-distributed property and resources to other members
-played an important role in social ceremonies such as marriages, funerals
and initiations
Grandmother-assisted the grandfather in management of the extended family
-guides and counsels family members
-supervising activities of children
-preparing girls for initiation
-guardians of family values, oral traditions and stories
Uncles and aunts- assisted the brother in the running of the family
-in the absence of the brother the uncle headed the family
-helped in negotiation of marriages, funerals and inheritance
-helped to resolve family disputes

Division of labour in modern family set-up

Due to a change in living conditions and introduction of western culture, the
responsibilities and duties of family members have gradually changed. In modern
 44

days division of labour according to sex and age is not as clearly defined as it was in
the past.
Family life is no longer based on economic activities such as subsistence agriculture
and hunting. Modern economic activities such as mining, manufacturing and tourism
have changed the lifestyles of families, societies and nations. Elderly family members
such as mothers, aunts and fathers are involved in formal employment in major
villages and urban areas. Both the mother and the father contribute towards buying
basic needs and maintenance of the family. Domestic workers are often employed to
do household work such as washing, cooking and looking after young children.
Families who own livestock often hire herdboys to take care of their livestock at the
cattle post and lands.
Both men and women go to work. There are some women who take up many jobs that
were previously dominated by men such as engineering, auto mechanics, army and
police officers. In some families there is little separation between the roles of females
and those of males. Some men also help in household chores like cooking and looking
after children. Women can also become heads of families and make final decisions.
The government has also addressed the issue of gender inequality by improving the
rights and status of women. The growth in female headed single parent families
means that most of the activities that were supposed to be done by the father are now
done by the mother. The introduction of formal education has also changed the roles
of people as it equips both sexes with the same skills. Children no longer spend most
of the time in the family instead most of their time is spent in schools. Some students
attend boarding schools and as such they only spend time with family members
during school holidays. It is now common for both boys and girls to help in the
kitchen, girls may also show keen interest in looking after the livestock. However,
gender is still a factor in determining the roles of males and females. For instance,
more physically demanding jobs are usually assigned to males. Other factors
influencing division of labour are educational level, ability, desire and the physical
and mental health of a person.

The role of the family in addressing issues of gender imbalance, sex education,
teenage pregnancy and HIV/AIDS.
a. Gender Imbalance: This refers to inequality between males and females in terms
of their roles and powers. In most traditional societies men had more rights than
women and made final decisions in the family. The family can address gender
imbalance through:

Involvement of all family members in decision-making especially the elderly
members. Decisions should be taken after consultation with other family
members and there should be tolerance for other member’s opinions.

Education of family members on the importance of gender equality. Children
should be taught about equality from a tender age and they should be given the
same roles regardless of their sex.

Seeking assistance from professional counsellors when the family experiences
gender related issues.

Provision of equal opportunities of all family members. For instance,
inheritance property should be distributed equally amongst family members.
 45

Encouraging NGOs such as Emang Basadi to advocate for constitutional

amendment to address gender issues.

b. Sex education: It involves the teaching of sex related issues to prevent unwanted
pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). At family level this issue can
be addressed through:

Educating family members about sex issues through provision of literature
such as brochures, magazines and videos.

Intense guidance and counseling of family members. Children should be
encouraged to abstain from sexual activities until they are mature.

Encourage abstinence and the use of contraceptives such as condoms.

Utilising professional social workers to address family members on sex issues.

Making rules and regulations at family level to monitor and control activities
of family members. For instance, young children should be discouraged from
being away from the family for too long especially during the night.

c. Teenage Pregnancy: This refers to unplanned conception by young people

between the ages of 12-19 years. This usually happens outside marriage. The family
can address this issue through:

Educating the youth about negative consequences of teenage pregnancy such
as contraction of STDs and school dropout.

Promote abstinence among the youth through guidance and counseling.

Provide teenagers with contraceptives especially condoms as they prevent
both pregnancy and STDs.

Taking teenagers to social workers for intense guidance and counselling.

Formulation of strict rules and regulations in the family to control the sexual
behaviour of the youth.

d. HIV/AIDS: As discussed in Chapter Three HIV/AIDS has serious negative

implications on families, societies and the nation at large. The family can address
this issue through:

Elderly members should provide more education to the family about this
disease and should be able to differentiate rumours, myths and facts about
HIV/AIDS.

Encouraging members to test for HIV so that they know their status. This
would benefit those who are HIV positive as they would enroll in Anti-
Retro Viral (ARV) treatment and pregnant mothers will enroll in
Prevention of Mother to Child treatment (PMTCT) programmes.

Encouraging and even providing condoms to family members to prevent
the spread of the virus.

Providing care for the sick members by bathing, feeding and making sure
that they take prescribed medication accordingly.

Destigmatisation or acceptance of the sick so that they do not lose hope.
Destigmatisation will encourage HIV positive people to be open about
their status to other family members who will then provide the necessary
assistance.

Participation of family members in HIV/AIDS related issues in the
community or nation such as workshops and seminars conducted by
government, NGOs and other stakeholders.
 46

Encouraging members to stick to one partner or abstain from sexual

activities until marriage. Family should also encourage marriage so that as
to promote faithfulness.

Effective and appropriate ways of addressing gender imbalance

Constitutional amendment to address issues of gender inequality such as
limited job opportunities for women.

Promoting the rights of women and giving them more job opportunities.

Educating people about the importance of gender equality.

Removal of gender stereotypes at family, community and national level.

Provision of a curriculum that is not gender discriminatory.

Introduction of gender quota in the workplace.

Effective and appropriate ways of addressing teenage pregnancy

Education and awareness campaign to the youth about the negative impacts of
teenage pregnancy.

Provision of contraceptives to the youth.

Promote abstinence amongst the youth.

Promote guidance and counselling concerning teenage pregnancy.

Provision of entertainment and recreation to the youth so that they can refrain
from sexual activities.

Formation of more youth clubs and associations to address youth issues such
as pregnancy, unemployment and HIV/AIDS.

Effective and appropriate ways of addressing sex education

Educating people about sex related problems in both rural and urban areas.

Encouraging abstinence on unmarried people.

Including sex education in the school curriculum from primary to tertiary
schools.

Increasing people’s access to guidance and counselling centres.

Provision of free contraceptives to people.

Improvement of health facilities and encouraging people to go for regular
check-ups to test for STDs and HIV. Males should be encouraged to undergo
circumcision as it reduces transmission of STDs and the HIV virus.

Effective and appropriate ways of addressing HIV/AIDS

Educating people about HIV/AIDS through the media such as radio and
television.

Involvement of all stakeholders in the fight against HIV/AIDS e.g.
government, NGOs, churches, private sector etc.

Promotion of awareness campaigns by organising music and sporting
activities with the intention to spread the message about HIV/AIDS e.g.
Kabelano Charity Spectacular.

Introduction of compulsory testing for HIV/AIDS.

Provision of free condoms to all people.

Destigmatisation of people living with HIV/AIDS to prevent denial.

Significance of intermarriages in Botswana and internationally

 47

Intermarriage refers the practice of marrying across ethnic groups or nationalities e.g.
marriage between a Mongwato and Mosubiya or a marriage between Motswana and a
Zimbabwean. Intermarriages are important because of the following reasons:

Promotes cultural exchange between both the husband and the wife. The
husband may adopt some useful cultural elements from the wife and the wife
may also learn new cultural aspects from the husband.

Improves social relationships and mutual understanding between the husband
and wife’s ethnic groups due to the marital bond between their people.

Improvement in gene-pool (biological benefit); children of intermarried
couples may inherit genes that may improve their bodies’ defence against
diseases that may be common in one of the parents ethnic group.

Promotes cultural tolerance as intermarriages can make people to respect and
appreciate other people’s culture rather than hating and undermining them.

Promotes national unity by minimising tribal differences which often result in
tribal wars.

On the other hand intermarriages may result in the following problems:

Loss of culture: One of the married couples especially the wife has to
abandon some of her cultural practices and be assimilated into her husband’s
culture. Since most African societies are patrilineal, it is the wife who mostly
leaves her family to join that of the husband.

Tribalism: Some family members may look down upon one of the couple’s
ethnic group especially if she or he comes from a ‘minority group’. The in-
laws can show their dissatisfaction by abusing or ill-treating the partner who is
from a minority group. This may also contribute to divorce if the partner can
no longer tolerate any form of abuse.

Adoption of weaker genes: The choice of genes to inherit is beyond human
control and as such it is possible that offsprings of intermarried couples may
adopt genes of negative characteristics such as dwarfism, albinism and weak
genes that cannot fight against common diseases.

Changes taking place in families in Botswana and outside

Growth in nuclear families: The traditional extended family is slowly being
replaced by the nuclear family. In the past extended families were encouraged
so that members could perform various activities at the lands, village and
cattle post. This was mainly because the major source of income was
subsistence agriculture which included both arable and pastoral farming which
mainly drew labour from the family.

Introduction of formal employment: In modern times people are involved in
formal employment and are less dependent on agriculture. Able-bodied men
and women have migrated to towns in search of paid employment. Subsistence
agriculture is no longer the economic backbone of the family.

Changing roles of family members: The roles of different family members
have changed. Division of labour is no longer based on sex and age only but
on other factors such as educational level, health status and physical ability.

Increased Cohabitation: Instability of marriage institution has led to increase
in the number of couples who live and reproduce together outside marriage.

Improved rights of women and children: The formation of women
organisations such as Emang Basadi and Methaetsile has successfully lobbied
government to give women more power. Pressure organisations such as
 48

Childline have also extended the rights of children to an extent of establishing

legal frameworks to protect the rights of children.

Growth in single parent families: Divorce has led to an increase in single-
parent families especially female-headed households. Generally female-
headed families have lower incomes than those headed by males.

Reduced family sizes: Introduction of family planning education and the use
of contraceptives have reduced fertility rates. Involvement of women in paid
employment means that women spend less time with their families and hence
a reduction in their chances of reproducing.

Changes in marriage practices: Polygamous marriages are fading as
monogamous marriage has become the most dominant type of marriage. Since
the coming of the missionaries polygamy has been criticised as it is believed
to be against Christianity.

Impacts of changing family systems in Botswana and outside

• Increased divorce rate: Women’s economic dependence on men has been
reduced by the fact that women can now be employed and earn a living on
their own Women rights organisations have increased the rights of women and
as a result women can also initiate divorce if they are ill-treated.
• Growth in street children: Divorce often leads to lack of emotional and
material support for children. If children are not cared for they often abandon
their families to become street children.
• Reduced family ties and relationships: The introduction of formal
employment has reduced family ties, values and norms. Western culture has
made some families to be self-sufficient and independent from other relatives.
In nuclear families when parents die children are left as orphans as the
relatives in the extended family do not bother to look after them.
• Reduced family sizes: In modern days the number of wives and children is no
longer an indicator of wealth, prestige and social status. More marriages are
now monogamous and hence reduction in family sizes. Due to introduction of
family planning and use of contraceptives some couples decide not to have
children at all. When such people become very old there is nobody to look
after them. This leads to establishment of old-age homes.
• Growth in female-headed single-parent families: The increase in divorce
rate and independence of women has forced some females to choose against
marriage. Some women especially those who are economically self reliant
decide to have children outside marriage leading to an increase in female
headed single-parent families and cohabitation.

Factors that threaten the family as a social unit in Botswana and internationally
In addition to changes that it is undergoing the family is faced with a number
challenges that often lead to its downfall. These problems include;

Increasing rate of divorce: Divorce is the legal termination of marriage.
Divorce has become more common than in the olden days. There are
numerous factors that can lead to divorce; the most common are
unfaithfulness, conflicts of interest between spouses and misunderstandings
over family property. Divorce has emotional stress not only on divorcees but
also on their children. It is common that before legal separation the spouses
are often involved in brutal fights. These fights can have serious psychological
 49

problems on children. Divorce also means that children have to adapt to a new
life of living in a single parent family.

Domestic violence: This refers to physical and verbal confrontations between
family members. Commonly it is the husband who abuses the wife in several
ways; sexually, physically and emotionally. Spouse abuse may be caused by
quarrels over misuse of money, negligence of responsibility, alcohol or drug
abuse and lack of marriage counselling centres. Frequent abuse may force one
of the spouses to abandon the family to join biological relatives or establish a
single parent family. Children can also be used by elderly people to satisfy
their sexual desires. Frequently abused children may abandon their families to
become street children. Abused children may also experience some
psychological problems.

HIV/AIDS: This epidemic has led to loss of important family members like
parents and breadwinners resulting in the breakdown of families due to lack of
parental guidance and poverty. The stigma and discrimination attached to
HIV/AIDS often make victims to commit suicide or abandon their families.
HIV/AIDS can lead to a quarrel between couples especially if both of them are
HIV positive. One partner may blame the other for their positive status. If only
one partner is positive the uninfected partner may decide to end the marriage.

Wars: Serious civil wars are a common occurrence in Sub-Saharan Africa.
They have been experienced in many countries such as Mozambique, Rwanda
and Somalia. A war can result in death of important family members and
damage to valuable property. This can lead to an increase in the number of
orphans, destitutes and refugees who may need government support. Other
members may flee from war torn areas to seek refuge in peaceful areas which
may be far. Such members may never re-unite with other relatives.

Religious intolerance: Different religions may fight each other for
supremacy. Couples from different religions may not tolerate each others’
beliefs leading to quarrels and finally divorce. One marital partner may want
different activities done according to his or her religious practices and the
other may also have the same ambition. Such a situation can lead to fights and
if it happens repeatedly it can lead to separation of couples.

Alcoholism and drug abuse: Excessive drinking of alcohol and use of drugs
can have adverse effects on both the individual and other people within the
society. It affects the individual’s time management, health and also leads to
domestic problems and crime. Alcoholic and drug users may ignore family
needs and waste all the money in alcoholic beverages. Such people may
accumulate debts without the family’s knowledge. In the workplace addicts
may come late, fail to meet deadlines and have endless excuses and this
consequently reduces their productivity. At family level alcoholism leads to
fights, unnecessary quarrels and finally divorce. Children who grow up under
such an environment are affected socially and mentally. They are also
vulnerable to abuse by the alcoholic parents.

Gender inequality: In most families and societies males dominate education,
politics, economy, decision making and other social settings. In these societies
women are supposed to be dependent, weak, submissive and not in control of
their lives. Gender inequality can lead to divorce and growth of female headed
single parent families.

Passion killings: This refers to intentional killing of one partner by the other
in intimate relationships. Often the perpetrator ends up committing suicide.
 50

This practice robs the family of important members such as breadwinners

resulting in poverty and other forms of instability.

Teenage pregnancy: As mentioned earlier in the chapter this refers to
conception among young people usually below the age of 20. Teenage
pregnancy has negative impacts on both the teenage mother and the family.
On the teenage mother it can lead to school dropout and loss of self-esteem.
On the family teenage pregnancy may mean more pressure on the family
budget as there will be more mouths to feed. The teenage mother and the
father may not be working and as a result the burden of providing for the child
rests on the family.

Compare and contrast changes occurring in the family in Botswana and outside
Similarities

Polygamous marriages are no longer common.

The roles of family members have changed; division of labour is no longer
strictly based on age and sex only.

There is a growth in single parent and nuclear families as opposed to extended
family which was the most dominant family type in the past.

Family sizes have been reduced due to introduction of family planning and
contraceptives.

Boys and girls are sent to formal schools and attain the same education.

The rights of family members such as women and children have been
improved.

The bridegroom can choose his wife without the involvement of parents.

Bride price can be paid in the form of money.
Differences

Some countries have legalised practices such as gay and lesbian relationships
but in Botswana the practice is outlawed.

Abortion and prostitution are against constitutional law in Botswana but in
other countries they are legal.

In Botswana there is no legislation limiting family sizes but in countries like
Singapore and China there is a limit.

In some cultures the bride pays bride-price to the bridegroom whereas in
Botswana the bride is the one who pays bride-price.

In some societies the constitution still classifies women as second class
citizens and do not have the same opportunities as males but in Botswana
gender inequality has been addressed.

The role of the state in promoting family ties in Botswana

Provision of 10 year basic education: Government gives all people a chance
to attend school for at least 10 years. Through education family members are
able to improve their standard of living and make informed decisions.

Transfer policy: The government has devised a transfer policy which gives
married couples a chance to work in the same geographical area so that they
can closely manage their families together. It has been realised that frequent
absence of one of the spouses has an effect in family break-ups.

Family planning education and awareness campaign: The government has
included family education in schools so that the youth can be sensitised about
family problems at an early age. The government also promotes family
education in clinics, hospitals and other institutions like guidance and
 51

counselling centres. The government also conducts workshops, seminars and

conferences that address issues such as domestic violence, family planning
and HIV/AIDS.

Supplementary feeding and care for the underprivileged: The government
provides free food and often clothes and shelter to destitutes and orphans e.g.
underprivileged children and orphans are often given toiletry, clothing and
food rations on monthly basis. Government also provides old age pension to
people aged 65 and above and also pays home-based care volunteers.

Provision of contraceptives: The government encourages people to have
smaller families so that members can be easily and cost-effectively provided
with basic needs. To achieve this government provides free contraceptives like
condoms, pills and other save methods of preventing pregnancy.

Women empowerment: The rights of women have been improved through
amendment of the constitution to address gender inequality. For example,
citizenship act has been amended to make it possible for women to pass
citizenship to their children. Women have also been given more rights to make
major decisions at family level like decision on the number of children the
couple would like to have.

Protection of marriage institution: Government encourages people to marry
through the District Commissioner’s offices. Marriage counselling is also
provided for troubled family relationships through social workers. The state
allows legal action against people who indulge in sexual relations with other
people’s marital partners.

The role of stakeholders in promoting family life and relationships

a. Religious Organisations

Marriage counselling: It is common that when a couple celebrates marriage
they usually go to church for the blessing of their marriage by a pastor. During
the blessing couples are briefed about some of the challenges encountered in
marriage like extra-marital affairs, gender inequality and jealousy and how
such issues can be addressed.

Discussion of family issues: During church services members often teach
about daily family matters such as financial problems, fornication, poverty,
orphanage, domestic violence and family planning. Discussion of such
problems equips family members with knowledge on how such problems can
be addressed. Usually couples having marriage problems often seek religious
advice from elderly church members. Such advice may prove critical in
preventing downfall of families.

Socialisation of young children: Elderly church members often teach young
children about what is right and what is wrong through guidance and
counselling. They preach against issues such as alcoholism, juvenile
delinquency and premarital sex. This practice helps to mould children into
responsible people.

Donations to the community: Churches often donate food, clothing and
shelter to the needy or disadvantaged members of society so that they also live
a normal life. Some churches have built houses for poor members of society in
some villages and towns.

Education on family issues: Churches offer general education on various
family issues. For example, Botswana Christian AIDS Intervention
Programme (BOCAIP) aims to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS through
 52

community education and outreach programmes. It also tries to mitigate

impacts of HIV/AIDS on individuals and communities through counselling
and orphan care.

b. The community

Education and awareness campaign: It addresses family issues through
meetings and workshops. There are also committees such as Anti-Aids
Organisations which address HIV/AIDS related issues. The community can
also address family related issues such as domestic violence in kgotla
meetings.

Donations to the needy: Members of community organisations can contribute
money or other resources such as food, blankets, furniture or clothes to the
disadvantaged people such as the sick, old and handicapped. This reduces a
feeling of rejection amongst the disadvantaged members.

Guidance and counselling: Couples having marital problems can seek advice
from elderly members of society such as chiefs and headmen. Traditionally the
kgotla institution attended all civil and criminal cases. In some villages where
there are no police stations the kgotla still plays that critical role

Voluntary work: Elderly community members can volunteer to resolve
family issues such as domestic violence, gender inequality and HIV/AIDS.
They can move from one house to another attending to problems such as
domestic violence, gender issues, bereavement and diseases. Some villages
have formed burial societies to support members during bereavement. In cases
of domestic violence community members can mediate and reconcile fighting
family members especially married couples.

Traditional forms of cooperation: Forms of cooperation such as motshelo,
molaletsa and letsema bring relatives and friends together. This promotes
sharing of huge tasks that would otherwise take days for a single family to
complete.

c. Non-Governmental Organisations.

Protection of human rights: These include NGOs such as Emang Basadi,
Ditshwanelo, Amnesty International, Botswana Family Welfare Association
(BOFWA). These organisations try to promote family ties and unity through
globalisation of the human race and declaration of basic human rights as stated
in the UN’s declaration of human rights in 1948. These NGOs strive to ensure
that people’s rights and freedoms are not trampled on.

Donations to the poor: Some NGOs offer aid to poor people in the form of
money or materials to rebuild families that have been affected by wars and
natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. NGOs
like Red Cross and Masiela Trust help people with food, clothes, medicine and
shelter.

Education on human rights: Human rights organisations educate people
about the rights and freedoms that they are entitled to. They can sponsor
educational workshops on human rights and provide financial and assistance
to poor people.

Guidance and counselling: Provide counseling, care and support to family
members affected or infected by diseases such as HIV/AIDS.
 53

Provision of residence: Provide homes for the orphans, take care of

abandoned children and children who are abused by their parents e.g. Save
Our Souls (SOS).

Provide advocacy: Some NGOs provide legal assistance to abused and
disadvantaged people e.g. Childline and Survival International.

d. United Nations Organisation (UN)

Through its specialised agencies the UN promotes family life and relationships
through:

Promoting the welfare of children by giving them education and medication
e.g. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF).

Protection of rights of family members through declaration of human rights
e.g. the 1948 UN Charter on Human Rights.

Eradication of diseases and promotion of good health among family members
e.g. World Health Organisation (WHO).

Poverty alleviation at family and international level e.g. Food and Agricultural
Programme (FAO).

Promotion of peaceful relationships between people across the whole world
e.g. the UN’s Security Council.

Prevention of abuse of family members in the workplace e.g. International
Labour Organisation (ILO).

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

A family is a group of people related to one another by blood, marriage,
adoption or assimilation.

Socialisation is the process by which individuals learn the culture of their
society and the process starts in the family.

Division of labour in a family is no longer based on age and sex only, it is also
based on other factors such as educational level as well as physical and mental
health of the individual.

The traditional family has undergone many changes such as growth of nuclear
families and single parent families, reduced family sizes, introduction of
cohabitation and reduced family ties.

The family is faced with a number of challenges such as HIV/AIDS, domestic
violence, alcohol and drug abuse and gender inequality.

The major stakeholders in promoting family life and relationships are
government, religious organisations, United Nations and the community.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms:
a. cohabitation
b. gender
c. nuclear family
d. formal employment
e. divorce (5)
2. Discuss five functions of the family. (10)
3. Outline five roles of the family in addressing gender inequality. (5)
4. Explain five ways in which intermarriages are beneficial. (10)
5. Discuss the negative impacts of changing family systems on the community. (10)
 54

6. Evaluate the role of government in promoting family ties in Botswana. (10)

CHAPTER SEVEN
NATION-BUILDING
Introduction
Before the establishment of Bechuanaland Protectorate, Botswana did not exist as a
unified nation. Batswana lived alongside each other as independent ethnic groups.
Each of the ethnic groups had its own chief and there was no paramount chief
incharge of all Tswana ethnic groups. For hundreds of years Batswana cooperated
with each other economically, socially and politically. They traded with each other
through the bartery system, intermarried and assisted one another during wars. At the
beginning of the 19th Century inter-tribal wars called Mfecane erupted in Southern
Africa. These wars disturbed the lives of Batswana as they were subjected to frequent
attacks by migrating Bakololo and the Ndebele, who themselves were victims of other
invaders. The Kololo and Ndebele finally settled in modern day Zambia and
Zimbabwe respectively.
The next threat came from Boers living in the Transvaal. They demanded lands and
cheap labour from Batswana. The Boers signed an agreement with the British that
gave them freedom to ill-treat Africans as much as they wanted. Resistance of Boer
demands by Batswana led to the Battle of Dimawe in 1852 where Tswana groups
successfully resisted Boer attacks. Later Boers established two independent states in
the lands previously occupied by Batlhaping and Barolong. The establishment of the
two states, in addition to other factors, prompted the British to declare the lands of
Batswana a British Protectorate in 1885. During the colonial period other challenges
emerged; the proposed incorporation of Bechuanaland into the Union of South Africa
and the threat of takeover by the British South Africa Company. Through protests and
active participation in advisory councils Tswana chiefs ensured that their lands were
not given away and in 1966 Bechuanaland Protectorate was declared an independent
state called Botswana.

What is Mfecane?
Mfecane or Difaqane refers to inter-tribal wars in Southern Africa between 1810s and
1840s. Mfecane is a Nguni word meaning ‘crushing’ while in Sotho the wars were
called ‘Difaqane’ meaning ‘scattering’. The period was characterised by attacks,
insecurity, raids for food, people and livestock as well as forced migrations.
Historians have contrasting views about the causes of this tumult. Majority of
Historians attribute its eruption to events in the Natal region among the Nguni people
such as the Mthethwa, Ngwane and the Ndwandwe who wanted to build large
empires. Other factors such as population expansion, drought and competition for
trade are believed to have played a part in causing Mfecane.
No period in Botswana history has been more destructive than Mfecane; there was no
area in what is now Botswana that did not feel its effects. During Mfecane the
Ndebele of Mzilikazi and the Kololo of Sebetwane fled across the Vaal River into the
lands of Batswana. The Ndebele launched numerous attacks on Bangwato, Bakwena,
Bakgatla and Bangwaketse. The Bakololo attacked Tswana groups such as
Bahurutshe, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Barolong and Bakgatla.
 55

Positive effects of Mfecane wars on Batswana

Emergence of strong dikgosi: Powerful chiefs such as Sekgoma and Sechele
emerged as a result of resisting attacks. These chiefs successfully defended
their people and built stronger kingdoms. It was a period of nation-building in
Southern Africa.

Realisation of the value of guns: During Mfecane Batswana realised the
importance of guns and as a result they strived to acquire as many guns as they
could from traders. These guns later proved to be very important in resisting
Boer attempts to take over the lands of Batswana.

Introduction of Kgamelo system: Kgosi Kgari introduced kgamelo system of
loaning cattle to his people so that he could strengthen his leadership and
support. Some of the cattle loaned were those captured during attacks on other
groups.

Acquisition of new defensive or military tactics: Tswana communities have
learnt some military tactics, strategies and organisations from their
confrontation with Mfecane invaders e.g. settlement on hills for defensive
purposes and the use of short stabbing spears.

Improved cooperation and unity between Tswana groups: During Mfecane
Tswana groups helped each other whenever there was an attack by a foreign
group. They embraced the need to form alliances against external enemies.
This cooperation proved important in 1852 when Bakwena, Bangwaketse and
other Tswana groups joined forces to resist Boer attacks at the battle of
Dimawe.

Negative effects of Mfecane wars on Batswana

Destruction of settlements: Some homes were burnt down and valuable
property destroyed by invaders. This forced some Batswana to live a nomadic
lifestyle.

Loss of able-bodied people: Strong men and women were captured by
invading groups. Male captives were often forced to join the armies of
intruders and women captives turned into wives.

Depreciation of Tswana chiefs’ sovereignty and power: Some Tswana
chiefs lost their powers due to failure to successfully defend their people
against more powerful invaders. Some ethnic groups broke up including
members of the royal family, often attaching themselves to stronger groups.
Political organisation was disrupted as people were scattered in different
directions.

Loss of lives: Many Batswana including some chiefs like Makaba of
Bangwaketse and Kgari of Bangwato were killed during the wars and other
people died of thirst and starvation as they were running away for safety.

Loss of cultural and ethnic identity: Some Batswana were captured and
incorporated into foreign groups whilst others joined stronger Tswana groups.
This means that they lost their original culture and adopted new ones.

Loss of valuable property: Batswana lost valuable property such as cattle and
grains which were taken by invaders. Some cattle were lost due to payment of
tribute to stronger groups.
 56

Disruption of Tswana lifestyle: Batswana were forced to flee from their

homes, villages, lands and cattle posts. This disrupted their economic activities
which were mainly based on subsistence arable and pastoral farming.

Threats to the lands of Batswana

a. Threats of the Boer states of Goshen and Stellaland
Population expansion in the Cape led to migration of Boers in search of more land for
agriculture. They also migrated to escape British control in the Cape. During the
migrations the Boers came in contact with Tswana groups across the Vaal River. At
first the Boers cooperated with Batswana and later they claimed that they owned the
land and therefore Batswana should pay rent in the form of free labour. Tensions
developed between Batswana and the Boers who wanted to disarm Batswana so that
they could easily take away their lands. In 1852 the Boers and the British signed an
agreement called the Sand River Convention in which Britain would give
independence to Boers living in the Transvaal and stop the selling of guns to Africans.
After signing this treaty the Boers attacked the Bakwena at Dimawe and Kolobeng. In
1853 peace was restored but the Boers’ desire to take away the lands of Batswana
continued. In 1881 the Boers seized the land of Batlhaping and created an
independent republic called Stellaland. In 1884 the Boers conquered and occupied
the lands of the Tshidi-Barolong and established another independent state called
Goshen. The establishment of Goshen and Stellaland prompted the British to declare
Bechuanaland a protectorate because the two states threatened to block the ‘road to
the north’. Goshen and Stellaland were dissolved and taken over by Britain after
declaring Bechuanaland a British protectorate in 1885.
Roles played by dikgosi in the face of Boer threats
Batswana dikgosi played an important role in preventing the take-over of their lands
by the Boers. They used the experience gained from Mfecane wars to repel Boer
attacks. Dikgosi welcomed European missionaries and traders. Through this
interaction Batswana acquired guns which they used to fight against the Boers. Some
dikgosi like Sechele defied orders from the Boers. For example, Sechele refused to
surrender guns to the Boers. Tswana dikgosi also formed alliances whenever they had
a common enemy. This alliance system proved beneficial during the battle of
Dimawe. Dikgosi tried to ask for protection from the British but they were always
turned down until 1885.
Roles played by missionaries in the face of Boer threats
Missionaries worked hand in hand with Tswana chiefs in peaceful times and during
hard times. Batswana welcomed missionaries into their societies partly because they
wanted to attract more traders so that they could acquire guns. Usually British traders
preferred areas where there were missionaries because they thought the areas were
safe. Some missionaries like W.C. Willoughby persuaded the British government to
offer protection to Batswana. The missionaries wanted their mission activities on
Batswana to be protected from the Boers. They were also critical of the use of African
boys and girls as slaves by the Boers.

b. Threats of assimilation
After declaring Bechuanaland a British protectorate the British government aimed at
incorporating it into the Union of South Africa. Britain did not want to spend any
money in developing the protectorate as she thought the land was too poor. Britain
thought that the assimilation would be advantageous in the sense that more Batswana
would provide cheap labour in the South African mines.
 57

Roles played by dikgosi in the face of threats of assimilation

Tswana chiefs openly criticised the incorporation. They sent a petition to the High
Commissioner in Cape Town that they were against the incorporation. Dikgosi feared
that the incorporation would result in loss of their powers and lands. They also feared
that the Boers would ill-treat Batswana as they had done in the past. As a result of the
chiefs’ protests the British government decided not to assimilate the protectorate into
the Union of South Africa.
Roles played by missionaries in the face of threats of assimilation
The missionaries openly condemned the assimilation as they thought the Boers would
interfere with their mission activities. They supplied Botswana with guns to defend
themselves against any invaders. Missionaries also thought the assimilation would
facilitate further terrorism on Batswana by the Boers. The Boers disliked British
missionaries because they sold guns to Africans and as such missionaries thought that
they would not be welcomed by the Boers. Missionaries from London Missionary
Society thought that the Boers would favour those from the Dutch Reformed Church.
In addition British traders also feared competition for trade with the Boers.

Threats of take-over by the British South Africa Company (BSACo)

The BSACo was a commercial company formed by a British businessman called
Cecil John Rhodes. The BSACo was given most of the mining rights in Southern
Africa. It could also make laws, roads and railways. It had a police force to make sure
that people obeyed the laws. After attempts to incorporate Bechuanaland into the
Union of South Africa failed, Britain wanted to handover the protectorate to the
BSACo. The BSACo was already in control of Rhodesia. Rhodes tricked Lobengula
(chief of the Amandebele) into signing a treaty which gave away the lands of the
Ndebele to the BSACo. The Ndebele were driven into poor lands called reserves.
After taking full control of Rhodesia and after the discovery of gold in the Tati area
Rhodes wanted to take over Bechuanaland so that he could build a railway line
connecting Rhodesia to the Cape. He also wanted to use Bechuanaland to acquire
more land to settle Europeans and to gain access to the mines in South Africa. The
British government was in favour of the take-over and intended to give Bechuanaland
to the BSACo.
Roles played by Dikgosi in the face of threats of take-over
Upon hearing about Britain’s intention of handing over the protectorate to the
BSACo, in 1895 Khama 111, Bathoen and Sebele went to Britain to protest against
the take-over. During their protests they were supported by missionaries such as John
Mackenzie, humanitarian organisations and the British public. During their visit to
London the three chiefs requested that:

the protectorate should be directly governed by the Queen’s government

their status as chiefs should be maintained

their lands should not be sold or given away

drinking alcohol should be prohibited in the protectorate
Due to pressure from chiefs, missionaries, humanitarian groups and the British public,
Britain decided not to hand over the protectorate. British rulers feared that if they
handed over the protectorate against the willingness of Batswana then there might be
a strike in the protectorate. The rulers also feared losing the next general elections
because the opposition was using this intended handover to tarnish the image of the
ruling party. Finally the hand over was cancelled and the British government
promised to develop the protectorate.
 58

Roles played by missionaries in the face of threats of take-over

The missionaries assisted Tswana dikgosi in resisting the proposed take-over. They
advised dikgosi to present their case to the colonial government. Some missionaries
like John Mackenzie accompanied dikgosi on their way to Britain to protest against
the proposed takeover by the BSACo. Missionaries demanded assistance from human
rights organisations and the British public. Some acted as interpreters and secretaries
for Tswana chiefs as they presented their case to the colonial government.
Missionaries also taught Botswana how to read and write so that they could gain
knowledge on politics. They also used Christianity to convince the colonial
government not to handover the protectorate.

Process leading to the declaration of the protectorate

Batswana had long asked for British protection at a time when they were terrorised by
the Ndebele and the Boers. Britain refused to grant Batswana protection as they
thought it would be too expensive to maintain the protectorate. Missionaries
unsuccessfully tried to convince the British government to offer protection to
Batswana. Suddenly in 1885 when Batswana had lost hope about the protection the
British government declared Bechuanaland a British protectorate. Sir Charles Warren
was sent to inform Batswana about the declaration of the protectorate. At first he
informed the Germans in South West Africa (now Namibia) and then moved to
Stellaland and Goshen to inform the Boers. Warren then informed Khama 111,
Sechele and Gaseitsiwe respectively. Other Tswana chiefs were not directly informed.

Responses of Dikgosi to the declaration of the protectorate

The declaration came as a surprise to many dikgosi and as a result they had
contrasting reactions about it. Only Khama III wholeheartedly welcomed the
protectorate as he thought the land of Batswana would be protected against the Boers
and the Ndebele. Other Tswana chiefs like Sechele, Letsholathebe and Linchwe
accepted the protectorate unwillingly. The chiefs thought that the protection was no
longer necessary because the Boers and the Ndebele had stopped attacking Batswana.
They feared losing their independence, powers and lands as it happened to their
counterparts in South Africa and Rhodesia (modern day Zimbabwe). There were
questions and misunderstandings of what protection meant. Some dikgosi collectively
opposed the declaration of the protectorate at the Kopong Conference of 1889. The
chiefs only signed and succumbed to protectorate rule due to fear that the British
might use its military power to enforce the protection on Batswana.

Reasons for the declaration of the protectorate

Protection of the ‘road to the north’: By taking over Bechuanaland Britain
wanted to protect the ‘road to the north’. This road was used by British traders,
missionaries and hunters as they interacted with Africans on the South of
Africa. The road was also important as it was used to recruit labour from as far
as Nyasaland (modern day Malawi). It was very important for British trade
and her ambition to expand northwards into Central Africa.

Competition with other European colonial powers: Bechuanaland was also
declared a British protectorate in order to prevent Germany and Portugal from
occupying the lands of Batswana as this would block Britain’s expansion to
the north. Already the Germans had declared South West Africa (Namibia)
their colony and on the south east the Portuguese had colonised Mozambique.
Britain feared that any of these two powers might expand her territory into
 59

Bechuanaland and hence her ambition to expand northwards would be

compromised.

Establishment of Goshen and Stellaland: Creation of the two independent
Boer states also threatened to close the ‘road to the north’ which was mainly
used by British traders, hunters and missionaries.

Discovery of diamonds and gold in South Africa: Discovery of minerals in
South Africa made the whole Southern African region to be economically
important and therefore Britain hoped that Bechuanaland would be of
economic importance in future especially after the discovery of gold in the
Tati area in 1867.

Desire for cheap labour: Britain thought that Bechuanaland would be a
source of cheap labour to the newly established mines in South Africa.

Pressure from British missionaries: Missionaries from Britain wanted
Bechuanaland to become a British colony so that their mission activities could
be protected against competition from other missionaries such as those from
Dutch Reformed church and the German Lutheran church.

Prestige: Having many colonies was seen as a symbol of power and wealth
and therefore Britain wanted to have as many colonies as possible so that she
could be respected by other countries.

Contribution of Dikgosi to the preservation of the lands of Batswana

During Mfecane dikgosi strived to acquire guns from British traders and
missionaries. These guns later proved very important in the defence of the
lands of Batswana especially against the Boers.

During Mfecane Tswana chiefs formed military alliances and managed to
resist attacks by invaders such as Ndebele and the Kololo For example in 1852
during the Battle of Dimawe Kgosi Sechele, Gaseitsiwe and Mosielele joined
forces to successfully resist Boer attempts to take over the lands of Batswana..
The Battle of Dimawe reduced the frequency of Boer attacks on Batswana and
preserved Batswana’s sovereignty.

During the colonial period Dikgosi successfully resisted efforts by the British
to incorporate Bechuanaland into the Union of South Africa. They openly
criticized the British and wrote petitions against incorporation to the High
Commissioner in Cape Town.

In 1895, upon hearing about British’s plan to handover Bechuanaland to the
BSACo, Kgosi Khama III, Bathoen and Sebele went to England to protest
against the handover.

Dikgosi managed to enlist the support humanitarian organisations and British
public and politicians who managed to convince the British colonial
government not to handover the protectorate.

In 1936 Tshekedi Khama and Bathoen tried to sue the colonial government
for introducing new proclamations that reduced the powers of dikgosi. They
were not successful but their complaints led to some positive changes in the
new laws.

During the threats of assimilation and takeover Dikgosi managed to enlist the
support of British missionaries who acted as advocates against whatever
negative developments were planned against Botswana.

Some dikgosi like Khama III refused to sign any treaties or agreements with
the Boers or the BSACo.
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Challenges to the 1934 proclamations in relation to powers of dikgosi and the

kgotla as a social, political and judicial institutions
After declaring Bechuanaland a protectorate it was necessary to maintain law and
order. A police force and law courts were formed to enforce those laws. The British
imposed a system of government called ‘indirect rule’ in which Botswana were
going to be ruled through their dikgosi.
The hierarchy of leadership in Southern Africa was as follows:

High Commissioner (Cape Town)

↨
Resident Commissioner (Vryburg,Mafikeng then Gaborone)
↨
2 assistant Resident Commissioner (Francistown and Gaborone)
↨
8 Resident Magistrates (Tribal Reserves)
↨
8 Chiefs from recognised groups
↨
Chiefs from unrecognised groups
↨
Ordinary people

As time went on the British shifted from indirect to direct rule. The High
Commissioner could make laws that were supposed to be obeyed by all chiefs. Chiefs
often ignored those laws as they interfered with their powers, customs and traditions.
This angered the then Resident Commissioner Charles Rey who decided to punish
dikgosi by introducing two new proclamations in 1934. The two proclamations were
meant to reduce the powers of dikgosi. The two proclamations were:
a. Native Administration Proclamation: Before this proclamation dikgosi’s position
was hereditary and could only be removed by his people. The chief was assisted by
royal relatives and headmen and also ruled with the consent of the people. This
proclamation reduced the powers of dikgosi and the kgotla in the following ways:

A person to be installed chief could be approved or disapproved by the
Resident Commissioner.

A tribal council was formed to replace the kgotla.

The chief ruled with the consent of the tribal council.

Dikgosi had to consult the Resident Commissioner before making decisions
affecting people.

Dikgosi were no longer allowed to collect tax or raise funds without
permission from the resident commissioner.

A kgosi could be removed, suspended or banished by the colonial government.

Dikgosi were ordered to keep written records of their administrative activities.

b. Native Tribunal Proclamation: This proclamation reduced the judicial powers of

dikgosi and the kgotla. Before this proclamation kgosi was the chief judge and tried
all cases. Ordinary people were allowed to comment in kgotla proceedings. After the
introduction of this proclamation:

New law courts called tribunals were formed to replace the kgotla.
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Kgosi was no longer chief judge; his judgment could be rejected by members
of the tribunals. Kgosi remained chief judge of his people in customary
matters.

Dikgosi no longer tried serious cases like murder, rape and treason. Such cases
were tried in tribunals by magistrates and judges only.

Ordinary people were not allowed to comment in legal proceedings, only
members of the tribunal could comment.

Dikgosi were expected to make a written record about kgotla proceedings and
jugdements.
The new proclamations made dikgosi to be more like civil servants than chiefs.
Dikgosi opposed the proclamations because they reduced their powers and interfered
with Tswana customs and traditions. Some dikgosi like Tshekedi Khama
unsuccessfully tried to sue the colonial government for introducing the new laws

The Role of African, European and Joint Advisory Councils in preparing

Batswana for Independence
Dikgosi and other educated Batswana complained about the way they were governed
by the British. Educated Batswana felt that Dikgosi misrepresented them and
therefore wanted to be included the making of laws. They were of the opinion that
they should be included in the administration of the protectorate because they were
paying tax. The High Commissioner wanted to stop discontent among Batswana and
this led to the formation of advisory councils to advise the Resident Commissioner.
The Resident Commissioner could ignore those advices. These councils gave
educated Batswana a chance to have an input in the administration of the protectorate
but they were not allowed to make laws. The three councils were:
a. African Advisory Council (AAC)
The AAC was formed in 1919 to include educated Batswana in the running of the
protectorate. This council was made up of dikgosi and other African representatives
nominated by merafe. It was chaired by the Resident Commissioner. The AAC
prepared Batswana for independence in the following ways:

Unified Botswana’s diverse ethnic groups and built a spirit of nationalism.

Batswana used the AAC as a platform to convey their grievances to the
Resident Commissioner.

It gave Batswana political and administration experience.

It enlightened Batswana about the possibility of self-rule.

Batswana used the AAC to demand more say in the administration of the
protectorate.

Encouraged Batswana to unite in order to achieve a common goal.

b. European Advisory Councils (EAC)

The EAC was formed in 1920 to deal with matters affecting White settlers. It was also
chaired by the Resident Commissioner and other members were White people elected
through constituencies. The main ambition of EAC was to incorporate Bechuanaland
into the Union of South Africa. This council did not benefit Batswana that much as it
was exclusively for White people.

c. Joint Advisory Council (JAC)

As time went on Batswana complained that having separate councils for Blacks and
Whites was a sign of racial discrimination. They felt that the separation of councils
would divide the country and pave way for racial discrimination like in South Africa.
 62

Batswana complained that the Resident Commissioner tended to favour the views of
the European Advisory Council rather than those of the African Advisory Council.
This resulted in the formation of the Joint Advisory Council in 1950. JAC was chaired
by the Resident Commissioner and had equal representatives from AAC and EAC.
The JAC prepared Batswana for independence in the following ways:

Batswana used the JAC to demand the rights to be included in the making of
laws governing the protectorate.

It facilitated exchange of ideas between the White people and Batswana.

It gave Batswana more political and administration experience.

JAC was used to criticise the colonial government for lack of development and
poor working conditions.

It enhanced mutual trust between the Whites and Batswana.

d. The Legislative Council (LEGCO)

Batswana were no longer satisfied with the activities of AAC, EAC and JAC which
they felt were powerless. Many educated Batswana like Tshekedi Khama and Bathoen
wanted to be given the power to make laws. In 1961 the three councils (AAC, EAC
and JAC) were dissolved and replaced by the Legislative Council. Prominent
members of LEGCO included Seretse Khama, Tshekedi Khama and Ketumile Masire.
It had an equal number of Batswana and European representatives, and one Asian
representative. LEGCO criticised the colonial government for its failure to develop
the protectorate. LEGCO prepared Batswana for independence in the following ways:

Gave Batswana a chance to make laws and change government policies.

Gave Batswana political and leadership experience in the running of the
protectorate.

Batswana successfully used LEGCO to end colonial rule.

LEGCO drafted laws and policies that introduced independence to Botswana.

LEGCO formed the basis for formation of political parties which led the
country to independence.

Promoted nationalist sentiments which resulted in the formation early
nationalists movements that had a common goal.

How colonialism contributed to early nationalist movements

When Bechuanaland was declared a British Protectorate in 1885 some chiefs were not
pleased as they feared losing their lands, power and independence. The British
promised to rule Batswana indirectly through dikgosi and not to interfere with Tswana
customs and traditions. As time went on the British shifted from indirect to direct rule.
The British made some laws without consultation and imposed them on Batswana.
More and more Batswana became educated and realised that the colonial government
was a disturbance to the progress of the nation. Batswana criticised the colonial
government and demanded self determination for the following reasons:

Neglect of the protectorate: Batswana paid hut tax but the British
government did not use the money collected to develop the protectorate and its
people e.g. educational and health facilities were in poor conditions.

Low salaries for African civil servants and poor working conditions:
Africans who worked for the colonial government were given low salaries
compared to Europeans. Some Batswana were as educated as white people but
were denied high profile jobs.
 63

Unequal status of chiefs: The colonial government recognised some chiefs

and always ruled in their favour whenever there was a conflict between a
“major and minor chief”.

Policy of ‘divide and rule’: Some tribes were put under the authority of
others. This led to oppression of smaller ethnic groups by major ones. This led
to conflicts between ethnic groups e.g. conflicts between Bangwato, Bakalaka
and Babirwa.

Favouritism of White people: The colonial government favoured the views
of Whites than those of Africans.

Participation in advisory councils: Batswana’s participation in advisory
councils and LEGCO enlightened Batswana about ways of running the
protectorate.

Colonial education: The growth of colonial schools gave Batswana a chance
to attain formal education and led to the emergence of intelligent Batswana
such as Simon Ratshosa who contributed to the formation of LEGCO.

Participation in World War II: Involvement of Botswana in the world war
widened Batswana’s political knowledge. They used this experience to make
some changes in the protectorate e.g. Phillip Matante who is one of the
founders of BPP.

Migrant labour: Some Batswana who worked in South Africa were members
of African National Congress and Pan African Congress. When they returned
home they used the experience to form political parties or nationalist
movements e.g. Motsamai Mpho who is also one of the founders of BPP.

Batswana expressed their concerns to the colonial government with the hope that
there would be some improvements. The improvements never occurred and this
prompted Batswana to demand the right to self-determination. The experience of
foreign rule gave rise to nationalism. Batswana no longer wanted changes and instead
demanded the right to run their own country and get rid of foreign rule. In order to
attain self-rule Batswana formed some nationalist movements e.g. Bechuanaland
African Civil Service Association and Bechuanaland Protectorate Teacher
Association. Batswana were also influenced by other movements outside
Bechuanaland such as FRELIMO (Mozambique), UNITA (Angola) and ANC (SA).
People who participated in early nationalist movements later formed political parties
such as:

Bechuanaland Protectorate Federal Party (1959) - founded by L.D.
Raditladi

Bechuanaland Peoples Party (1960) - founded by KT Motsete, P. Matante
and M.Mpho

Bechuanaland Democratic Party (1962) - founded by Seretse Khama

Botswana National Front (1965)-founded by K. Koma.
Finally the combined efforts of educated Batswana, Dikgosi and politicians were
enough to convince Britain that Batswana were ready to gain independence.
Bechuanaland was finally declared independent in 1966 and Sir Seretse Khama
became the first president of Botswana.

How nationalism contributes to nation-building

Colonialism brought together Africans from different ethnic groups to form
organisations or movements for more organised resistance and struggle for
independence from colonialism. Colonialism led to the birth of Organisation of
 64

African Unity (now African Union) as a brand of African nationalism to free the
continent from colonial occupation and strive for its total independence. When people
come together to preserve what they consider important, this can aid in unifying tribal
groups and build a single nation. Batswana came together to preserve their lands,
culture and dignity during the colonial period. Nationalism contributes to nation-
building in the following ways:

Helps people to change their behaviour and interest so that they mobilise
their country’s resources for the benefit of the whole nation.

Makes people to have common goals which can be collectively achieved.

Encourages people to stand up and carryout their own development
projects without relying on outside support.

Playing a part in the country’s activities cultivates pride and belongingness
amongst people.

It creates a self-driven and self-sustaining initiative in people to develop
themselves without waiting for external support or aid.

Promotes love and pride in the citizens for their nation e.g. nationalism is a
driving force for citizens of a nation in sacrificing or defending the country
from internal and external threats.

Sensitise people about their rights, freedoms, justice and thereby driving
them to struggle for justice, democracy and liberation.

The importance of nation-building

Belonging and living together harmoniously as a nation is important as it:

Encourages unity among people; unity is important as it promotes cooperation
and sharing of intelligent ideas.

Promotes cultural and ethnic tolerance amongst ethnic groups.

Encourages people to trust each other and eliminate differences brought about
by colonialism.

Ensures stability (peace) and social harmony (kagisano).

Speeds up development as members put more effort to achieve maximum
benefits.

Encourages good governance and reduces political crises resulting from
tribalism, nepotism and favoritism.

Importance of Multi-ethnicity in nation-building in Botswana and

internationally
Botswana is a multi-ethnic state. This means that it is made up of many ethnic groups
who form one nation collectively known as Botswana. Multi-ethnicity is important for
the following reasons:

It promotes cultural exchange between different ethnic groups.

Exchange of culture promotes mutual understanding and peace amongst the
diverse ethnic groups.

Interaction of people from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds will
promote cultural tolerance and reduce tribal differences brought about by
colonialism.

Promotes common identity and belonging which are important aspects of
nation-building.

Provides the nation with people with diverse skills and intelligence.
Abundance of skilled people promotes economic development.
.
 65

Challenges faced by Botswana in nation-building

Nepotism and favouritism: Due to multi-ethnicity some people with power
often favour their relatives or people from their ethnic groups in aspects like
job allocation and awarding of tenders. This hampers nation-building as
incompetent people are given jobs they do not deserve.

Legacy of colonialism: The policy of ‘divide and rule’ has made some people
to feel that they are more superior to others resulting in oppression or
discrimination of people from other ethnic groups. Lack of cooperation
between some ethnic groups still exists due to historical mistrusts and past
squabbles.

Gender inequality: The involvement of women in national activities at top
level is still inadequate as women have limited opportunities when it comes to
senior or managerial positions. For instance, representation of women in
parliament is very low and as such it makes it difficult for women to achieve
their goals.

Unequal distribution of resources: Some areas are poorly developed partly
because they do not have enough natural resources that can promote economic
activities. People from such areas often feel that their areas are being
neglected in terms of development and distance themselves from national
projects aimed at developing the whole nation.

Cultural differences: Botswana has numerous ethnic groups with diverse
cultural practices. Each ethnic group wants to promote its culture e.g. some
Setswana non-speaking groups like Bakalanga and Wayei want their
languages to be introduced in schools.

HIV/AIDS: As discussed in previous chapters this epidemic drains the
country of important financial and human resources. More resources are
channelled towards prevention of the scourge instead of developing other
aspects of human life.

Poverty: Many people in rural areas are still exposed to high levels of
poverty. As rural areas offer limited employment opportunities rural dwellers
have limited sources of income and hence poor standard of living.

Influx of illegal immigrants: Political and economic instability in
neighbouring countries such as Zimbabwe have forced many immigrants to
flock into Botswana for greener pastures. These illegal immigrants put
pressure on the country’s financial resources as they have to be repatriated to
their country at the expense of Botswana government. Illegal immigrants also
increase the rate of crime in the country.

Corruption: This practice leads to delayed economic growth, collapse of
businesses and waste of government resources. Corruption also destroys the
good image of the country.

Contribution of Botswana’s five national principles to nation-building

a. Democracy

It gives people freedom of expression or association. People can criticise the
government without fear or intimidation. This encourages transparency and
accountability on the government.

Allows people to have an input in decision-making of the country.

Helps leaders to recognise and respect human rights i.e. prevents abuse of
power by leaders.
 66

It ensures consultation and free flow of information between leaders and

electorates.

Promotes peaceful co-existence between people, leaders and various
institutions as their activities or actions will be transparent.

b. Self-reliance

Encourages Batswana to be independent and not to rely on government or
foreign aid.

Discourages the ‘give me spirit’ e.g. CEDA and NDB offer loans to Batswana
so that they can start their own businesses.

Encourages Batswana to mobilise their resources and participate in the
country’s development projects.

Promotes citizen empowerment in managing the affairs of the nation.

Promotes wise use of the country’s resources for the benefit of all Botswana.

c. Unity

Encourages cooperation and a tolerance for the good of the nation.

Facilitates joint efforts and exchange of ideas.

Eliminates ethnic and cultural differences between ethnic groups.

Encourages stability and social harmony amongst Botswana’s diverse ethnic
groups.

d. Botho

Encourages respect, courtesy, discipline and self-critical awareness.

Encourages social harmony and assistance to the less fortunate members of
society such as destitutes and orphans.

Prevents people from violating constitutional laws.

Helps cultivate moral behaviour and moulds children into responsible adults.

Promotes the image of Botswana as a democratic, compassionate and a caring
nation.

Promotes mutual understanding between people from different ethnic and
cultural backgrounds.

e. Development

Mobilises the country’s resources for the upliftment people’s standard of
living.

Motivates all citizens to participate in the country’s economic activities.

Ensures that resources of the country are equitably distributed and enjoyed by
all members of the nation.

Promotes development and investment policies and strategies best suited for
the economic context of the nation.

Promotes unity between people as they tend to work together for a common
goal.

The Role of Stakeholders in Nation-Building

a. Government

It has the mandate and legitimate power to rule the nation.

Mobilising the country’s resources for the benefit of the whole nation.

Formulation and enforcement of laws used to govern the country.

Giving direction to other stakeholders on issues of nation-building.
 67

Protection of basic human rights and freedoms.

Provision of basic infrastructure throughout the country including the remotest
areas e.g. hospitals and clinics.

Provide basic education to citizens of the country

Creation of employment opportunities across the country.

b. Non-Governmental Organisations

Promoting cultural values which strengthen relationships between various
ethnic groups locally and abroad e.g. Red Cross.

Promoting transparency, accountability and good governance by monitoring
the activities of those in power e.g. Ditshwanelo, Amnesty International.

Helping the less fortunate members of society such as destitutes, disabled and
orphans e.g. Red Cross.

Assisting government in policy formulation e.g. Ditshwanelo.

Funding some development projects such as construction of basic
infrastructure like roads and hospitals.

Representing the interests of minority or disadvantaged groups e.g. Survival
International.

Putting pressure on government to ensure that human rights and freedoms are
not violated e.g. Amnesty International and Transparency International.

Educate people about sustainable use of the environment e.g. KCS,
Somarelang Tikologo.

Improve people’s standard if living by equipping them with life skills e.g.
YWCA.

c. Individuals

Respecting the rights of other citizens.

Forming organisations that will promote interaction between various ethnic
groups e.g. Kamanakao and Mbungu wa kathimana

Upholding the constitution and policies of the nation.

Influencing or educating members of their own tribes about the importance of
nation building.

Taking part in activities aimed at developing the nation.

Protecting the country from external and internal enemies.

Using resources in a sustainable manner.

d. Youth

Participate in national and community activities such as crime prevention
village development committees.

Taking part in decision making e.g. voting.

Interact positively with youth from other ethnic groups.

Educate their peers through forums such as youth clubs or associations.

Sensitise government about their needs through the right channels e.g. through
Youth Parliament.

e. Bogosi

Encourage national unity between different tribes.

Teach people about the importance of nation-building through kgotla
meetings.

Advise government on issues affecting Tswana traditions and customs.
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Settle disputes in customary courts without any bias towards a particular

ethnic group.

Enforce law and order in the community by punishing offenders.

f. Ethnic groups

Promotion of intermarriage across ethnic groups so as to build bonds of
friendship between different tribes.

Formation of cultural organisations to represent the interests of various ethnic
groups.

Formation of a forum where different ethnic groups can come together to
discuss issues of concern.

Educating people from all ethnic groups about the importance cultural
tolerance in nation-building.

Significance of National symbols in Nation-building

National symbols are used to identify the nation or citizens of a particular nation.
Botswana’s national symbols are:
• Coat of arms
• National anthem
• Motto Pula
• National Flag
• Currency
• Language
• Identity card (O mang)
• Passport
These symbols are important because they:

Make people develop pride and love for their country.

Create a sense of unity among people because using similar symbols
make people feel that they belong together.

Make people to have respect for their country.

Advertise or sell the country to the international community.

Some give out important messages e.g. the national anthem calls for
Batswana to stand up and work for their country and to live
harmoniously with each other.

They portray the country’s image to the international community.

Examples of negative uses of nationalism in Africa

a. South Africa

During the apartheid era South Africa was ruled by a White minority
government.

The White minority government promoted discrimination based on colour,
race and creed.

Black South Africans were not allowed to take part in elections.

There was no equality before the law. All laws favoured the whites.

The Whites and Blacks did not share facilities such as schools and hospitals.

Marriage between Blacks and Whites was against the law.

Developments were always made in favour of White South Africans.

Black schools had provided courses different from white ones.

Black people living in ‘white areas” were forced to carry a pass or reference
book containing personal details including racial group.
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b. Rwanda

In Rwanda nationalism fuelled genocide between the Hutu and the Tutsi
tribes. In 1994 more than 800 000 Tutsis were massacred by the Hutu in 100
days.

The Tutsi ethnic group was a numerical minority in Rwanda. The Hutu ethnic
majority identified the Tutsi as a foreign rather than an indigenous race.

Assassination of Rwandan Hutu president in April 1994 ignited hatred of the
Tutsi by the Hutu.

Tutsi minority were in power until ousted in a military coup in 1973.

During the reign of the Tutsi the Hutu majority were denied educational and
employment opportunities. The Tutsis monopolised wealth and power.

The Hutu aimed at seeking revenge by exterminating the Tutsi irrespective of
sex and age.

The genocide was openly discussed by the Hutus in cabinet meetings. The
Hutus were of the opinion that ‘without the Tutsis Rwandan problems would
be over’.

State media such as radio were used to incite the Hutus to kill the Tutsis.

Ordinary Hutus who refused to kill the Tutsis were murdered.

An example of negative use of nationalism outside Africa

United States of America

During the 1920s white Americans and Protestants formed a secret
movement called Ku Klax Klan. The aim of the movement was to defend
white and Protestant superiority against black people and other ethnic
minorities.

Members of the movement were mainly white Americans and paraded in long
white gowns and hid their faces with hoods.

Members of the ‘Klan’ persecuted blacks, Jews, Catholics and newly arrived
immigrants.

They beat up anyone they did not like, burnt their homes and even murdered
them. They felt threatened by anyone with a different language, colour or
religion.

They were of the view that immigrants have turned America into a ‘garbage
can’ and therefore wanted to ‘clean up’ American society by attacking any
strange person.

They accused immigrants of taking jobs from Americans, lowering standards
of health and education and threatening the lifestyle of Americans by bringing
‘un-American’ ideas like communism.

Such violence resulted in introduction of immigration quota laws.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

Mfecane wars affected the social, political and economic lifestyle of
Botswana.

Multi-ethnicity is an important component of nation-building as it promotes
exchange of cultural knowledge and skills.

Batswana dikgosi played a significant role in saving the lands of Batswana
from being taken over by rival groups such as the Ndebele, Kololo, Boers and
the BSACo.
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The 1934 proclamations reduced the powers of dikgosi and the kgotla as
judicial and administrative institutions.

Batswana’s participation in advisory councils widened their political and
administrative knowledge which they successfully used to demand
independence.

Nation-building is important as it promotes unity and mutual trust amongst
people.

Challenges encountered by Botswana in nation-building include problems like
HIV/AIDS, poverty, illegal immigrants, corruption and nepotism.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms:
a. nation-building
b. self determination
c. nationalism
d. tolerance
e. patriotism (5)
2 a. Explain two ways in which multi-ethnicity is important. (4)
b.Discuss three ways in which multi-ethnicity can disturb the process of nation-
building. (6)
3. Explain five reasons why the British finally declared Bechuanaland a British
Protectorate in 1885. (10)
4. Outline five ways in which the African Advisory Council (AAC) prepared
Batswana for independence. (5)
5. Evaluate the contribution of Non Governmental Organisations in nation-building.
(10).
6. Explain how colonialism led to the formation of early nationalist movements. (10)

TOTAL 50 marks
CHAPTER EIGHT
GOVERNANCE
Introduction
Governance is the effective management of government by those in political authority
i.e. proper running of the country by those who have been given the mandate to rule
such as the President, Ministers, Members of Parliament and Councillors.
Government is the system through which society is ruled or the institutions that are
used to rule people in a country. Every independent country has its own government
and the type of government in power may differ from one country to the other. The
constitution of Botswana provides for a republican form of government consisting of
the executive, legislature and judiciary.
Some governments are referred to as democratic whereas others are non-democratic.
Democracy is a system of government in which people have the right to elect
government representatives or leaders. Botswana’s type of government is
constitutional democracy. This means that people elected into power rule according
to laws stated in the constitution. Elections are conducted every five years to elect
government representatives at local and national level. Botswana uses an electoral
system called ‘First Past the Post’ in which the candidate with the highest number of
votes assumes political power. The party with the highest number of seats in
parliament becomes the ruling party.
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In non-democratic governments leaders may not have been elected democratically by

ordinary people. In these types of governments the rights of people are limited and
leaders have arbitrary powers. Such types of government are often referred to as
dictatorships, authoritarian or autocratic.

Characteristics of democratic forms of government:

Citizens of a country elect representatives who will form part of government.

More than one political parties contest for free and fair elections.

Elections are held at regular intervals so that people can have a chance to
change the government or vote out individual leaders who are inefficient.

Government rules with the consent of the people i.e. leaders represent the
interests of the people.

The constitution and decisions of leaders can be challenged by civil society.

Certain basic rights and freedoms are guaranteed by law e.g. voting, life,
privacy, ownership of property etc.

The use of force is limited; discussion and persuasion are mostly used to
resolve conflicts.

There is transparency i.e. free flow of information from the leaders to the
electorates.

Consultation; leaders inform the electorates before major actions or decisions
are made.

Characteristics of non-democratic forms of government

Leaders do not rule with the mandate of the electorates.

Consultation and negotiation are uncommon, coercion (use of force) or threats
are used to oppress people.

People are denied the right to elect leaders and they do not have many basic
rights.

Ordinary people cannot question decisions of leaders. Challenging such
decisions can result in imprisonment without trial.

The powers of government are concentrated on one person or one group of
people e.g. the head of state can propose, implement and enforce laws; he is
also the final judge and commander of armed forces.

There are no regular free elections, sometimes there is only one candidate to
vote for and the voters have no real choice.

Leaders act as they wish and are not accountable to the people in any way.

Dictators make laws without any consultation and control the courts.

Dictators have absolute or arbitrary powers i.e. they are above the law.

Examples of non-democratic forms of governments

• Germany under Adolf Hitler (before World War 2)
• Uganda under Idi Amin Dada
• Iraq under Saddam Hussein
• Malawi under Hastings Kamuzu Banda

Other types of governments

a. Communist governments: These are governments in which the state controls all
the means of production. People can vote in elections but usually all candidates are
from the same party. Thus, the government is always run by the same (only) party. In
such states freedom of speech is more limited e.g. Russia, China and Cuba.
 72

b. Military governments: These are governments that are headed by the military i.e.
the army commander is also the head of state e.g. Nigeria during Sani Abacha’s reign.
Usually military rulers assume power through a military coup.
c. Absolute Monarchies: A monarch is a supreme ruler of a country with titles such
as king, queen, emperor or sultan. Such leaders are also heads of states but they have
not been elected by people. They assumed such positions through inheritance.
Examples of countries with this type of governments are Swaziland and Saudi Arabia.

Comparison between Botswana’s constitutional democracy and Iraq’s

dictatorship (under Saddam Hussein)

Botswana practises multi-party democracy whereas in Iraq there was only one
party, Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath party.

In Botswana the President rules according to the constitution but in Iraq the
President had absolute powers.

Leaders rule with the consent of people in Botswana but in Iraq decisions were
made against the wishes of people.

Ordinary citizens could not criticise the government in Iraq but in Botswana
every citizen can criticise the government.

Human rights abuses are common in Iraq but in Botswana citizens’ rights are
protected through the constitution.

Comparison between Botswana’s constitutional democracy and Saudi Arabia’s

absolute monarchy

In Botswana the head of state is the President whereas in Saudi Arabia the
head of state is the king.

In Saudi Arabia the king inherited such position whereas in Botswana the
President is democratically elected.

All MPs and members of the cabinet in Botswana are elected representatives.
In Saudi Arabia members of the cabinet are derived from the royal family.

In Botswana government is formed after general elections have been
conducted but in Saudi Arabia there are no general elections.

In Botswana the President rules according to the constitution but in Saudi
Arabia the king has absolute powers.

Botswana practices multi-party democracy but in Saudi Arabia there are no
political parties.

The formation of government in Botswana

Botswana practices multi-party democracy in which many parties contest for
elections. Before elections are conducted different parties register for elections.
Individuals can also register as independent candidates. After registration political
parties campaign for elections. Different political parties go for primary elections in
which members of a particular party vote for council and parliamentary candidates
who are going to represent the party in general elections.
Government is formed after general elections have been held and the electorates cast
their votes to decide who should run the country. Elections are held after every five
years to nominate councillors and MPs to represent wards and constituencies
respectively. In every ward and constituency the candidate who wins council or
parliamentary seat is the person who has the highest number of votes than any of his
 73

or her competitors. The party which wins the most number of seats in parliament
becomes the ruling party and its leader automatically becomes the President of the
country. In Botswana there are no direct presidential elections.
The President appoints cabinet ministers from MPs of the ruling party, appoints
specially elected MPs and other senior government officers. Other political parties
with fewer seats in parliament form the opposition. The leader of the opposition party
with the highest number of seats becomes the leader of the opposition. This completes
the formation of government.

The main features of Botswana’s constitution

Constitution is a set of rules and regulations by which the government of a state is
run. It establishes the principal organs of the state, their functions and regulates
relationship between various government institutions. The constitution is subject to
amendment so that it can adjust to country’s needs, people’s changing attitudes and
changing circumstances. Botswana’s constitution is divided into 9 chapters as
follows:
Chapter 1: The Republic

It declares Botswana a sovereign republic in which the President is the head of
state by virtue of being the leader of the party that won the last general
elections.

Chapter 2: Protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals

It states the rights of individuals that are protected e.g. the right to life and
liberty.

It states the individual’s protection from slavery and forced labour, inhuman
treatment, deprivation of property and discrimination.

Protects the individuals’ freedoms such as freedom of conscience, expression,
movement, assembly and association.
Chapter 3: Citizenship

It states how one can register as a citizen of Botswana.

It states how one can naturalise to become a citizen of Botswana.

It states how citizenship can be taken away from a person and how an
applicant can be denied citizenship.
Chapter 4: The Executive

States that there shall be a president and states his functions and powers.

There shall be a cabinet and outlines its functions.
Chapter 5: Parliament

States powers of parliament, its composition and procedures.
Chapter 6: The Judicature

Outlines powers and composition of all courts of law.

It is concerned with interpretation and enforcement of laws.
Chapter 7: The Public service

It deals with issues such as appointment of public officers, pensions and
qualifications for certain offices.
Chapter 8: Finance

It deals with issues such as authorisation of expenditure, public debt.

It states that there shall be an auditor general who shall audit public accounts
of Botswana.
Chapter 9: Miscellaneous
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It deals with issues such as resignation, re-appointments and concurrent

appointments.

Stages of law making in Botswana

Parliament is the law making organ of government. Before any proposal, idea or issue
can become a law it has to be discussed in parliament and approved by the President.
A proposal for a new law is called a bill. Bills are usually introduced by government.
Some bills may emanate from a public concern and be proposed by individual
Members of Parliament. Parliament may also rely on reports brought forward by the
Presidential Commission of Enquiry. Some of the recommendations of the
commission may become bills. Before the bill becomes a law it has to go through the
following stages.

Recommendations of the report that are approved by government are put in the
Government White Paper.

Ministry concerned with the report then writes a memorandum to cabinet for
approval.

The memorandum is taken to the Attorney Generals Chambers where bills
are drafted.

The drafted bill is then published in the government gazette for 30 days before
being introduced to the National Assembly. This is to allow public to read and
react to the bill before it is debated by the National Assembly.

The bill is presented by the Minister to Parliament for ‘1st reading’ and no
debate takes place at this stage.

During the ‘2nd reading’ the Minister explains the bill in details after which
members debate it and at the end a vote is taken to either reject or approve the
2nd reading.

When approved in the ‘2nd reading’ then the bill goes to the Committee Stage
where the Speaker of the National Assembly becomes chairman. In this stage
clauses or paragraphs of the bill are discussed in details and changes, if any,
are made. A vote is then taken.

After the committee stage the bill goes for the ‘3rd reading’. There is a general
debate during the 3rd reading. Members can either vote for or against the bill.

If voted for, the Clerk authenticates the bill and sends it to Attorney General’s
Chambers. The bill becomes an Act of Parliament, awaiting the President to
sign it.

If the President signs it, it becomes a law or act. The law or act is then
published in the government gazette showing date of assent and
commencement.

If the President refuses to sign the bill, it is returned to parliament for
amendment.

Constitutional limitations on the power of government in Botswana

Government leads according rules and regulations stated in the constitution.
This means that government or any representatives of government cannot act
against constitutional laws.

Government is divided into three branches of executive, judiciary and
legislature. These three branches prevent abuse of power by those in positions
of responsibility.
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Government’s power to change the constitution is limited as any proposed

change has to be published in the government gazette at least 30 days before
being discussed in parliament.

The government of Botswana protects human rights and freedoms of all
people living in Botswana. Government cannot make laws that violate human
rights.

Government can only be formed after general elections have been held to
allow electorates to nominate their representatives at local and national level.

Parliament has the power to pass a vote of no confidence on the government.
If majority of MPs support the motion then parliament is dissolved and new
elections held.

According to the constitution the president can assume the presidential post
for a maximum of two terms (ten years) only.

Powers of the three branches of government

As stated earlier in the chapter government is divided into three organs; executive,
legislature and judiciary. These branches perform different functions. This is called
separation of powers. Separation of powers is important as it prevents concentration
of power on one person or one group of people. For instance there can be no political
freedom in a country where one person makes a law, implements it and is the judge
when such a law is broken. The three branches operate through a system of checks
and balances. This means that each branch can assess or monitor the activity of the
other branch e.g. the executive cannot implement National Development Plan (NDP)
or annual budget without the approval of the legislature.

a. Executive
This branch is made up of the President, Vice President, Ministers, Assistant
Ministers and the public service. Powers of the executive include;

Initiating government policies.

Runs the day to day affairs of the country.

Implementing government policies through the civil service.

Proposing new laws, amending old ones and changing the constitution.

Making the National Development Plan and National Budget.
The President, as the head of the executive has the following powers:

Sign all approved bills so that they become laws.

Appoint ministers and senior government officials e.g. ambassadors, chief
justice, police commissioner, army commander etc.

Prerogative of mercy i.e. can give clemency (stop accused from being
executed).

He supervises vice president, cabinet ministers and other senior government
officials to ensure that they perform their assigned duties.

Acts as country’s representative and chief spokesperson in the community of
other countries i.e. he is the country’s chief diplomat.

Negotiates and concludes treaties with other countries.

He is the commander in chief of the armed forces.

He performs ceremonial tasks such as receiving dignitaries from other
countries and conferring honours to those who have rendered meritorious
service to the country.
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b. The Legislature
This branch of government is made up of President, Vice President, Ministers,
Members of Parliament, Attorney General, Speaker and Ntlo Ya Dikgosi. Powers of
the legislature include:

Making laws.

Approving or criticising government policies.

Approving governments NDP and annual budget.

Authorising government to borrow money from other countries or banks.

Ntlo ya Dikgosi give advice to government on laws that affect customs and
traditions.

c. The Judiciary
It is made up of Chief Justice, Judges, Magistrates and all courts of law (customary,
magistrates, high court and court of appeal).Members of the judiciary are
professionals i.e. they are employed based on qualification or merit. It is responsible
for:

Interpreting the law since some laws are unclear.

Application of the law to concrete cases.

Judging criminal and civil cases.

Settlement of disputes among individuals and some political systems.

Enforcing laws and punishing those found guilty of criminal offences.
Examples of separation of powers between the three branches of government

If the president abuses power the legislature can pass a vote of no confidence
on the president and the judiciary can charge the president for crimes against
the state.

The judiciary can restrain the president or cabinet minister if deemed to be
acting against the law.

If a law violates the constitution, the executive and legislature can check the
power of the judiciary by changing the constitution instead of changing the
law.

The judiciary can check if laws passed by executive and approved by
parliament do not violate the constitution.

Parliament has power to pass a vote of no confidence on government. If
majority of MPs support the motion then parliament is dissolved and new
elections are conducted.

Characteristics of good governance

In any government most people want to be ruled fairly and justly. They expect to have
a comment on who rules and how. Good governance is about good relationships
between people and their leaders. A good government should have the following
characteristics:

Accountability: Leaders represent the interests of the people and they are
supposed to take decisions or actions that satisfy the interests of the electorates
and prove that whatever they have done is right i.e. leaders are supposed to be
responsible and give satisfactory reasons for every action or decisions they
make.

Transparency: Leaders should be open in decision-making process i.e.
government should not operate in secrecy. Electorates should be able to see
 77

and know what their leaders are doing so that they can re-elect or vote them
out depending on how they have performed whilst in power.

The rule of law: This implies that all laws stated in the constitution should
apply to every individual in the country. The rule of law can be explained in
two ways; Absence of arbitrary powers means that no person is above the
law or has absolute powers. The laws stated in the constitution should apply to
every person regardless of race, occupation, sex, political opinion etc. It also
states that a person can only be punished if he or she has broken the law stated
in the constitution and proven guilty by a court of law. Equality before the
law means that every person can be brought before a court of law and
sentenced fairly and justly i.e. judgement should be based on constitutional
law and the offence committed rather than on human characteristics like
occupation, race, sex etc.

Consultation: In a good government the electorates should be included in
decision making as the authority of the leaders depends on them. Leaders
should solicit ideas from people before taking major decisions. Electorates can
be involved in decision making through various ways e.g. through public
meetings and conducting a national referendum.

Liberal Democracy: This means that the government is elected by the people
and rules on behalf of the people. Therefore, the constitution must reflect the
beliefs, values, and political outlook of people. At regular intervals citizens
should be given a chance to re-elect or vote out inefficient leaders.

Corruption-free: Through checks and balances a corrupt-free government
can be achieved. A good government is one in which power is not
concentrated on one person or one group of people as this would provide a
good environment for corruption and other economic crimes. The existence of
DCEC shows that government does not condone any form of corruption.

Respect for human rights: A good government guarantees its citizens most
of the basic human rights outlined by the UN’s Human Rights Charter e.g.
right to vote, right to fair trial, freedom of speech, association and a free press.

Stability and social harmony: A good government is also characterised by a
mutual relationships between the branches of government, leaders, electorates
and other stakeholders in the running of the country. A good government
should be free from conflicts and other forms of instability.

The Roles of various institutions in promoting good governance in Botswana

There are a number of institutions in Botswana that monitor the activities of those in
power to ensure they do not abuse power or act against the constitution. The
following institutions play a vital part in promoting good governance in Botswana:
a. Office of the Ombudsman
An Ombudsman is an official appointed by government to investigate and report on
complaints made by citizens against public officers. Complaints that can be lodged
against public officers include abuse of power by officers, unfair dismissal of workers
and favouritism on job allocation. This office is under the Office of the President and
the Ombudsman reports and submits recommendations directly to the President who
in turn briefs the parliament.

This office encourages good governance because it:

Provides the public with a good forum to forward their complaints.
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Enhances accountability as public officers will be forced to act according to

the constitution or job description knowing that any wrongdoings will be
reported.

Investigates the actions or decisions of public officers and recommends
remedial action.

Encourages mutual relationships between public officers and those they serve
or supervise.

Builds trust on public officers as their actions are subject to investigations.

b. Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime (DCEC)

This government agency was formed in 1994 to investigate corruption and economic
crime. DCEC promotes good governance because it:

Investigates suspected cases of corruption and economic crime. This
encourages accountability.

Offers a channel for good citizens to protect financial interests of both the
government and the private sector.

Prevents misuse of government funds by those in power.

Builds confidence on both local and foreign investors.

Educates the public about the evils of corruption.

c. Independent Electoral Commission (IEC)

This is an independent institution formed in 1997 to conduct and supervise elections.
It has been made independent to ensure the ruling party, which is also a contestant in
the elections, is not the one that supervises elections i.e. the ruling party should not be
a ‘player’ and ‘referee’ at the same time as this may compromise the validity of
elections. IEC promotes good governance because it:

Facilitates the formation of a democratically elected government by giving
people a chance to elect their leaders.

Conducts and supervises elections and ensures that elections are transparent,
free and fair.

Conducts national referendum.

Is independent from government and so ensures democracy and transparency.

Educates the public about elections to ensure that voters have knowledge and
skills on the electoral process.

Promotes the country’s image as a shining example of a democratic nation.

d. The Media
This refers to the means of communicating or spreading information to people e.g.
television, radio, magazines, newspapers, internet etc. In Botswana the most
accessible media is Radio Botswana. The media can promote good governance in the
following ways:

It disseminates information to citizens about events and developments locally
and abroad i.e. keeps the public up to date about events in Botswana and
beyond.

Sensitises people about any wrongdoings by government and thus promoting
accountability.

It can be used as a forum for people to express their views regarding any
issues of concern i.e. the media can be used as a forum for involving people in
decision-making.
 79

Politicians and other important people can be interviewed on radio. The public
is often invited to ask them questions and this facilitates a forum of
communication between politicians and the public.

Educates the general public about the rights that they are entitled to and the
responsibilities of government.

e. Bogosi
This is the traditional governing institution in Botswana. The existence of Ntlo Ya
Dikgosi and its role in law-making shows the high regard the government gives to
Bogosi. Even though the role of dikgosi is to advise politicians, their contributions are
taken seriously. Bogosi promotes good governance because it:

Can question decisions of those in power and thus enhancing accountability.

Guides ethnic groups on tribal, cultural and traditional issues.

Plays an important part in the judicial system; it tries minor cases and
sentences the accused.

Dikgosi are custodians of society’s culture, experience and wealth.

Ntlo Ya Dikgosi advises the legislature in law-making.

f. Non-Governmental Organisations: These are independent institutions and they

are mostly funded by foreign governments. There are many NGOs that promote good
governance in Botswana. Some are international NGOs whereas others are local
NGOs. Examples of local NGOs are Ditshwanelo, Emang Basadi and Metlhaetsile.
International NGOs are Amnesty International, Transparency International and
Survival International. These NGOs encourage good governance because they:

Act as government watchdogs i.e. they expose any wrongdoings by
government.

Give alternative ideas to government on the running of the country.

Educate government officials and the public about good governance through
workshops and seminars.

Ensure that the government does not violate the rights of people.

Help in resolving public issues such as gender inequality.

Represents the interests of the disadvantaged people such as Basarwa.

The Role of Opposition Parties in ensuring good governance

Botswana practices multi-party democracy i.e. more than one political parties can
contest for general elections. The presence of opposition parties is important in
ensuring good governance. Botswana’s strongest opposition parties are Botswana
National Front and Botswana Congress Party. Other opposition parties are Botswana
Alliance Movement, Botswana Peoples Party and MELS. These parties play an
important part in promoting good governance because:

They give people alternatives; if the ruling party misuses or abuses power and
resources then people can replace it with one of the opposition parties.

Provide alternative ideas on how to run the country i.e. assist the ruling party
in coming up with sound ideas and policies.

They can question the decisions and policies of the ruling party. This will
promote accountability on the side of the ruling party.

They can monitor the activities of those in power and report any wrongdoings
to the public. This encourages transparency.

The existence of opposition parties and their freedom to campaign against the
ruling party breeds a positive environment for good governance, as those in
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government know that the electorates are the judges. The ruling party becomes
more accountable as it wants to appear to be the most prepared to lead people.

The existence of many political parties promotes the image of the country as a
true example of a democratic nation.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Botswana’s electoral system

Electoral systems are basic instruments that govern the conduct of elections. It is the
electoral system which determines the winner and composition of parliament and
government. The electoral system specifies, among others, the constituency size, how
voters express their political choice, how ballots are counted to allocate seats and who
wins the electoral contest. The choice of electoral system is always a political
decision. After attaining independence Botswana emulated the United Kingdom by
adopting a constitution and electoral laws similar to theirs. Generally there are two
major types of electoral systems as explained below:
a. Proportional representation
In this system seats in parliament are allocated according to overall percentage of
votes per party in the general elections. If, for example, parties A, B, C and D
obtained the following percentages of votes respectively; 40%, 30%, 20% and 10%.
This means that in a parliament of 50 seats party A will have 20 seats, party B; 15
seats, party C; 10 seats and party D will have 5 seats. This system is credited for
believing in consensus and power sharing and widening democracy by ensuring that
political differences that exist in the society are represented in both the legislature and
executive. Since the system allocates seats according to popular vote, this gives even
smaller parties a chance to make it into parliament and cabinet.
b. Territorial representation
This is the electoral system that is used in Botswana. In this system seats in
parliament and wards are constituency based. A ward or constituency therefore has to
be won and represented by one representative. The candidate who obtains the largest
number of votes in a ward or constituency wins that council or constituency seat.
Under this ‘winner takes all’ phenomenon, the winner of elections is the person who
has more votes than the next best candidate, but not necessarily more than all his or
her opponents put together. This is electoral system is also known as ‘first past the
post (FPTP)’ or majoritarian parliamentary system because it operates through a
system of majority rules. Under this system the winning candidate represents those
who voted for his or her party plus all those who voted for his opponents.

Strengths of Botswana’s electoral system

Simple to understand: First Past the Post does not involve complicated
calculations like in proportional representation. This makes it simple to
understand and administer. It also produces a clear winner as the candidate
with the highest votes assumes power.

Promotes a strong and stable government: In this system members of the
cabinet are from the same party. This reduces chances of instability brought
about by political differences and interests. Usually members of the same
party have the same political goals and opinions.

Leads to a strong bond between leaders and electorates: It improves links
between representatives and those who voted them into power since an MP or
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councillor represents a specific region not the whole country. People can
complain to and about their representatives if they are not satisfied with the
state of affairs in their ward or constituency.

Enhances accountability on representatives: The electorates have the
potential to encourage candidates to deliver when they are in office. This
motivates representatives to provide ward and constituency service. This is
evidenced by frequent appearances by politicians in social gatherings such as
funerals and weddings.

Encourages broad-based political parties: Division of the country into
constituencies stimulates different political parties to have representatives
even in the remotest and peripheral areas knowing that in order for them to
rule they have to win majority of parliamentary seats.

Weaknesses of Botswana’s electoral system

Unfair reflection of party strengths: It incorrectly reflects the relative
strengths of votes cast for political parties. A party can win the most number
of parliamentary seats but this may not necessarily mean that it has the highest
number of votes. For instance, in 1999 elections BDP accounted for 54% of
total votes, but this gave it 83% of parliamentary seats. In contrast, BNF
accounted for 25% of the total votes but this gave it 15% of parliamentary
seats. This exaggerates the weaknesses of opposition parties as allocation of
seats in parliament is not proportional to the number of votes per party.

Favours stronger parties: The system requires parties to have representatives
in all regions but smaller parties may not have the resources to lobby for
support in very distant and remotest areas. This gives an unfair advantage to
stronger parties as they can stand for elections unopposed in some regions.
This system tends to promote a sense of voter apathy, as one party dominates
elections, supporters of the losing parties tend to get discouraged and
withdraw their participation in elections.

Imbalance in development: Division into constituencies may bring an
imbalance in development as some constituencies may be represented by
people of low calibre. Regions represented by such people may lag behind in
terms of developments as those representatives are not doing enough to
influence government to develop their constituencies.

Absence of direct presidential elections: This makes elections unattractive
and also contributes to voter apathy. In Botswana the party that wins the
majority of seats in parliament forms the government and its leader
automatically becomes the President.

Will of minority not represented: The electoral system, through its majority
rule system, only considers the will of majority. For example in general
elections only the votes of the winning candidates contribute towards
formation of government whereas those of losing candidates are rendered
useless.

Government can be formed by minority: It is mathematically possible for a
party to assume power without being voted by a numerical majority. This
means that the overall votes of opposition parties can outnumber the votes of
the winning party.

Reasons for voter apathy in Botswana

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Voter apathy means low turnouts in general elections. In Botswana some citizens who
are 18 and above do not take part in general elections for various reasons. This is
evidenced by numerous supplementary registrations, low attendance at political rallies
and the disparity between the numbers of those who registered for elections and those
who actually voted. Reasons for low turnouts in general elections include the
following:

Lack of voter education: Some people do not have adequate knowledge
about the importance of voting. To them voting is meaningless and a waste of
time.

Invalid ‘Omang’ cards: Some do not vote because they do not have ‘Omang’
cards, cards are invalid or have expired and others may misplace or lose their
cards just before elections.

Loss of confidence in politicians: Some people no longer trust politicians as
they are blamed for failing to fulfill their promises and representing their
personal interests rather than the interests of the electorates. Some politicians
are often implicated in corrupt practices and other forms of economic crime.
This has degraded the social status of politicians. Other politicians are only
interested in the electorates during the campaign trail and abandon the voters
once elected.

Dominance of one party since independence: Since independence only one
party (BDP) has dominated general elections and at times with large margins.
This has demoralised voters especially those who are against the ruling party
and so they think that their votes will not make any difference.

Fewer polling stations resulting in long queues: Voters are often
discouraged by long and slow voting queues on election day and end up
deciding not to vote despite having registered. Voters often queue for long
hours usually on a very hot day.

Lack of direct presidential elections: As mentioned earlier, the leader of the
winning party automatically becomes president. This makes elections less
interesting as there are no direct presidential elections which are more
dramatic and attract a large number of electorates.

Poor timing of elections: Voting coincides with time when senior secondary
students are busy preparing or writing final examinations. These students
ultimately do not turn up for elections even if they have registered. In some
cases headmasters are reluctant to release students to take part in elections
during such critical times.

Absence of transfer voting: Employees who work far away from their homes
prefer to vote for candidates in their home areas. They end up failing to vote
because the electoral system does not allow transfer voting.

Fragmentation of opposition parties: The split of opposition parties
weakens the opposition so much that their supporters end up losing hope and
withdraw from elections.

Cultural beliefs: According to Tswana tradition leaders are not elected but
are born i.e. leadership is hereditary. Due to this tradition some Batswana are
not interested in politics and distance themselves from elections as they are of
the view that leaders should not be elected.

The relationship between the elected and the electorates at local and national
level
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The electorates choose certain people to be in positions of responsibility both at local

and national level. By electing a councillor or MP the electorates sign a social
contract with the representative. The elected and electorates sign a five-year
unwritten agreement to work together to bring developments in their wards and
constituencies.
a. Local level

Councilors represent the views of electorates at ward level.

Actions of councillors are limited to the constituency in which the ward is
based.

They hold regular meetings with electorates in their wards to discuss issues of
concern.

Councillors should take decisions that benefit the electorates and their
activities and decisions should be transparent.

The electorates must also participate in local government committees such as
VDC and Crime Prevention.

Councillors then meet at district level to discuss concerns of their communities
and come up with development strategies.

Some issues can be resolved at district or council level whereas others are
resolved at the national assembly. Those to be resolved by the national
assembly are forwarded to the constituency MP.

b. National level

At national level the electorates are represented by their MP.

An MP is supposed to keep his or her constituency informed about
government policy and development plans.

The MP is expected to hold regular meetings with electorates in his or her
constituency so that the electorates can express their problems or interests.

Electorates have to attend meetings called by the MP and should also
contribute to discussions.

Electorates should also support government initiatives and take part in national
activities such as crime prevention.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

Government is the system through which society is ruled and governance is
the act of ruling or being ruled.

Democracy refers to the type of government in which people elect government
representatives.

There are different types of governments e.g. democracy, dictatorship,
absolute monarchy etc.

Government is divided into three branches of executive, legislature and
judiciary.

Common characteristics of good governance are accountability, transparency,
rule of law and consultation.

There are a number of institutions that promote good governance such as IEC,
DCEC, Office of the Ombudsman, Ntlo Ya Dikgosi and the Media.

Botswana uses an electoral system called ‘First Past The Post’ in which the
winner of the constituency or ward is the candidate with the highest number of
votes than the next competitors.

Voter apathy refers to low turnout in general elections.
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Revision questions
1. Define the following terms:
a. Democracy
b. Constitution
c. Rule of law
d. Social contract
e. National referendum (5)
2. Discuss five characteristics of a democratic government. (10)
3. Outline how government is formed in Botswana. (10)
4. State five roles of the Office of the Ombudsman in promoting good governance. (5)
5. Explain five weaknesses of Botswana’s electoral system. (10)
6. Explain reasons for voter apathy in Botswana. (10)

CHAPTER EIGHT
GOVERNANCE
Introduction
Governance is the effective management of government by those in political authority
i.e. proper running of the country by those who have been given the mandate to rule
such as the President, Ministers, Members of Parliament and Councillors.
Government is the system through which society is ruled or the institutions that are
used to rule people in a country. Every independent country has its own government
and the type of government in power may differ from one country to the other. The
constitution of Botswana provides for a republican form of government consisting of
the executive, legislature and judiciary.
Some governments are referred to as democratic whereas others are non-democratic.
Democracy is a system of government in which people have the right to elect
government representatives or leaders. Botswana’s type of government is
constitutional democracy. This means that people elected into power rule according
to laws stated in the constitution. Elections are conducted every five years to elect
government representatives at local and national level. Botswana uses an electoral
system called ‘First Past the Post’ in which the candidate with the highest number of
votes assumes political power. The party with the highest number of seats in
parliament becomes the ruling party.
In non-democratic governments leaders may not have been elected democratically by
ordinary people. In these types of governments the rights of people are limited and
leaders have arbitrary powers. Such types of government are often referred to as
dictatorships, authoritarian or autocratic.

Characteristics of democratic forms of government:

Citizens of a country elect representatives who will form part of government.

More than one political parties contest for free and fair elections.

Elections are held at regular intervals so that people can have a chance to
change the government or vote out individual leaders who are inefficient.

Government rules with the consent of the people i.e. leaders represent the
interests of the people.

The constitution and decisions of leaders can be challenged by civil society.

Certain basic rights and freedoms are guaranteed by law e.g. voting, life,
privacy, ownership of property etc.
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The use of force is limited; discussion and persuasion are mostly used to
resolve conflicts.

There is transparency i.e. free flow of information from the leaders to the
electorates.

Consultation; leaders inform the electorates before major actions or decisions
are made.

Characteristics of non-democratic forms of government

Leaders do not rule with the mandate of the electorates.

Consultation and negotiation are uncommon, coercion (use of force) or threats
are used to oppress people.

People are denied the right to elect leaders and they do not have many basic
rights.

Ordinary people cannot question decisions of leaders. Challenging such
decisions can result in imprisonment without trial.

The powers of government are concentrated on one person or one group of
people e.g. the head of state can propose, implement and enforce laws; he is
also the final judge and commander of armed forces.

There are no regular free elections, sometimes there is only one candidate to
vote for and the voters have no real choice.

Leaders act as they wish and are not accountable to the people in any way.

Dictators make laws without any consultation and control the courts.

Dictators have absolute or arbitrary powers i.e. they are above the law.

Examples of non-democratic forms of governments

• Germany under Adolf Hitler (before World War 2)
• Uganda under Idi Amin Dada
• Iraq under Saddam Hussein
• Malawi under Hastings Kamuzu Banda

Other types of governments

a. Communist governments: These are governments in which the state controls all
the means of production. People can vote in elections but usually all candidates are
from the same party. Thus, the government is always run by the same (only) party. In
such states freedom of speech is more limited e.g. Russia, China and Cuba.
b. Military governments: These are governments that are headed by the military i.e.
the army commander is also the head of state e.g. Nigeria during Sani Abacha’s reign.
Usually military rulers assume power through a military coup.
c. Absolute Monarchies: A monarch is a supreme ruler of a country with titles such
as king, queen, emperor or sultan. Such leaders are also heads of states but they have
not been elected by people. They assumed such positions through inheritance.
Examples of countries with this type of governments are Swaziland and Saudi Arabia.

Comparison between Botswana’s constitutional democracy and Iraq’s

dictatorship (under Saddam Hussein)

Botswana practises multi-party democracy whereas in Iraq there was only one
party, Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath party.

In Botswana the President rules according to the constitution but in Iraq the
President had absolute powers.
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Leaders rule with the consent of people in Botswana but in Iraq decisions were
made against the wishes of people.

Ordinary citizens could not criticise the government in Iraq but in Botswana
every citizen can criticise the government.

Human rights abuses are common in Iraq but in Botswana citizens’ rights are
protected through the constitution.

Comparison between Botswana’s constitutional democracy and Saudi Arabia’s

absolute monarchy

In Botswana the head of state is the President whereas in Saudi Arabia the
head of state is the king.

In Saudi Arabia the king inherited such position whereas in Botswana the
President is democratically elected.

All MPs and members of the cabinet in Botswana are elected representatives.
In Saudi Arabia members of the cabinet are derived from the royal family.

In Botswana government is formed after general elections have been
conducted but in Saudi Arabia there are no general elections.

In Botswana the President rules according to the constitution but in Saudi
Arabia the king has absolute powers.

Botswana practices multi-party democracy but in Saudi Arabia there are no
political parties.

The formation of government in Botswana

Botswana practices multi-party democracy in which many parties contest for
elections. Before elections are conducted different parties register for elections.
Individuals can also register as independent candidates. After registration political
parties campaign for elections. Different political parties go for primary elections in
which members of a particular party vote for council and parliamentary candidates
who are going to represent the party in general elections.
Government is formed after general elections have been held and the electorates cast
their votes to decide who should run the country. Elections are held after every five
years to nominate councillors and MPs to represent wards and constituencies
respectively. In every ward and constituency the candidate who wins council or
parliamentary seat is the person who has the highest number of votes than any of his
or her competitors. The party which wins the most number of seats in parliament
becomes the ruling party and its leader automatically becomes the President of the
country. In Botswana there are no direct presidential elections.
The President appoints cabinet ministers from MPs of the ruling party, appoints
specially elected MPs and other senior government officers. Other political parties
with fewer seats in parliament form the opposition. The leader of the opposition party
with the highest number of seats becomes the leader of the opposition. This completes
the formation of government.

The main features of Botswana’s constitution

Constitution is a set of rules and regulations by which the government of a state is
run. It establishes the principal organs of the state, their functions and regulates
relationship between various government institutions. The constitution is subject to
amendment so that it can adjust to country’s needs, people’s changing attitudes and
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changing circumstances. Botswana’s constitution is divided into 9 chapters as

follows:
Chapter 1: The Republic

It declares Botswana a sovereign republic in which the President is the head of
state by virtue of being the leader of the party that won the last general
elections.

Chapter 2: Protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals

It states the rights of individuals that are protected e.g. the right to life and
liberty.

It states the individual’s protection from slavery and forced labour, inhuman
treatment, deprivation of property and discrimination.

Protects the individuals’ freedoms such as freedom of conscience, expression,
movement, assembly and association.
Chapter 3: Citizenship

It states how one can register as a citizen of Botswana.

It states how one can naturalise to become a citizen of Botswana.

It states how citizenship can be taken away from a person and how an
applicant can be denied citizenship.
Chapter 4: The Executive

States that there shall be a president and states his functions and powers.

There shall be a cabinet and outlines its functions.
Chapter 5: Parliament

States powers of parliament, its composition and procedures.
Chapter 6: The Judicature

Outlines powers and composition of all courts of law.

It is concerned with interpretation and enforcement of laws.
Chapter 7: The Public service

It deals with issues such as appointment of public officers, pensions and
qualifications for certain offices.
Chapter 8: Finance

It deals with issues such as authorisation of expenditure, public debt.

It states that there shall be an auditor general who shall audit public accounts
of Botswana.
Chapter 9: Miscellaneous

It deals with issues such as resignation, re-appointments and concurrent
appointments.

Stages of law making in Botswana

Parliament is the law making organ of government. Before any proposal, idea or issue
can become a law it has to be discussed in parliament and approved by the President.
A proposal for a new law is called a bill. Bills are usually introduced by government.
Some bills may emanate from a public concern and be proposed by individual
Members of Parliament. Parliament may also rely on reports brought forward by the
Presidential Commission of Enquiry. Some of the recommendations of the
commission may become bills. Before the bill becomes a law it has to go through the
following stages.

Recommendations of the report that are approved by government are put in the
Government White Paper.
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Ministry concerned with the report then writes a memorandum to cabinet for
approval.

The memorandum is taken to the Attorney Generals Chambers where bills
are drafted.

The drafted bill is then published in the government gazette for 30 days before
being introduced to the National Assembly. This is to allow public to read and
react to the bill before it is debated by the National Assembly.

The bill is presented by the Minister to Parliament for ‘1st reading’ and no
debate takes place at this stage.

During the ‘2nd reading’ the Minister explains the bill in details after which
members debate it and at the end a vote is taken to either reject or approve the
2nd reading.

When approved in the ‘2nd reading’ then the bill goes to the Committee Stage
where the Speaker of the National Assembly becomes chairman. In this stage
clauses or paragraphs of the bill are discussed in details and changes, if any,
are made. A vote is then taken.

After the committee stage the bill goes for the ‘3rd reading’. There is a general
debate during the 3rd reading. Members can either vote for or against the bill.

If voted for, the Clerk authenticates the bill and sends it to Attorney General’s
Chambers. The bill becomes an Act of Parliament, awaiting the President to
sign it.

If the President signs it, it becomes a law or act. The law or act is then
published in the government gazette showing date of assent and
commencement.

If the President refuses to sign the bill, it is returned to parliament for
amendment.

Constitutional limitations on the power of government in Botswana

Government leads according rules and regulations stated in the constitution.
This means that government or any representatives of government cannot act
against constitutional laws.

Government is divided into three branches of executive, judiciary and
legislature. These three branches prevent abuse of power by those in positions
of responsibility.

Government’s power to change the constitution is limited as any proposed
change has to be published in the government gazette at least 30 days before
being discussed in parliament.

The government of Botswana protects human rights and freedoms of all
people living in Botswana. Government cannot make laws that violate human
rights.

Government can only be formed after general elections have been held to
allow electorates to nominate their representatives at local and national level.

Parliament has the power to pass a vote of no confidence on the government.
If majority of MPs support the motion then parliament is dissolved and new
elections held.

According to the constitution the president can assume the presidential post
for a maximum of two terms (ten years) only.

Powers of the three branches of government

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As stated earlier in the chapter government is divided into three organs; executive,
legislature and judiciary. These branches perform different functions. This is called
separation of powers. Separation of powers is important as it prevents concentration
of power on one person or one group of people. For instance there can be no political
freedom in a country where one person makes a law, implements it and is the judge
when such a law is broken. The three branches operate through a system of checks
and balances. This means that each branch can assess or monitor the activity of the
other branch e.g. the executive cannot implement National Development Plan (NDP)
or annual budget without the approval of the legislature.

a. Executive
This branch is made up of the President, Vice President, Ministers, Assistant
Ministers and the public service. Powers of the executive include;

Initiating government policies.

Runs the day to day affairs of the country.

Implementing government policies through the civil service.

Proposing new laws, amending old ones and changing the constitution.

Making the National Development Plan and National Budget.
The President, as the head of the executive has the following powers:

Sign all approved bills so that they become laws.

Appoint ministers and senior government officials e.g. ambassadors, chief
justice, police commissioner, army commander etc.

Prerogative of mercy i.e. can give clemency (stop accused from being
executed).

He supervises vice president, cabinet ministers and other senior government
officials to ensure that they perform their assigned duties.

Acts as country’s representative and chief spokesperson in the community of
other countries i.e. he is the country’s chief diplomat.

Negotiates and concludes treaties with other countries.

He is the commander in chief of the armed forces.

He performs ceremonial tasks such as receiving dignitaries from other
countries and conferring honours to those who have rendered meritorious
service to the country.

b. The Legislature
This branch of government is made up of President, Vice President, Ministers,
Members of Parliament, Attorney General, Speaker and Ntlo Ya Dikgosi. Powers of
the legislature include:

Making laws.

Approving or criticising government policies.

Approving governments NDP and annual budget.

Authorising government to borrow money from other countries or banks.

Ntlo ya Dikgosi give advice to government on laws that affect customs and
traditions.

c. The Judiciary
It is made up of Chief Justice, Judges, Magistrates and all courts of law (customary,
magistrates, high court and court of appeal).Members of the judiciary are
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professionals i.e. they are employed based on qualification or merit. It is responsible

for:

Interpreting the law since some laws are unclear.

Application of the law to concrete cases.

Judging criminal and civil cases.

Settlement of disputes among individuals and some political systems.

Enforcing laws and punishing those found guilty of criminal offences.
Examples of separation of powers between the three branches of government

If the president abuses power the legislature can pass a vote of no confidence
on the president and the judiciary can charge the president for crimes against
the state.

The judiciary can restrain the president or cabinet minister if deemed to be
acting against the law.

If a law violates the constitution, the executive and legislature can check the
power of the judiciary by changing the constitution instead of changing the
law.

The judiciary can check if laws passed by executive and approved by
parliament do not violate the constitution.

Parliament has power to pass a vote of no confidence on government. If
majority of MPs support the motion then parliament is dissolved and new
elections are conducted.

Characteristics of good governance

In any government most people want to be ruled fairly and justly. They expect to have
a comment on who rules and how. Good governance is about good relationships
between people and their leaders. A good government should have the following
characteristics:

Accountability: Leaders represent the interests of the people and they are
supposed to take decisions or actions that satisfy the interests of the electorates
and prove that whatever they have done is right i.e. leaders are supposed to be
responsible and give satisfactory reasons for every action or decisions they
make.

Transparency: Leaders should be open in decision-making process i.e.
government should not operate in secrecy. Electorates should be able to see
and know what their leaders are doing so that they can re-elect or vote them
out depending on how they have performed whilst in power.

The rule of law: This implies that all laws stated in the constitution should
apply to every individual in the country. The rule of law can be explained in
two ways; Absence of arbitrary powers means that no person is above the
law or has absolute powers. The laws stated in the constitution should apply to
every person regardless of race, occupation, sex, political opinion etc. It also
states that a person can only be punished if he or she has broken the law stated
in the constitution and proven guilty by a court of law. Equality before the
law means that every person can be brought before a court of law and
sentenced fairly and justly i.e. judgement should be based on constitutional
law and the offence committed rather than on human characteristics like
occupation, race, sex etc.

Consultation: In a good government the electorates should be included in
decision making as the authority of the leaders depends on them. Leaders
should solicit ideas from people before taking major decisions. Electorates can
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be involved in decision making through various ways e.g. through public

meetings and conducting a national referendum.

Liberal Democracy: This means that the government is elected by the people
and rules on behalf of the people. Therefore, the constitution must reflect the
beliefs, values, and political outlook of people. At regular intervals citizens
should be given a chance to re-elect or vote out inefficient leaders.

Corruption-free: Through checks and balances a corrupt-free government
can be achieved. A good government is one in which power is not
concentrated on one person or one group of people as this would provide a
good environment for corruption and other economic crimes. The existence of
DCEC shows that government does not condone any form of corruption.

Respect for human rights: A good government guarantees its citizens most
of the basic human rights outlined by the UN’s Human Rights Charter e.g.
right to vote, right to fair trial, freedom of speech, association and a free press.

Stability and social harmony: A good government is also characterised by a
mutual relationships between the branches of government, leaders, electorates
and other stakeholders in the running of the country. A good government
should be free from conflicts and other forms of instability.

The Roles of various institutions in promoting good governance in Botswana

There are a number of institutions in Botswana that monitor the activities of those in
power to ensure they do not abuse power or act against the constitution. The
following institutions play a vital part in promoting good governance in Botswana:
a. Office of the Ombudsman
An Ombudsman is an official appointed by government to investigate and report on
complaints made by citizens against public officers. Complaints that can be lodged
against public officers include abuse of power by officers, unfair dismissal of workers
and favouritism on job allocation. This office is under the Office of the President and
the Ombudsman reports and submits recommendations directly to the President who
in turn briefs the parliament.

This office encourages good governance because it:

Provides the public with a good forum to forward their complaints.

Enhances accountability as public officers will be forced to act according to
the constitution or job description knowing that any wrongdoings will be
reported.

Investigates the actions or decisions of public officers and recommends
remedial action.

Encourages mutual relationships between public officers and those they serve
or supervise.

Builds trust on public officers as their actions are subject to investigations.

b. Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime (DCEC)

This government agency was formed in 1994 to investigate corruption and economic
crime. DCEC promotes good governance because it:

Investigates suspected cases of corruption and economic crime. This
encourages accountability.

Offers a channel for good citizens to protect financial interests of both the
government and the private sector.
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Prevents misuse of government funds by those in power.

Builds confidence on both local and foreign investors.

Educates the public about the evils of corruption.

c. Independent Electoral Commission (IEC)

This is an independent institution formed in 1997 to conduct and supervise elections.
It has been made independent to ensure the ruling party, which is also a contestant in
the elections, is not the one that supervises elections i.e. the ruling party should not be
a ‘player’ and ‘referee’ at the same time as this may compromise the validity of
elections. IEC promotes good governance because it:

Facilitates the formation of a democratically elected government by giving
people a chance to elect their leaders.

Conducts and supervises elections and ensures that elections are transparent,
free and fair.

Conducts national referendum.

Is independent from government and so ensures democracy and transparency.

Educates the public about elections to ensure that voters have knowledge and
skills on the electoral process.

Promotes the country’s image as a shining example of a democratic nation.

d. The Media
This refers to the means of communicating or spreading information to people e.g.
television, radio, magazines, newspapers, internet etc. In Botswana the most
accessible media is Radio Botswana. The media can promote good governance in the
following ways:

It disseminates information to citizens about events and developments locally
and abroad i.e. keeps the public up to date about events in Botswana and
beyond.

Sensitises people about any wrongdoings by government and thus promoting
accountability.

It can be used as a forum for people to express their views regarding any
issues of concern i.e. the media can be used as a forum for involving people in
decision-making.

Politicians and other important people can be interviewed on radio. The public
is often invited to ask them questions and this facilitates a forum of
communication between politicians and the public.

Educates the general public about the rights that they are entitled to and the
responsibilities of government.

e. Bogosi
This is the traditional governing institution in Botswana. The existence of Ntlo Ya
Dikgosi and its role in law-making shows the high regard the government gives to
Bogosi. Even though the role of dikgosi is to advise politicians, their contributions are
taken seriously. Bogosi promotes good governance because it:

Can question decisions of those in power and thus enhancing accountability.

Guides ethnic groups on tribal, cultural and traditional issues.

Plays an important part in the judicial system; it tries minor cases and
sentences the accused.

Dikgosi are custodians of society’s culture, experience and wealth.

Ntlo Ya Dikgosi advises the legislature in law-making.
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f. Non-Governmental Organisations: These are independent institutions and they

are mostly funded by foreign governments. There are many NGOs that promote good
governance in Botswana. Some are international NGOs whereas others are local
NGOs. Examples of local NGOs are Ditshwanelo, Emang Basadi and Metlhaetsile.
International NGOs are Amnesty International, Transparency International and
Survival International. These NGOs encourage good governance because they:

Act as government watchdogs i.e. they expose any wrongdoings by
government.

Give alternative ideas to government on the running of the country.

Educate government officials and the public about good governance through
workshops and seminars.

Ensure that the government does not violate the rights of people.

Help in resolving public issues such as gender inequality.

Represents the interests of the disadvantaged people such as Basarwa.

The Role of Opposition Parties in ensuring good governance

Botswana practices multi-party democracy i.e. more than one political parties can
contest for general elections. The presence of opposition parties is important in
ensuring good governance. Botswana’s strongest opposition parties are Botswana
National Front and Botswana Congress Party. Other opposition parties are Botswana
Alliance Movement, Botswana Peoples Party and MELS. These parties play an
important part in promoting good governance because:

They give people alternatives; if the ruling party misuses or abuses power and
resources then people can replace it with one of the opposition parties.

Provide alternative ideas on how to run the country i.e. assist the ruling party
in coming up with sound ideas and policies.

They can question the decisions and policies of the ruling party. This will
promote accountability on the side of the ruling party.

They can monitor the activities of those in power and report any wrongdoings
to the public. This encourages transparency.

The existence of opposition parties and their freedom to campaign against the
ruling party breeds a positive environment for good governance, as those in
government know that the electorates are the judges. The ruling party becomes
more accountable as it wants to appear to be the most prepared to lead people.

The existence of many political parties promotes the image of the country as a
true example of a democratic nation.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Botswana’s electoral system

Electoral systems are basic instruments that govern the conduct of elections. It is the
electoral system which determines the winner and composition of parliament and
government. The electoral system specifies, among others, the constituency size, how
voters express their political choice, how ballots are counted to allocate seats and who
wins the electoral contest. The choice of electoral system is always a political
decision. After attaining independence Botswana emulated the United Kingdom by
adopting a constitution and electoral laws similar to theirs. Generally there are two
major types of electoral systems as explained below:
a. Proportional representation
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In this system seats in parliament are allocated according to overall percentage of

votes per party in the general elections. If, for example, parties A, B, C and D
obtained the following percentages of votes respectively; 40%, 30%, 20% and 10%.
This means that in a parliament of 50 seats party A will have 20 seats, party B; 15
seats, party C; 10 seats and party D will have 5 seats. This system is credited for
believing in consensus and power sharing and widening democracy by ensuring that
political differences that exist in the society are represented in both the legislature and
executive. Since the system allocates seats according to popular vote, this gives even
smaller parties a chance to make it into parliament and cabinet.
b. Territorial representation
This is the electoral system that is used in Botswana. In this system seats in
parliament and wards are constituency based. A ward or constituency therefore has to
be won and represented by one representative. The candidate who obtains the largest
number of votes in a ward or constituency wins that council or constituency seat.
Under this ‘winner takes all’ phenomenon, the winner of elections is the person who
has more votes than the next best candidate, but not necessarily more than all his or
her opponents put together. This is electoral system is also known as ‘first past the
post (FPTP)’ or majoritarian parliamentary system because it operates through a
system of majority rules. Under this system the winning candidate represents those
who voted for his or her party plus all those who voted for his opponents.

Strengths of Botswana’s electoral system

Simple to understand: First Past the Post does not involve complicated
calculations like in proportional representation. This makes it simple to
understand and administer. It also produces a clear winner as the candidate
with the highest votes assumes power.

Promotes a strong and stable government: In this system members of the
cabinet are from the same party. This reduces chances of instability brought
about by political differences and interests. Usually members of the same
party have the same political goals and opinions.

Leads to a strong bond between leaders and electorates: It improves links
between representatives and those who voted them into power since an MP or
councillor represents a specific region not the whole country. People can
complain to and about their representatives if they are not satisfied with the
state of affairs in their ward or constituency.

Enhances accountability on representatives: The electorates have the
potential to encourage candidates to deliver when they are in office. This
motivates representatives to provide ward and constituency service. This is
evidenced by frequent appearances by politicians in social gatherings such as
funerals and weddings.

Encourages broad-based political parties: Division of the country into
constituencies stimulates different political parties to have representatives
even in the remotest and peripheral areas knowing that in order for them to
rule they have to win majority of parliamentary seats.

Weaknesses of Botswana’s electoral system

Unfair reflection of party strengths: It incorrectly reflects the relative
strengths of votes cast for political parties. A party can win the most number
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of parliamentary seats but this may not necessarily mean that it has the highest
number of votes. For instance, in 1999 elections BDP accounted for 54% of
total votes, but this gave it 83% of parliamentary seats. In contrast, BNF
accounted for 25% of the total votes but this gave it 15% of parliamentary
seats. This exaggerates the weaknesses of opposition parties as allocation of
seats in parliament is not proportional to the number of votes per party.

Favours stronger parties: The system requires parties to have representatives
in all regions but smaller parties may not have the resources to lobby for
support in very distant and remotest areas. This gives an unfair advantage to
stronger parties as they can stand for elections unopposed in some regions.
This system tends to promote a sense of voter apathy, as one party dominates
elections, supporters of the losing parties tend to get discouraged and
withdraw their participation in elections.

Imbalance in development: Division into constituencies may bring an
imbalance in development as some constituencies may be represented by
people of low calibre. Regions represented by such people may lag behind in
terms of developments as those representatives are not doing enough to
influence government to develop their constituencies.

Absence of direct presidential elections: This makes elections unattractive
and also contributes to voter apathy. In Botswana the party that wins the
majority of seats in parliament forms the government and its leader
automatically becomes the President.

Will of minority not represented: The electoral system, through its majority
rule system, only considers the will of majority. For example in general
elections only the votes of the winning candidates contribute towards
formation of government whereas those of losing candidates are rendered
useless.

Government can be formed by minority: It is mathematically possible for a
party to assume power without being voted by a numerical majority. This
means that the overall votes of opposition parties can outnumber the votes of
the winning party.

Reasons for voter apathy in Botswana

Voter apathy means low turnouts in general elections. In Botswana some citizens who
are 18 and above do not take part in general elections for various reasons. This is
evidenced by numerous supplementary registrations, low attendance at political rallies
and the disparity between the numbers of those who registered for elections and those
who actually voted. Reasons for low turnouts in general elections include the
following:

Lack of voter education: Some people do not have adequate knowledge
about the importance of voting. To them voting is meaningless and a waste of
time.

Invalid ‘Omang’ cards: Some do not vote because they do not have ‘Omang’
cards, cards are invalid or have expired and others may misplace or lose their
cards just before elections.

Loss of confidence in politicians: Some people no longer trust politicians as
they are blamed for failing to fulfill their promises and representing their
personal interests rather than the interests of the electorates. Some politicians
are often implicated in corrupt practices and other forms of economic crime.
This has degraded the social status of politicians. Other politicians are only
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interested in the electorates during the campaign trail and abandon the voters
once elected.

Dominance of one party since independence: Since independence only one
party (BDP) has dominated general elections and at times with large margins.
This has demoralised voters especially those who are against the ruling party
and so they think that their votes will not make any difference.

Fewer polling stations resulting in long queues: Voters are often
discouraged by long and slow voting queues on election day and end up
deciding not to vote despite having registered. Voters often queue for long
hours usually on a very hot day.

Lack of direct presidential elections: As mentioned earlier, the leader of the
winning party automatically becomes president. This makes elections less
interesting as there are no direct presidential elections which are more
dramatic and attract a large number of electorates.

Poor timing of elections: Voting coincides with time when senior secondary
students are busy preparing or writing final examinations. These students
ultimately do not turn up for elections even if they have registered. In some
cases headmasters are reluctant to release students to take part in elections
during such critical times.

Absence of transfer voting: Employees who work far away from their homes
prefer to vote for candidates in their home areas. They end up failing to vote
because the electoral system does not allow transfer voting.

Fragmentation of opposition parties: The split of opposition parties
weakens the opposition so much that their supporters end up losing hope and
withdraw from elections.

Cultural beliefs: According to Tswana tradition leaders are not elected but
are born i.e. leadership is hereditary. Due to this tradition some Batswana are
not interested in politics and distance themselves from elections as they are of
the view that leaders should not be elected.

The relationship between the elected and the electorates at local and national
level
The electorates choose certain people to be in positions of responsibility both at local
and national level. By electing a councillor or MP the electorates sign a social
contract with the representative. The elected and electorates sign a five-year
unwritten agreement to work together to bring developments in their wards and
constituencies.
a. Local level

Councilors represent the views of electorates at ward level.

Actions of councillors are limited to the constituency in which the ward is
based.

They hold regular meetings with electorates in their wards to discuss issues of
concern.

Councillors should take decisions that benefit the electorates and their
activities and decisions should be transparent.

The electorates must also participate in local government committees such as
VDC and Crime Prevention.

Councillors then meet at district level to discuss concerns of their communities
and come up with development strategies.
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Some issues can be resolved at district or council level whereas others are
resolved at the national assembly. Those to be resolved by the national
assembly are forwarded to the constituency MP.

b. National level

At national level the electorates are represented by their MP.

An MP is supposed to keep his or her constituency informed about
government policy and development plans.

The MP is expected to hold regular meetings with electorates in his or her
constituency so that the electorates can express their problems or interests.

Electorates have to attend meetings called by the MP and should also
contribute to discussions.

Electorates should also support government initiatives and take part in national
activities such as crime prevention.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

Government is the system through which society is ruled and governance is
the act of ruling or being ruled.

Democracy refers to the type of government in which people elect government
representatives.

There are different types of governments e.g. democracy, dictatorship,
absolute monarchy etc.

Government is divided into three branches of executive, legislature and
judiciary.

Common characteristics of good governance are accountability, transparency,
rule of law and consultation.

There are a number of institutions that promote good governance such as IEC,
DCEC, Office of the Ombudsman, Ntlo Ya Dikgosi and the Media.

Botswana uses an electoral system called ‘First Past The Post’ in which the
winner of the constituency or ward is the candidate with the highest number of
votes than the next competitors.

Voter apathy refers to low turnout in general elections.

Revision questions
1. Define the following terms:
a. Democracy
b. Constitution
c. Rule of law
d. Social contract
e. National referendum (5)
2. Discuss five characteristics of a democratic government. (10)
3. Outline how government is formed in Botswana. (10)
4. State five roles of the Office of the Ombudsman in promoting good governance. (5)
5. Explain five weaknesses of Botswana’s electoral system. (10)
6. Explain reasons for voter apathy in Botswana. (10)

CITIZENSHIP IN BOTSWANA
Introduction
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Citizenship denotes belonging and identifying oneself with a particular group. A

citizen is a person who has rights and responsibilities within a particular group.
Citizenship is commonly used to refer to belonging to a particular country (national
citizenship) but it is not only restricted to one’s country. There are other levels of
citizenship such as family, community, continent and global citizenship. National
citizens are entitled to certain rights and responsibilities within the country in which
they are citizens. For example, Botswana citizens have the right to vote, hold political
office and own property. Rights of national citizens may vary from one country to
another depending on the type of government that is in place. In democratic countries
like Botswana citizens enjoy more rights than in non-democratic countries.
There are a number of ways in which people attain national citizenship and this may
also vary from one country to the other. In Botswana people mostly attain citizenship
through birth, descent and naturalisation. Through citizenship education citizens learn
positive attitudes such as being tolerant to other people’s cultural, political and
religious views or practices. Citizenship is about learning to live together as a
community, both within your own country and beyond. A good citizen also
participates in activities such as elections and other activities which benefit the
community.

Ways of acquiring citizenship in Botswana

The 1998 citizenship act provides for six ways of acquiring citizenship in Botswana.
They are birth, descent, settlement, adoption, naturalisation and Presidential
dispensation
a. Citizenship by birth
It means that a child born in Botswana acquires citizenship when at the time of birth
either the mother or father (or both) was a citizen of Botswana.
b. Citizenship by descent
The act provides that a person born outside Botswana shall be a citizen of Botswana if
at the time of birth his father or mother was a citizen of Botswana.
c. Citizenship by settlement
A person who settled in Botswana immediately before 30th September 1966, and has
lived as a member of a particular tribe or community, shall if he or she so wishes,
make a declaration of his or her intention in a prescribed form and become a citizen of
Botswana. This citizenship can also be extended to natural-born children of such a
person born before 30th September 1966.
d. Citizenship by adoption or registration.
Citizenship by adoption denotes citizenship given to a foreign child of not more than
3 years inherited under written laws. However this is only possible if one of the
adopters or both adopters are citizens of Botswana. If a child of more than 3 years old
and less than 21 years is adopted by a citizen of Botswana the Minister shall authorise
such a child to be a citizen of Botswana through registration.
e. Citizenship by naturalisation
The Minister (Labour and Home Affairs) may grant a certificate of naturalisation to a
person of full age, which is a person aged 21 years and above and of sound mind. The
act prescribes that any foreigner who wishes to be Motswana through naturalisation
shall satisfy the Minister that:

He or she has been resident of Botswana for a continuous period of 12 months
before date of application for a certificate of naturalisation.

He or she must have been resident of Botswana for at least 10 years.

Must be of good character.
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He or she has sufficient knowledge of Setswana language or any language

spoken by any tribal community in Botswana.

He or she intends, in the event of a certificate of naturalisation being granted,
to reside in Botswana.
f. Presidential dispensation (honorary citizenship)
This is a special kind of citizenship given to a foreigner by the President if he feels
that the person has contributed significantly to the welfare of the country.

Qualities of a good citizen

A good citizen is the one who knows his or her rights and responsibilities. A good
citizen should perform the following:

All citizens aged 18 or above should vote in genera1 elections and national
referendum.

Defend and represent the country with pride and dignity.

Participate in development activities aimed at improving the welfare of the
country e.g. litter-picking, tree planting and crime prevention.

Respect the law stated in the constitution.

Respect the rights of other citizens.

Sympathise with the less fortunate such as orphans, handicapped and
destitutes.

Share scarce resources with other members of the society.

Use resources in a sustainable manner so that future generations can also
benefit from the same resources.

All citizens formally employed should pay tax when required so that money
accumulated can be used to develop other economic sectors.

Guard against misuse and vandalism of government property e.g. by reporting
corruption and economic crime.

Rights and responsibilities of citizens

A right is something that all people are entitled to enjoy. Every person in Botswana is
entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual regardless of
ethnicity, sex, race or political affiliation. As a democratic country Botswana gives its
citizens most of the rights and freedoms listed under the UN’s Charter on Human
Rights. These rights are written in the constitution. Examples of such rights are:
Civil and political rights:

the right to live

right to nationality

freedom of movement, expression and association

right to vote

freedom from torture, slavery, inhuman treatment

right to take part in government activities

right to a fair treatment by the law

right to marry and establish own family
Social and cultural rights:

right to work and be given equal pay for the job done

right to leisure and rest

right to privacy

right to education

right to own property

right to physical and mental health
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Responsibilities of citizens

serve the country with pride and dignity

obeying and upholding the constitution

prevention of crime

Participate in national activities e.g. general elections

defending the country from internal and external enemies

respecting the rights of other citizens

The right of the state to its citizens

right to rule as it has been given the mandate by the people during elections

sign treaties or agreements with other countries or organisations on behalf of
citizens

protect basic human rights

make decisions on behalf of the citizens e.g. whether the country should
borrow money from international organisations or not

make or amend laws that are used to run the country

hold regular elections so that leaders can be re-elected or voted out

take action against individuals, groups, or organisations that violate
constitutional law

Responsibilities of the state to its citizens

For citizens to be peaceful and progressive the state has to provide the following:

providing health services like hospitals and clinics throughout the country

establishing the police and defence force to maintain law and order in the
country

provide primary, secondary and tertiary education to develop human resources

protect basic human rights and freedoms of citizens by promoting equality and
justice

provide transport and telecommunication networks in both rural and urban
areas

promotion of 5 national principles that contribute to kagisano (social harmony)

create employment for citizens by setting up industries and other employment
creating institutions

The role of the state to its citizens

As outlined above citizens expect their government to provide them with basic
facilities such as schools, roads and hospitals. Government, as elected by people, is
supposed to represent the interests of the people. Electorates have the liberty to inform
their representatives such as councillors and MPs about the developments that they
need in their regions. However, it is not automatic that government will always
deliver what electorates have asked for as government has the power to decide on
what to do at a particular time and region. It is upon the government to prioritise
development projects through drafting of the National Development Plan.
It is common that the state may seem to be developing other regions more than others
and this often brings dissatisfaction amongst other citizens. Usually government
brings services to regions which have more people. Some regions may also be
developed because they have certain natural resources that need special infrastructure,
for instance, when minerals are discovered in an undeveloped area there is need to
provide basic facilities and services such as electricity, roads and water. These
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services are important for the daily operations of the mine. Without one of them it
would be difficult for the mine to run smoothly.
The state also has the role of protecting its citizens through formulation of laws that
are used to administer the country. Government is supposed to make sure that those
laws are respected by both citizens and non-citizens. It should take appropriate action
against those who violate such laws. This includes taking action against those who
abuse the rights of others. Government has established institutions such as Botswana
Defence Force and the Botswana Police to enforce laws.
Employment creation for citizens is also a responsibility of government. Government
can create employment by establishing industries and other institutions in both rural
and urban areas so that all people can benefit. Government can also create
employment through creation of policies that will help to attract foreign investors. For
instance, through Botswana Export Development and Investment Authority
(BEDIA) government tries to lure investors into the country so that they can open up
business that will create employment for citizens.

The importance of the youth, ethnic minorities and women in promoting

participatory democracy and responsible citizenry.
a. Youth

They are the future leaders of the society and their empowerment is an
investment for the country as they will acquire leadership qualities.

If they are employed they can contribute through payment of tax. Employment
of the youth will also reduce the number of people who would otherwise be
cared for by the government.

They are the most active members of the society and they can ensure that their
society is progressive in terms of development by participating in the
following ways:
a. Participate in sports and cultural activities.
b. Take part in general elections and national referendum.
c. Stand for positions of responsibility such as being MPs and councilors.
d. Attend kgotla meetings and contribute during discussions.
e. Initiate development projects by forming associations aimed at raising the
standard of living.
f. Fight for their rights in a peaceful manner and remind government to
address issues that affect them such as teenage pregnancy, HIV/AIDS and
passion killings.

b. Women
Women are an important part of society and their involvement in participatory
democracy is important as women can address issues of inequality and other problems
affecting them. For a long time women have been disadvantaged in many ways such
as having limited access to education and employment opportunities. The
involvement of women in participatory democracy can be enhanced through the
following ways:

Women should challenge for positions of responsibility especially those that
had been dominated by men such as MPs and councilors, chiefs etc. If women
hold such leadership positions they will be better placed to address issues such
as oppression and gender stereotypes.

Advocate for their rights to eliminate gender inequality as exemplified by
Unity Dow who challenged the constitution over citizenship acquisition.
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Address social ills such as abuse and oppression by forming more pressure
groups such as Emang Basadi and Women Against Rape.

Defend their societies and be quality leaders e.g. Lydia Nyati-Ramahobo who
advocates for the rights of Wayei and Winnie Mandela who fought for the
rights of Black people in South Africa during the apartheid era.

c. Ethnic Minorities
These are groups that were not part of the ‘eight main tribes’ during the colonial
period. This includes ethnic groups such as Bakalanga, Hambukushu, Herero, Wayei,
Bakgalagadi etc. The policy of ‘divide and rule’ divided the nation into ‘minor and
major’ groups. Members of ‘minor groups’ often feel discriminated against and as a
result they exclude themselves from the affairs of the country. Involvement of such
groups will promote cultural tolerance and mutual understanding which are important
components of nation-building. Ethnic minorities should enhance their participation
by;

Fighting for equal recognition of all groups e.g. ‘minority groups’ successfully
called for the cancellation of terms ‘minor’ and ‘major’ from the constitution.

Emphasise equality before the law so that people can be treated equally
regardless of race, political opinion, origin e.g. they have successfully
advocated for their representation in the house of chiefs.

Eliminate ethnic rivalries brought about by colonialism and join hands for
collective development the country.

Ways of facilitating or promoting peace in a democratic country like Botswana.

There is need for different groups (cultural, political, spiritual and ethnic) to work
hand in hand with each other so that peace and harmony can prevail in the country.
Lack of cooperation amongst such groups can breed tensions, discrimination,
intolerance and civil wars. In order to achieve peace and harmony outlined in Vision
2016 various groups can do the following:
a. Cultural Groups
These are groups that have been formed to fulfill the interests and aims of a particular
ethnic or cultural group. Various ethnic groups have formed their own associations to
campaign for their rights and ambitions e.g. Mbungu Wa Kathimana (Hambukushu),
Kamanakao (Wayei), Society for Promotion of Ikalanga Language (Bakalanga). Such
cultural associations can achieve peace through the following ways:

Organising cultural exchange festivals so that they can exchange talents and
cultural knowledge on stage e.g. maitisong festival. This will promote good
relations between cultural groups.

Promotion of intermarriages across cultural groups as this practice can
promote good relations between cultural groups.

Organising seminars and conferences where cultural groups can come together
to discuss issues of concern and solve them peacefully.

Educate people about the importance or respecting other people’s culture so as
to eliminate intolerance.

b. Ethnic Groups
Botswana is a multi-ethnic state. It is made up of groups such as Bakwena,
Bakgalagadi, Wayei, Bakalanga etc. For peace to prevail these groups can be united in
the following ways:
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Bury differences brought by colonialism (e.g. differences between Bangwato

and Bakalanga ba-ka Nswazwi) and join hands to develop the country.

Those in power should balance regional development so that no ethnic group
can feel discriminated against.

Promote intermarriages to enhance social harmony between the groups

Skilled personnel should also be spread evenly throughout the country so that
all ethnic groups can benefit.

c. Political Groups
This refers to political parties and other organisations with political aims. These
groups can strive for peace through the following ways:

Give people equal opportunities to vote and to stand for positions of
responsibility.

Accept the fact that people have varying political opinions and therefore
people should tolerate others political opinions to avoid wars that have
political causes e.g. wars between ZANU PF and MDC in Zimbabwe (Mugabe
versus Tsvangirai).

Promote justice and equality for all people.

Having regular and fair elections across all regions.

d. Religious groups
These are groups such as churches and other religious institutions. They can achieve
peace and unity through the following;

Promote tolerance of other religions. There are many religions in Botswana
and each religion deserves to be respected and appreciated to avoid religious
wars like those between Christians and Muslims in countries such as Nigeria
and Pakistan.

Give every person the right to worship any religion of choice.

Equal recognition of all religious denominations.

Modern and traditional attributes of citizenship

Traditional attributes of citizenship are qualities or characteristics that could show a
person’s citizenship in the past. In the past citizenship could be shown by the
following:

Location (Ward): The ward to which a person belonged gave that person an
identity because each ward was associated with a particular group of people.
Wards mostly comprised of people who were related.

Language: In the past people could easily identify each other through spoken
language. Each ethnic group has distinct dialects which may be used to
differentiate them from others e.g. the use of -tla by Bakgatla.

Age-regiments (mephato): In the past when bogwera and bojale were
practiced graduates of a particular initiation were given a name which differed
from those of previous and upcoming graduates. Such names also differed
from one ethnic group to the other. Some people could identify themselves
using those names.

Communal land: This refers to land that belongs to all members of a
particular community or ethnic group. Having rights over a certain communal
land could also show citizenship.
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Dress: In the past some ethnic groups had their own style of clothing or attire
which differed from that of other ethnic groups e.g. Herero women wear long
dresses.

Food: Different types of food could symbolise citizenship as some ethnic
groups had their own type of food e.g. Baherero (omaere) and Bakgatla (ting).

Beliefs: Ethnic groups had different religions e.g. belief in Mwali is associated
with Bakalanga.

Totem: A totem is an animal, plant or any object that has a spitual connection
with a particular ethnic group. Different ethnic groups have their unique
totems e.g. phuti (duiker) is a totem for Bangwato, kwena (crocodile)
represents Bakwena and tshwene (baboon) is a symbol for Bahurutshe.
Modern attributes of citizenship include national boundaries, passport, identity card,
national symbols (e.g. coat of arms, flag, and national anthem) and currency. Whereas
traditional attributes mainly showed citizenship at family and community level
modern attributes are more at national level. In modern days citizenship through
location is reflected through the use of national boundaries. Wards no longer show
citizenship as any person can be given a plot anywhere regardless ethnicity. Age
regiments are almost non-existent as only a few ethnic groups still practice initiation.
The use of language as an indicator of citizenship has become unreliable as a result of
acculturation. For example, the use of –tla in Setswana vocabulary no longer shows
that the person is a Mokgatla.

Global Identity
Since all people live in the world this makes them global citizens. Global identity
means identifying yourself as a citizen of the world and having the right to travel and
live in many countries and continents. However, if a person travels to other countries
he or she may need some proofs of identity such as passports, identity card or a visa.
Global citizenry is about belonging to the world and paying respect to international
laws and human rights through international organisations such as the UN,
Commonwealth and Red Cross. As global citizens we are responsible for looking
after our planet and safeguarding it for future generations. Global citizens also need to
be conscious of the consequences of their actions and the impacts they may have on
others.

Qualities of an individual who has a sound sense of global identity

Respecting the rights of other citizens of the world.

Participation and contribution to the community within which one lives from
family issues to global issues.

Taking responsibility for ones action as it begins with the individual.

Eliminating social injustices such as tribalism and racial discrimination
throughout the world.

Tolerance and appreciation of people of different nationalities, ethnicity and
cultural backgrounds.

Willingness to cooperate and work with people from other countries for the
benefit of the entire world e.g. working for organisations such as the Red
Cross.

Being compassionate to the less fortunate or disadvantaged members of
society throughout the world.

Impacts of globalisation on Batswana citizens

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Globalisation is the process by which the ideas and activities of people in different
countries across the world become interconnected and interdependent. No society on
earth lives in isolation from others; even the richest countries are not entirely self-
sufficient. There are certain goods and services that they acquire from developing or
undeveloped countries. Globalisation makes the world seem like a small planet or one
country, hence the expression that we now live in a “global village”. People can
communicate with each other throughout the world through newspapers, telephones
and the internet. Due to globalization events that occur in one country can influence
events in other countries e.g. political tensions in Zimbabwe have led to illegal
immigrants in Botswana and the depreciation of the Euro (European currency) can
lead to decreased profits made by Botswana’s exports in European markets.

Advantages of globalisation
Economic:

Developed countries and international organisations such as International
Monetary and World Bank can offer loans and grants to developing countries
like Botswana.

Removal of trade barriers between Botswana and other SADC member states
e.g. free movement of goods.

It has made it possible for Botswana to have access to goods and services
found in other countries e.g. machinery, skilled personnel, medicine, food etc.

It has resulted in an increase in foreign investments in Botswana as the
investors have information on Botswana’s economy e.g. there are many
multinational companies that operate in Botswana.

Increase in the number of employed Batswana as more jobs are created as a
result of an increase in direct foreign investment.
Social:

Countries can assist each other in times of troubles such as wars, famine and
natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis etc.

Cultural enrichment due to interaction of many people from different cultural
backgrounds.

Exchange of skilled personnel, ideas and information e.g. medical expertise.

Political:

Results in adoption of democratic ideas and principles of good governance
such as respect for human rights as emphasised by international organisations
such as Amnesty International and the United Nations.

Globalisation has increased and strengthened contacts and relationships
between countries, hence Botswana can rely on other countries for support
when her sovereignty and territorial integrity is under threat.

Negative Impacts of globalisation

Economic:

Foreigners may compete for limited jobs with the local people. Most high
paying jobs are often occupied by foreigners especially in the private sector.

Monopoly of trade and markets by rich countries and thus increasing
inequalities between rich and poor countries.

Multi-national companies out-compete local companies and this consequently
leads to the collapse of local companies.
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Restrictions on trade by international organisations e.g. Botswana and other

countries may not be allowed to trade with countries that are blacklisted by
organisations such as Amnesty International.

Influence by global economic forces e.g. global economic recession,
fluctuating market prices, devaluation of currency.
Social:

Loss of culture due to increased interactions between Batswana and people
from different cultural backgrounds.

Contagious diseases may be brought into the country by foreigners because of
the free and quick movement of people between countries.

Increased crime due to exchange of ideas by Botswana based criminals with
other foreign criminals. Foreigners may smuggle in prohibited substances such
as marijuana, mandrax and cocaine. There are now cases of well planned
armed robberies due to influx of fire-arms from neighboring countries.

Brain-drain; Botswana often loses skilled personnel to more developed
countries such as Britain, USA and Canada.

Influx of illegal immigrants especially from neighboring countries such as
Zimbabwe. Illegal immigrants are associated with many problems such as
crimes and prostitution. Repatriation of such immigrants also puts pressure on
government budget.
Political:

Interference in the affairs of Botswana by other countries and international
organisations as they put pressure on the government to adopt policies
followed by developed countries. Some pressure organisations may interfere
in domestic issues e.g. the involvement of Amnesty International in the
Marietta Bosch case.

Botswana is compelled to take sides in global issues such as “the war on
terrorism”, which can ultimately make the country a target for the “terrorists”

Exaggeration of issues by international organisations e.g. Survival
International gave wrong information to the world about the way Basarwa
were treated in Old Xade.

The importance of the UN Charter of Human Rights in promoting sound global

citizenry.
In 1948 the UN issued a declaration on human rights. These rights are regarded as the
foundation of freedom, justice and peace throughout the world. The charter describes
all the rights to which all human beings should be entitled and stresses that everyone
should be treated without discrimination of any kind such as race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political opinion etc. They include the right to life, own property,
vote, nationality, freedom of movement, opinion and association etc. These rights go
hand in hand with responsibilities and the consideration of the rights of others. The
charter guides countries on how they should handle citizens throughout the world.
Countries that abuse these rights are often sanctioned or blacklisted by international
organisations such as Amnesty International.

The role of international organisations in sustaining human life, dignity and

peace
International Red Cross
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Provides services such as food, shelter, clothing and medicine. Similar

services can also be provided to victims of natural disasters such as floods,
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Encourages governments to treat people with respect and dignity especially
refugees and prisoners.

Provides relief to people displaced due to factors such as natural disasters and
wars.

Donates blood to people who need a supply of more blood.
(Discussed further in Chapter 7)

Amnesty International
This organisation is concerned with fighting for human rights throughout the world.
Its aims include:

Ensuring that prisoners are treated justly, especially those jailed for political
and religious reasons.

Persuading governments to end capital punishment and all forms of torture

Making public the names of those countries that abuse human rights.

Campaigns for transparency in elections.

Campaigns against dictatorship and bad governance.
This organisation can blacklist a country i.e. it can influence other countries or
international donors not to trade with or assist a country that abuses human rights e.g.
during Marietta Bosch’s case this organisation unsuccessfully tried to persuade
European Union member-states not to buy diamonds from Botswana as they were
referred to as “blood diamonds”. Botswana was deemed to be abusing human rights
by practising capital punishment.

UN Peace-keeping Forces
These are soldiers from various UN member states that are assembled to carryout
some military assignments on countries affected by wars and other crises such as
human rights abuses. The role of these soldiers is to work on behalf of the UN to
prevent more conflicts or crises in some parts of the world. They can also be deployed
to fight terrorist groups that threaten world peace such as Al Qaeda. These soldiers
also do relief activities such as supplying food and medicine to areas where they are
needed. They have performed many peace-keeping missions in countries such as
Rwanda, Bosnia, Afghanistan and Somalia. They can also do other activities such as:

Implementing and monitoring ceasefires in areas affected by wars.

Patrolling ceasefire zones between warring factions.

Monitoring disarmament of local troops.

Clearing landmines and other devices that are a threat to civilian lives.

Creating a conducive environment for rebuilding infrastructure and political
institutions e.g. helping to ensure that elections are run freely and fairly.

Survival International
It is concerned with the protection of rights of nomadic groups whose survival is
threatened by development. This includes groups such as the Aborigines of Australia
and Basarwa of Southern Africa. In Botswana this organisation has succeeded in
preventing Basarwa from being forcibly removed from the Central Kalahari Game
Reserve (CKGR) to New Xade.
(Discussed further in chapter 7)
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Southern African Development Community (SADC)

This organisation of Southern African states was formed in 1980 and its headquarters
are in Gaborone. It was originally called Southern African Development Coordination
Conference (SADCC) and in 1992 it was restructured and renamed Southern African
Development Community (SADC). The main aims of SADC are to:

Promote economic development of memberstates.

Reduce economic dependence of memberstates on South Africa and other
external sources.

Promote peace and security in the region.
In addition to the above aims SADC also encourages exchange of skilled personnel
between memberstates, free trade, building of infrastructure together, environmental
management and unity of member-states to obtain foreign aid. SADC plays
diplomatic roles in resolving wars or political crises in memberstates e.g. it has played
a significant role in addressing political instability in Zimbabwe. SADC also sends
election observers in member-states to ensure free and fair elections.

The European Union (EU)

This organisation is made up of European countries and its aims are to promote
greater economic and political integration in Europe. The EU also provides
development funds to developing countries such as Botswana and other members of
the Commonwealth organisation. The Lome Convention (now Suva Convention) is a
set of trade agreements signed between EU and the African, Caribbean and Pacific
(ACP) countries in 1975. The main agreement of the convention is that goods
imported into EU countries from ACP countries should not be taxed or charged
import duty. The EU also provides assistance to ACP countries in areas such as
forestry, protection, tourism, education and mining.

(Note: Other international organisations that promote human life, dignity and peace
such as International Court of Justice and African Union have been discussed in
Chapter 7 under ‘The role of international organisations in conflict resolution’)

Assessment of global crises

These are events or occurrences that are of concern to all people throughout the
world. These problems often force countries to forget about their differences and
come together to solve the crises collectively. Serious global crises include
HIV/AIDS, Global Warming, Terrorism and Desertification.
a. Global Warming
This is the rise in the temperature of the atmosphere due to an increase in the amount
of air pollution due to the introduction of excess gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide, methane, water vapour, chlorofluorocarbons, ozone etc. We do need these
gases for various processes in the atmosphere but now so many are being emitted that
nature cannot cope. The main cause of global warming is excess carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is mostly increased naturally by volcanic eruptions and
veldfires caused by lightning. It can also be increased by human activities such as
burning of fossil fuels and smokes from vehicles. These gases absorb reflected
radiation from the earth and this consequently raises the temperature of the
atmosphere. This process is called green-house effect. For the last 100 years or so the
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increasing use of fossil fuels has put more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This has
raised global temperature by ½ degrees celsius. There are fears that as carbon dioxide
continues to build up in the atmosphere, world temperatures will continue to rise.
Global warming is of concern to the whole world because it has the following
negative effects:

A rise in the earth’s temperature may lead to melting of Polar Regions (areas
covered with ice such as Antarctica).

The melting of Polar Regions will flood rivers and raise the level of the sea.

A rise in sea level will submerge or inundate settlements along the sea coasts.

There will be climatic changes due to an imbalance in atmospheric gases.

Habitats of plants and animals will be destroyed especially those that live in
areas covered with ice e.g. polar bears.

Extinction of plants and animals species due to damaged ecosystems.

Reduced crop and forest productivity due to altered composition of gases
which may affect processes such as photosynthesis.

b. HIV/AIDS
As discussed in Chapter 3 HIV/AIDS is a problem that affects all government
throughout the world. As there is not yet a cure for AIDS it remains a challenge to
entire world as all countries are affected. The first case of HIV/AIDS in Botswana
was diagnosed in 1985 and since then it has spread rapidly starting in the urban and
extending to rural areas. The global strategy for AIDS control is to stop the spread of
HIV/AIDS worldwide by attacking every mode of transmission in all countries using
scientific and educational tools. Negative impacts HIV/AIDS include the following:

Loss of active and working population: In most cases the disease attacks
people aged between 18 and 55. This age group forms the core of the working
population and this consequently reduces the workforce. Most of the affected
manpower has been trained at the expense of government which means
government incurs some losses and it has to train other personnel to replace
those killed by AIDS.

Reduced productivity: The early and unexpected death leads to reduced
productivity and manpower at the workplace. A lot of time spent on looking
for medication and on sick leave has serious negative impacts on productivity.

Increase in death rate: HIV/AIDS is the number one killer in the world. In
Botswana it has overtaken other fatal diseases and road accidents as the major
cause of deaths.

Reduced life expectancy: High deaths also result in reduced life expectancy
and a high proportion of young and very old population which may need
government support. For example, Botswana’s life expectancy fell from 65.3
years in 1991 to 55.6 years in 2001.

Pressure on government budget: A lot of money is used by government to
buy preventive medication such as ARV drugs and this consequently leads to
reduced investment in other economic sectors and ignorance of other fatal
diseases. For example, in the 2007/08 budget, healthcare expenditure,
including HIV/AIDS accounted for 20% of government’s total development
expenditure.

Loss of breadwinners: Some families may lose very important people leading
to their collapse. Loss of breadwinners may result in poverty and increased
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number of orphans who mainly end up as street children. There will be more
destitutes who need government support.

Stigma and discrimination: The family has to cope with the stigma of the
virus and victims might isolate themselves from major family and community
activities. The stigma also entails negative implications on the mental status of
the individual as well as the family.

c. Terrorism
These are acts of violence usually carried out by small (at times large) groups of
people in order to achieve certain goals which may be religiously or politically
motivated. Such acts of violence have increased due to contrasting foreign policies of
certain countries and religious differences. Such terrorist groups include Al Qaeda
founded by Osama Bin Laden, Boko Haraam in Nigeria and Al Shabaab in Somalia.
Terrorists use a wide range of techniques such as planting explosives, hijacking,
kidnapping, biological weapons and cyber-terrorism.
Examples of some terrorist activities are:

September 11 (2001) attacks on New York.

Bombing of US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.

1988 Lockerbie plane bombing in Scotland.

2002 train bombing in Spain.
Such terrorist activities are hard to control because they are very secretive and have
resulted in loss of innocent lives. Some of the terrorist activities are allegedly
sponsored by some governments who do not want to promote world peace. Countries
such as Iraq, Syria and Iran have often been implicated in supporting acts of terrorism.
Terrorism is a global crisis because of the following negative effects:

It leads to loss of lives of innocent people as they are killed during bombings
and hijackings.

Destruction of valuable property e.g. buildings, roads, bridges, airports etc.

Separation of families as others are killed whilst some run away to seek refuge
in other countries.

Spreads fear and panic as some people are unwilling to travel especially by air
as they fear that terrorists might hijack their planes. This disrupts business
especially the airline industry.

Disruption of world trade or markets as countries supporting terrorists’
activities may be sanctioned from international trade.

Disruption of world peace and stability as terrorism may lead to exchange of
fire between governments and terrorists e.g. war on terror between the US led
coalition forces and Taliban regime in Afghanistan in 2001.

High expenditure on security services so as to protect people from such acts of
violence.

Pressure on a country’s budget as more money is used to reconstruct or
rehabilitate what has been destroyed by terrorists. This may also delay
developments of other aspects of the economy.

d. Desertification
This is the process by which deserts are formed. The sizes of world deserts are
continuously increasing due to climatic changes and the activities of people and their
livestock. The rapid increase of human population enhances desertification through
overgrazing, over-cultivation and deforestation. Natural disasters such as frequent
droughts also have a helping hand in desertification.
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Negative effects of desertification are:

Extinction of plant species that are vital to both animals and people

Loss of habitats of animals and disturbance of the ecosystem

Loss of soil quality making it unsuitable for agricultural production

Loss of trees reduces the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere and this
alters climate.

Rise in temperature leading to global warming.

Involuntary migrations which may lead to environmental refugees

Loss of flat lands as gullies and dongas develop.

Reduction in the level of underground water.

Increased erosion leading to silting of rivers and dams.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

Citizenship means belonging and identifying oneself with a particular group.

There are many levels of citizenship such as family, community, nation,
continent and globe.

There are six ways of acquiring citizenship in Botswana; birth, descent,
adoption, naturalisation, honour and settlement.

Globalisation is the interconnection and interdependence between people
throughout the world.

Many international organisations such as UN, Amnesty International and Red
Cross promote human life, dignity and peace across the whole world.

The world is faced with serious crises such as HIV/AIDS, global warming,
terrorism and desertification.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms or concepts:
i. Citizen
ii. Participatory democracy
iii. Economic sanctions
iv. Terrorism
v. Globalisation (6)
2. a. Discuss five ways of acquiring citizenship in Botswana. (10)
b. State four possible reasons why a foreigner who applies for citizenship in
Botswana may not be granted citizenship. (4)
3. Explain three ways of promoting peace between cultural groups in Botswana. (6)
4. Explain five ways in which globalisation can negatively affect the economy of
Botswana. (10)
5. Outline three roles of each of the following international organisations in
promoting
human life, dignity and peace.
i. International Red Cross
ii. Amnesty International
iii. International Court of Justice (9)
6. Discuss three negative impacts of terrorism. (6)

TOTAL: 50 Marks

CHAPTER NINE
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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Introduction
Countries, just like people, have relationships with each other and there is no country
that can exist without interacting with other countries in one way or the other. There is
no country (including the richest countries) which has everything that it needs to
survive and develop. Countries can interact with each other economically, socially
and politically. Countries trade with each other to get what they need e.g. Botswana
buys products from other countries such as cars, petrol and machinery. Other
countries also buy local products such as beef, diamonds and textiles. These official
contacts or interactions between countries are known as international relations.
International relations can also be between a country and an international organisation
(e.g. Botswana and European Union) or between two international organisations (e.g.
SADC and SACU). Botswana, like many countries, has many official relations with
other countries in Africa and beyond e.g. she deals with the European Union and is a
member of United Nations Organisation, African Union and Commonwealth. She is
also a member of regional organisations such as SADC and SACU.
International relations play an important role in Botswana’s socio-economic and
political development. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
is tasked with playing a leading role in promoting Botswana’s interests abroad as well
as contributing to causes of common good at regional, continental and international
level. The ministry also sells opportunities Botswana offers as well as seeking
opportunities in the international arena which could be of benefit to Botswana’s socio-
economic development. Through her foreign policy Botswana has earned a good
name in the international community. She has been credited for democratic principles
and respect for human rights. Such qualities will go a long way in selling Botswana to
the outside world and also promoting mutual respect between her and other countries.

Importance of International Relations

Enhance mutual understanding and peace between countries: Countries
that have good international relations are unlikely to go to war. Disputes
between such countries are always solved through diplomacy e.g. the dispute
between Botswana and Namibia over the ownership of Sedudu Island was
resolved diplomatically by the International Court of Justice.

Promotes assistance between countries: International relations can make
countries work together and help each other in times of troubles e.g. Botswana
helping Mozambique during the 2001 floods. Botswana also expects other
countries to assist her if she experiences problems like wars and natural
disasters.

Protection of national interests: Countries deal with each other in order to
protect their national interests which are known to other countries through
diplomacy. Through international relations countries can encourage each other
to respect human rights by condemning and even imposing some sanctions on
those governments that abuse human rights e.g. Libya was banned from
participating in all international sporting activities after failing to handover
suspects of the Lockerbie plane bombing in 1988.

Promotes trade: Countries that are in good terms often have some trade
agreements e.g. free movement of goods for SACU member-states within any
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member country. Through international relations countries can buy and sell
goods to each other.

Cultural enrichment: Countries also help each other in exchanging important
cultural aspects such as technology. Sharing technology and expertise helps to
promote development between developed and developing countries.

Exchange of skilled personnel: Countries having good relations often
exchange skilled personnel to promote development of various sectors. Rich
countries often offer scholarships to students in developing countries and this
helps to develop the manpower of developing and undeveloped countries.

Principles that guide Botswana’s foreign policy

Foreign policy refers to the picture through which a country wants to be known by
others. Foreign policy is important as it determines how a country interacts with other
countries and international organisations. Botswana wants to be known as a
democratic and peaceful country In her international relations Botswana is guided by
the following principles:

Protection of national interest (consideration of Botswana first): The main
aim of Botswana’s foreign policy is to protect and promote her national
interest before the outside world. Decisions have to be made in the interest of
local people or the nation i.e. Botswana tries to satisfy the needs and wants of
Batswana before any other people.

Good neighbourliness: Botswana tries to be a good neighbour because she
believes in peace. Botswana maintains friendly relations with other countries,
helping others in times of disasters such as floods and resolving conflicts
peacefully. She believes in finding peaceful solutions to conflicts as evidenced
by her lack of support for any warring factions. This is shown by the Setswana
proverb ‘ntwa kgolo ke ya molomo’ which means that conflict is best solved
through negotiation.

Respect for International Law: Botswana is a democratic country that
believes in the rule of law. Botswana respects international law that is mainly
concerned with the legal rights and duties of independent countries. Through
bilateral and multilateral agreements countries accept general principles that
guide relations with others. Disobeying such laws may result in other countries
criticising Botswana and this may harm her national interests. If, for example,
the United Nations has made a resolution, Botswana, as a member state has to
abide by that resolution.

Respect for human rights: Botswana has signed the UN’s Charter on
Human Rights and condemns any violations of these rights. When dealing
with citizens of other countries Botswana respects their human rights. She also
expects other countries to respect the rights of Batswana living or traveling
within the borders of other countries. For example, when dealing with
refugees or prisoners of war Botswana has to do what is prescribed by the UN
Charter on Human Rights or the Geneva Convention.

Non-Interference: Botswana respects the sovereignty and territorial integrity
other countries i.e. Botswana does not get involved in the affairs of other
countries and would not command another country on how to manage its
resources or what type of government it should have in place. She also expects
other countries and international organisations not to get involved in her
internal affairs. This is emphasised by the Setswana saying ‘maragana teng a
bana ba mpa ga a tsenwe’.
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Respect for territorial integrity: All independent countries have clearly

defined territorial boundaries which are internationally accepted. Other
countries have to respect these boundaries if peace is to prevail between
nations. Botswana has vowed to respect the boundaries of other countries and
would not invade another country or allow any country to claim any land that
belongs to her without any agreement.

Non-alignment: Botswana as an independent nation does not want to be
aligned or seen as supporting a certain country or group of countries which
will in turn divide the world into different factions. Whenever there is a
dispute between two countries, instead of supporting one of the groups
Botswana would rather be neutral and support neither of the countries. After
2nd World War two superpowers emerged, both the Soviet Union and the USA
wanted to dominate the world. The tension between the two countries was
called the Cold War and it divided the world into two factions; the East and
the West. Some countries supported the US backed North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) and others supported the Russian backed Warsaw Pact.
Countries that supported neither the West (NATO) nor the East (Warsaw Pact)
established an organisation called Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). NAM
aimed promoting world peace and Botswana joined NAM because she did not
want to be involved in the Cold War. The principle of non-alignment in
conflict situations still guides Botswana’s foreign policy despite the end of
Cold War. When a country is always neutral it is trusted by others because it is
believed that when it is called to arbitrate it would do so without any favour or
bias. This means that it will arbitrate in a fair manner because it does not have
any friendship linkage with the countries involved in the conflict.

The Role of Botswana in International Relations (at regional, continental and

international level).
Regional level

Through membership of regional organisations such as SADC and SACU,
Botswana has contributed a lot to the development of the Southern African
region. Botswana’s sector responsibility in SADC is agricultural research,
livestock production and animal disease control. The headquarters of SADC
are in Gaborone, Botswana.

It facilitated peace keeping missions in the region, for example in
Mozambique (1992) and Lesotho (1998).

Botswana is one of those countries that criticised South Africa’s apartheid
policies that denied the majority of its citizens human rights and freedoms.
She is also vocal in condemning those leaders who abuse the rights of people
e.g. in 2008 she was one of the few SADC countries that openly criticised
Zimbabwean government for disrespecting the rights of Zimbabwean citizens.

Botswana government gave political asylum to citizens of South Africa,
Zimbabwe and Namibia during the struggle for liberation in those countries in
the 1980s.

Botswana also sends election observers to neighbouring countries whenever
elections are conducted, for example, Botswana sent election observers to
Zimbabwe in June 2008 and South Africa in April 2009.

Continental level
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Botswana became a member of African Union (AU) in 1966. The major aims
of AU are to promote African Unity, end colonialism and white minority rule
and to improve the standard of living of African people through cooperation.
To show her commitment to AU Botswana pays her membership and attends
AU meetings. Botswana supported AU’s disapproval of white minority rule,
apartheid and colonial rule.

Botswana also took part in various peacekeeping missions carried out under
the auspices of the AU in Somalia and Sudan. Botswana’s former president
Dr. Q.K.J. Masire was tasked with facilitating peace in the Democratic
Republic of Congo.

Botswana has also allowed its military facilities and territory to be used for
training by the military personnel from other countries in Africa and abroad
e.g. during Operation Thokgamo in 2005 and Operation Matsubutsubu in
2007.

Botswana has criticised those countries or leaders who abuse rights of their
citizens.
International level

Botswana is a member of UN and fully supports and abides by the laws and
regulations of this organisation. To show her commitment to the UN,
Botswana allows many UN agencies such as UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF and
WHO to work in Botswana. In 1995 and 1996 Botswana served as a non-
permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. This was the
highest call of duty that Botswana received ever since her membership to the
UN.

Botswana continues to contribute to UN efforts aimed at consolidating peace,
democracy and development in the world, particularly in Africa. Botswana
participated in UN peace-keeping missions as follows:
United Nations Operation in Mozambique (UNOMOZ ‘92-94)
-contributed military personnel.

United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM ‘93-94)

-contributed military personnel.

United Nations Observer Mission in Uganda and Rwanda(UNOMUR ‘93-94)

-contributed military personnel.

United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS 2005)

-contributed civilian personnel.

Through the UN Botswana also condemns acts of terrorism, abuse of human

rights and invasion of smaller states by powerful ones e.g. Iraq’s invasion of
Kuwait in 1990 and September 11 attacks on New York in 2001 by Al Qaeda
terrorists.

Botswana has also served in a number of United Nations bodies, including
among others, Commission on Population and Development, UN Human
Rights Commission, Commission on Status of Women and UN Environmental
Council.

Botswana has also contributed to global health in the form of services
provided by Batswana who were employed by the World Health Organisation
(WHO) in senior managerial positions such as former Health Minister Mrs.
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Joy Phumaphi and Dr. Maganu. Former Miss Universe Mpule Kwelagobe was
nominated UN’s Goodwill Ambassador for HI V/AIDS in the world.

How Botswana benefits from international relations at regional, continental and

international level.
Regional level:

Trade: Through membership of SACU Botswana’s imports move free of
charge in other SACU member states i.e. Botswana does not pay any tariffs
when her goods pass through other countries which are members of SACU.
Since Botswana is a landlocked country she also uses other country’s ports.
She has good relations with countries such as South Africa and uses ports such
as Durban and Cape Town to import and export her goods.

Acquisition of skilled personnel: Botswana also gets some technically skilled
people such as doctors, engineers, architects from other countries in region.
This helps to address the problem of shortage of skilled manpower especially
in science related jobs as local tertiary institutions do not produce enough of
such professionals.

Investment: Some foreign companies from the region especially South Africa
have opened up businesses in Botswana thereby creating jobs for Botswana
e.g. Pick and Pay, Group Five, Total, Multichoice etc. Botswana relies heavily
on South Africa for goods and services which include motor vehicles,
furniture, clothing, drugs, medical equipment and financial services. In 2004
alone, Botswana imported goods and services worth P17 billion, while exports
to South Africa stood at P2 billion. Normally countries invest on each other
when they have good international relations.

Cultural exchange: Historically, Botswana and her neighbours share
common cultural attributes such as customs, values and language. It is out of
this background that Botswana maintains some good relations with her
neighbours. People from neighbouring countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia
and South Africa often bring their cultural groups to come and perform in
Botswana. Likewise, Botswana’s cultural groups also perform in other
countries e.g. Botswana’s traditional music group, Matsieng, was invited by
the then President of South Africa Mr. Thabo Mbeki to perform in an official
function in South Africa in 2008.

Political cooperation: Countries are involved in international relations in
order to work together or help each other politically. In this way they
exchange political ideas and experiences thus helping each other to achieve
good governance e.g. when a head of state of a certain country visits another
country both the leaders share their politically experiences and ideas. In
addition to that when a certain ruling party in a country holds a convention
(meeting), delegates from another ruling party are invited to attend that
convention because the two countries have a relation e.g. when the BDP hold
their convention they can invite people from the African National Congress
(ANC) to attend the convention and can even become guest speakers.

Continental level:

Investment by companies from other countries outside the SADC region:
These companies create employment and generate government revenue
through taxation.
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Cultural exchange: Cultural visits by people from African states facilitate

exchange of culture. Batswana also go to other countries to learn their
cultures.

Acquisition of skilled manpower from beyond the SADC region: Botswana
acquires skilled labour especially from English speaking countries such as
Ghana and Nigeria.

Loans and grants: Botswana gets loans from other African countries and
continental organisations such as AU’s African Development Bank. These
loans and grants are used for development of the country.

Material aid during natural disasters: Some countries that have good
international relations with Botswana often offer aid when the country is
affected by disasters such as drought and floods. Aid can be in the form of
food, medicine and other commodities.

International level

Investment by Multi-National Companies (MNCs): Botswana has managed
to attract many companies from outside Africa such as Orange, Coca Cola,
Shell and Samsung. These companies create employment, pay tax, educate
locals and can also sponsor sporting activities. Most of these MNCs are
export-oriented and therefore bring foreign exchange to the country.

Acquisition of skilled manpower and technology: Some medical personnel
from Europe and Asia are also employed in Botswana hospitals. This technical
staff helps Botswana to improve her economy because they bring technology,
skills and knowledge which benefit our country in a huge way.

Market: Through her relations with many countries and international
organisations Botswana has managed to find a reliable market for her exports
e.g. Botswana’s diamonds and beef are mostly sold to European countries
through the European Union.

Foreign Aid: Botswana is able to acquire financial and material help from
developed countries like USA, China, Sweden and Britain e.g. In 2005 China
and Botswana signed an agreement in which China would provide 41 medical
staff, an interest free loan of P21 million for the establishment of recreational
park and botanical garden and a concessional loan of P150 million for the
construction of Phase 2 of the Letlhakeng-Morwamosu road.

Cultural exchange: Botswana does not only share or exchange her culture
with neighbouring countries but also with those countries that are
geographically located far away from her. She usually cooperates culturally
with far countries such as India and China by having some cultural exchange
programmes whereby cultural groups from each of these countries engage in
visits to showcase their unique cultures.

Challenges faced by Botswana in International relations.

Relationship with oppressive and undemocratic governments: Some
countries that have international relations with Botswana are often
characterised by autocratic and undemocratic regimes. In these countries the
rights of people are limited. Botswana is against such practices but she cannot
physically interfere with activities of such governments because she respects
their sovereignty and her own principles of non-interference and good
neighbourliness.
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Economic instability in the region: Botswana has official relations with

some economically disadvantaged countries especially in the SADC region.
Botswana is often obliged to assist such countries in times of economic and
social difficulties. This puts a strain on government revenue which could be
used to develop other economic sectors locally.

Illegal immigrants: Political instability and the downfall of the economies of
countries such as Zimbabwe expose Botswana to a number of problems. Many
illegal Zimbabwean immigrants have f1ocked into Botswana to avoid the
hostile situation in their country. These illegal Zimbabweans are associated
with many criminal activities and anti-social behaviour such as prostitution. It
also puts a strain on government budget as those immigrants have to be
transported back to their home countries. International migration has also led
to other types of crimes such as armed robbery, cyber-crime and smuggling of
prohibited drugs such as cocaine and mandrax.

Spread of diseases: Due to cross-border movements and interaction of
Batswana with people from other countries contagious diseases can be brought
into the country. Diseases such as AIDS, SARS and H1N1 have been brought
into the country due to international migration. Migration of people can also
bring in animal diseases such as foot and mouth.

Brain-drain: Botswana often loses skilled personnel to developed countries
such as Britain and USA. This disrupts the country’s budget as more people
have to be educated to replace those who migrated for greener pastures e.g.
during the late 90s many nurses left the country to go and work in Britain.
Some Batswana students studying abroad never come back after completing
their studies. Most of these migrants have been educated at the expense of
Botswana government and as such financial resources of the nation are being
wasted as government does not benefit from its investment in human resource
development.

“Big brother attitude”: Some economically strong countries like USA and
Britain often use poorer countries like Botswana to satisfy their political goals.
Such countries often want support from developing countries whenever they
want to pursue some controversial tasks e.g. USA and Britain wanted moral
support from countries such as Botswana in order to attack Iraq in 2003. Since
Botswana has been helped by the US and Britain on many occasions it became
hard for Botswana to openly condemn in fear of losing aid from such
countries.

Interference by rich countries or international organisations in
Botswana’s internal affairs: Botswana’s sovereignty is often disturbed by
international oganisations’ involvement in the running of the country
especially human rights organisations like Amnesty and Survival International
e.g. in 2006 Survival International successfully advocated for Basarwa not to
be removed from the CKGR. International organisations often disclose
national issues that can be solved locally to the entire world as exemplified by
Amnesty International during the Marrietta Bosch’s case. The organisation
unsuccessfully tried to lobby European Union countries to boycott buying of
Botswana’s diamonds which were labeled ‘blood diamonds’. Sometimes
international organisations often give false information about certain situations
to the international community in order to gain support e.g. Survival
International falsely informed the world that Basarwa were being tortured and
killed for refusing to vacate the CKGR. This practice has the potential to
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tarnish the image of the country and consequently scare away potential
investors.

Geographical location: Since Botswana is landlocked and far from countries
in the West, Europe, Asia and America, it is difficult to deal with or associate
with those countries. It is also expensive for Botswana to transport its imports
and exports to and from those countries.

Competition for markets: If Botswana is producing and selling similar
products with other countries there is likely to be a stiff competition resulting
from the prices and quality of products. Some countries might sell those
products at a much lower price because they incur cheaper production costs
whereas a developing country like Botswana will have to sell at a higher price
because the products may have been produced at a higher cost than those in
developed countries. This will lead to reduced market for Botswana’s products
as traders will go for the cheapest goods.

Fluctuation of prices in world markets: There are some important products
like food and fuel whose prices keep on going up and down and Botswana
does not have control over their prices. This usually makes it difficult for
Botswana to cope with increasing prices. Nowadays a barrel of petroleum is
very expensive. This has in turn increased the prices of other commodities in
the world like foodstuffs because for them to be manufactured and transported
petroleum products have to be used.

Unfair trade relations: Developed countries tend to swing trade relations in
their favour. They usually determine the prices of products in world markets
looking at their own economic status but not that of the producer. This
situation has adversely affected the economy of Botswana as the prices of
diamonds and other minerals are not determined by Botswana but by a Central
Selling Office in Britain. Also, some rich countries and international financial
institutions like International Monetary Fund (IMF) often give aid to
developing countries like Botswana with some strings attached. This presents
a problem to Botswana as some of the conditions attached may not be
beneficial to Botswana’s economic status e.g. awarding tenders to companies
from the donor country only.

Different efforts made in promoting international relations

Diplomatic relations: Countries that have good diplomatic relations are
unlikely to go to war as issues between them are always resolved by the use of
diplomacy rather than military action.

Cultural exchange programmes: They enhance mutual understanding
between countries. As people of different cultures interact with each other they
share certain cultural experiences which promote better understanding of each
other and hence peaceful relations.

Peace keeping operations: Through the UN and other international
organisations military personnel are often sent to countries that are affected by
wars and other forms of instability. The UN has successfully carried out many
peace-keeping operations in many countries throughout the world.

Membership of international organisations: Through bilateral and
multilateral relations countries often discuss issues of concern and take
appropriate decisions based on consensus. This prevents unnecessary conflicts
between nations.
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Acquisition of loans and grants from developed countries: This promotes

respect and friendly relations between the rich and poorer countries.

Non-interference with the internal affairs of other countries: Respecting
the sovereignty of other countries can prevent political confrontations between
countries that may result in unnecessary exchange of fire.

Economic and social sanctions: Countries are often prevented from trading
with others as a punishment for wrongdoings. Sanctions are meant to put
pressure on countries so that they operate in a manner that is acceptable.
Sanctions are commonly imposed on those countries that abuse human rights,
violate international agreements and the rights of other states.

Mediation and Arbitration: The International Court of Justice attends to
disputes between countries and passes judgement based on international law.
The ICJ also has the power to prosecute those individuals, leaders or groups
who abuse their powers by terrorising people, violating their rights and often
killing innocent people. It has taken to task many leaders who abused people’s
rights like Saddam Hussein (Iraq), Slobodan Milosevic (Yugoslavia) and
Charles Taylor (Liberia).

The Role of International Organisations in conflict resolution

a. The United Nations (UN)
This organisation was formed in 1945 and its headquarters are in New York, USA.
The UN aims to promote world peace and security. One of the major roles of the UN
is peacekeeping; the UN has carried out a number of military assignments to bring
peace in war torn countries such as Somalia and Mozambique. The UN has also
liberated oppressed people such as the Iraqis and Afghans. It has a number of
agencies that try to carryout its aims:

• Security Council
Through the Security Council the UN ensures that countries do not make weapons of
mass destruction as this threatens world peace. It attempts to solve dispute using three
dimensions;
-Diplomacy: This involves the use of dialogue or negotiations to solve disputes.
-Economic sanctions: When dialogue or diplomacy fails the Security Council uses
economic sanctions in which the UN members are encouraged not to have economic
dealings with a group or country which has been sanctioned.
-Military Interventions: When other means of resolving conflicts have failed UN
Security Council decides to send its troops to resolve the conflicts.

• International Court of Justice (ICJ)

The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations comprising 15 judges
who are each elected to a nine-year term of office and may be re-elected. Its
headquarters are in Hague, Netherlands. This UN agency solves disputes or conflicts
through investigations, trials and giving the final verdict or judgement which
members have to adhere to. It is a court that has been formed to solve international
disputes that may lead to wars and pass judgement based on international law. The
court can also clarify or interpret agreements between countries and international
organisations.
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On several occasions the court tried cases involving those leaders who abused human
rights whilst in power e.g. Slobodan Milosevic of Yugoslavia, Saddam Hussein of
Iraq and Charles Taylor of Liberia. It decides, in accordance with international law,
disputes of a legal nature submitted to it by states. The court has powers to settle
disputes over territorial matters, airspace and territorial sovereignty e.g. it mediated
between Botswana and Namibia over the ownership of Sedudu Island and ruled in
favour of Botswana. Certain international organisations and agencies are also entitled
to call upon it for advisory opinions.

b. African Union (AU)

The AU ensures that countries in Africa coexist peacefully and that Africa as a whole
is independent. The organisation also gives African countries the opportunity to come
up with collective strategies or plans around economic and political issues. The AU
has undertaken several peacekeeping missions, helped political refugees and
condemned oppressions and violations of human rights. The AU has worked hard to
bring about tolerance, cooperation and unity among African states. The AU has made
some gains in a number of areas:

Successfully supported the liberation of countries such as Zimbabwe,
Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.

Settled boundary disputes between Ethiopia and Somalia, Guinea and Senegal,
Kenya and Somalia.

Resolved political crises caused by disputed presidential elections in Kenya in
2007.

c. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

The purpose of NAM is to stand for peace in the world. It opposes any interference in
the affairs of Third World countries by the big powers. Member states of NAM will
always remain neutral in any political factions. NAM encourages member states to
protect their sovereignty by opposing interference into the affairs of member states
especially by big powers. It has fought against apartheid and for the liberation of
countries such as Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia and Angola.

d. International Red Cross

This is non-profit making organisation formed to help all human beings who are in
need equally. It assists those people in need of social and health services in poor or
countries that are ravaged by wars. The organisation encourages the use of dialogue
instead of fighting when people, groups or countries have some differences. If
dialogue fails and there is bloodshed the International Red Cross gives medical
attention to those people who have been injured during the war regardless of the
faction to which they belong. It also takes care of prisoners of war (POW’S) from
both fighting factions and ensures that they are treated well during their captivity by
always visiting and interviewing them. When the conflict has ended the International
Red Cross unites family members who have been separated from their families
because of war. It also gives information on whether some people have died during
the war or not to their relatives. The organisation also specialises in donating blood to
people who have blood deficiencies due to sickness or injury.

e. Survival International
It fights against the violation of human rights through exposing groups or countries
that violate human rights to the whole world. It exposes these groups or countries with
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the hope that if their deeds are publicised they will refrain from violating human
rights. If publicising fails then Survival International resorts to encouraging other
international organisations and countries not to have dealings with that particular
group or country that violates the human rights. As mentioned earlier in the chapter,
this is the organisation that offered advocacy to Basarwa so that they are not forcibly
removed from the CKGR.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

International relations are official interactions between countries and they are
important as they promote unity and mutual understandings between nations.

Botswana has official relations with many countries and international
organisations in Africa and beyond.

Botswana’s foreign policy is guided by principles such as protection of
national interest, good neighbourliness and non-interference.

Botswana plays a major role in international relations at regional, continental
and international level.

Challenges faced by Botswana in international relations include relationship
with undemocratic governments, interference of international organisations in
her internal affairs and unfair trade relations in world markets.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms or concepts;
a. Diplomacy
b. International relations
c. Economic sanctions
d. Sovereignty
e. Foreign policy
(5)
2. Explain five roles played by Botswana in international relations at regional level.
(10)
3. Discuss five principles that guide Botswana’s foreign policy.
(10)
4. Explain five ways in which Botswana benefits from international relations at
continental level.
(10)
5. Discuss five challenges faced by Botswana in international relations.
(10)
6. Outline the importance of International Court of Justice.
(5)

TOTAL: 50 Marks

CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN BOTSWANA

Introduction
 123

The word culture is commonly used by people to refer to different attributes of human
life such as customary laws and tradition. Generally culture refers to a way of life of a
particular group of people. It is the sum of a society’s material, intellectual and social
achievements. Traditional culture was strongly influenced by the environment in
which society lived, especially the material elements of culture. Every society has its
unique cultural patterns that are different from other societies. These differences in
cultural practices give societies their unique identities. Without culture there would be
no language in which people could express themselves, no sense of self-consciousness
and people’s ability to think or reason would be severely limited. Culture plays an
important role in society; teaches appropriate behaviour, unites people, imparts life
skills and promotes tourism.

Cultural diversity in Botswana

Botswana is home to many ethnic groups that practice distinct cultural attributes. For
instance, in terms of language the Kalanga, Hambukushu, Basubiya and Wayei speak
languages that are different from each other and from other Tswana speaking groups
like Bakwena and Bakgatla. There are certain types of food that characterise
particular ethnic groups e.g. Bakalanga (delele), Batawana (tswii), Bakgatla (ting),
Baherero (omaere). Certain religions are also associated with specific ethnic groups
e.g. belief in Ngwale is associated with Bakalanga. Music and dance are important
parts of Tswana culture. Ethnic groups have different styles of music and dance e.g.
Southern Tswana {borankana), Kalanga(mazenge, wosana and ndazula). The
existence of many cultures living together as one country is known as cultural
diversity.

Examples of Tswana ethnic groups with unique cultural practices.

Bakalanga
They are found in the North-East District of Botswana and other parts of the Central
District from Tonota up to Gweta. They originate from a group of Bantu speaking
people called the Shona and Ikalanga language is closely related to Chishona. The
Bakalanga were farmers who grew many crops in their fertile lands. They also kept
cattle, sheep and goats. They lived in small interrelated villages around a particular
landmark such as a hill, valley or river. Bakalanga worshiped Mwali who they believe
is the creator of earth and life. Traditional Kalanga rulers had divine powers and could
communicate with Mwali through priests. In times of problems such as sickness,
famine and drought rituals were performed to Mwali so that those problems could be
resolved. Most of the villages were named after their chiefs. Like many Tswana
speaking groups they had cultural practices such as polygamy, rainmaking, paying of
bride price, initiation schools and hereditary leaderships. Bakalanga’s traditional
foodstuffs include phane, delele, thopi, dobi and meat. Their traditional type of dance
include mazenge, ndazula and wosana and have totems such as chibelu, khupe and
ntombo.

Basarwa
Basarwa are believed to be the first inhabitants of Southern Africa and hence they are
often referred to as the ‘first people of the Kalahari’. Most of the Basarwa are found
in the Kalahari basin and are mostly short, yellow or brown skinned people with
distinctive ‘click’ sounds in their language. They are nomadic hunters and gatherers
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and mostly used bows, spears and poisoned arrows for hunting wild animals. Hunting
was mostly done by males and females were the main collectors of wild food such as
fruits, nuts, roots, bulbs and honey. Basarwa worshiped their ancestors for a
successful hunting expedition. Basarwa often used medicine to assist them in a hunt.
As they did not live in a permanent place they did not grow any crops nor reared
livestock except hunting dogs. They stayed in beehive or dome-shaped type of houses
(megwaafatshe) made up of sticks and grass. Those in hilly areas often used caves as
shelter. Basarwa do not have any hereditary leadership as the first person to make a
fire in a new place is the leader of the clan. Decisions were made by discussion
amongst the adult members of the group as they had no chief or tribal organisation.
Their migrations were determined by the availability of wild animals and berries.

Wayeyi
They live along the rivers of Okavango, Ngamiland and Boteti areas. Wayeyi are
agriculturists who head livestock and plough along the floodplains. Their economy
was also based on fishing, hunting and collecting wild foods such as tswii and stems
of papyrus (koma). Wayeyi have no central leadership to keep them in one place.
They had many leaders each of whom had a number of villages under his control.
Their huts were made up of few poles dug into the ground and spaces between them
filled with reeds form the swamps.

Baherero
According to oral tradition they originated from the west of Lake Tanganyika and
from there migrated to South West Africa (modern day Namibia). Baherero
worshiped ancestors and believed that all trouble was brought by their dead relatives.
Only the leader or priest could make sacrifices to the ancestors and this was done at
the graveyard. Their village huts were placed in a circle inside which were kraals for
the lambs and calves. Men spent most of the time herding cattle and sheep. They also
hunted wild animals using arrows, spears and traps. The women went out collecting
wild food, milked cows and prepared sour milk (omaere) which is their staple food.
Today Herero women wear long and often multicoloured dresses and head cloths
shaped like cowhorns (otjikaeva).

Setswana speaking groups

Tswana speaking groups originate from a Bantu speaking group of people known as
the Sotho-Tswana. This includes ethnic groups such as Bakgatla, Bakwena. Balete,
Bangwaketse etc. Most of them are found in the central and southern part of
Botswana. Traditionally they practiced both arable and pastoral farming. They reared
livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys. Some Tswana groups like
Bangwato practised ‘three site system’ whereby they had settlements at the village,
cattlepost and the lands. They did part time hunting and gathering to supplement their
diets. They had more centralised and hereditary leadership than other Non-Setswana
speaking ethnic groups. Polygamy and initiation schools were part and parcel of
traditional Tswana culture. Bogwera and bojale were a prerequisite for marriage i.e.
boys and girls were not allowed to engage in marriage before they could undergo
initiation. The social life of traditional Tswana groups is also characterised by forms
of cooperation such as traditional healing, dikgafela, letsema, mafisa and mephato.

Importance of culture
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Identity: The differences in cultures give each ethnic group its unique cultural
identity. By accepting and practising the culture of particular group
individuals develop a sense of pride and belonging to that group.

Enhances unity and cooperation: People who have a common culture have a
better understanding of each other and this can promote cooperation and
mutual relationships between such people.

Morality: Every culture has its norms and values that control the behaviour of
people. A community needs these patterns of behaviour to function smoothly.
Through socialisation culture teaches people how to differentiate between
what is right or wrong, good or bad behaviour amongst human beings.
Practically every society in its belief system has a set of morals which provide
guidelines about acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

Life skills: Through formal and informal education culture empowers people
with technical skills such as woodcarving, sculpturing, hunting, blacksmithing
and other works of craft that people can use to earn a living.

Promotes tourism: Traditional cultural activities, artifacts and places of
historical interest are a major attraction to tourists. Culture based tourism
contributes significantly to the overall revenue generated by the tourism
industry in Botswana. People from abroad can be attracted by historical sites,
architecture, traditional dancing and the traditional way of life.

Significance of cultural identity and preservation in Botswana

Cultural identity is a unifying factor amongst people as people who share
similar cultural aspects feel that they belong together and this can promote
mutual relationship between such people.

Cultural preservation is important as it ensures continuity of culture from one
generation to the next. Important cultural elements such as art, music, dance
and tools can be found in museums around the country as a way of preserving
culture.

Preservation of culture also promotes culture-based tourism. Some tourists
come to Botswana to experience the traditional way of life and see some
places such as rock paintings at Tsodilo Hills, Matsieng’s footprints,
Domboshaba archaeological sites and other places of historical interest.

Culture identity and preservation are also important for socialisation of
children. As children grow up they start to learn acceptable behaviour from
their parents and other elders within the family and community in which they
live. This is a very important step towards moulding children into well
behaved individuals.

Basic aspects of culture

These are elements of culture that are inherent in every cultural group. Cultural
aspects can be used to study cultures or differentiate one ethnic group or society from
the others. Cultural elements can be categorised into two: material and non-material.
Material culture refers to physical or tangible elements of culture that can be seen or
touched e.g. pottery, dress, technology, food, tools etc. Non-material culture refers to
non-tangible elements that cannot be touched e.g. beliefs, ideas, customs, religion,
language etc.
Material elements:

Dress: Particular clothes or attire worn by people.
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Technology: Machinery or equipment used or knowledge about scientific or

industrial methods or their uses.

Food: Things that people eat.

Tools: Equipment used by people.

Architecture: The style and design of a building or the art and practice of
planning and designing buildings.
Non-material elements:

Language: A system of communication by written or spoken words, which is
used by people in a particular country or community.

Religion: A set of beliefs adhered to by members of a community, involving
symbols and ritual practices in which members of a community engage in.

Norms: Rules of conduct which specify appropriate bahaviour. It can
prescribe a particular behaviour or forbid it.

Values: Ideas held by humans, individuals or groups about what is desirable,
proper, good or bad.

Cultural changes that have taken place in Botswana

Language: Due to adoption of western education and interaction of people of
various cultures some Batswana have adopted foreign languages such as
English. Some people no longer speak their indigenous languages. Even
Setswana language has some words mostly borrowed from English and
Afrikaans e.g. terekere, sontaga, oura, buka etc.

Dress: In the past Batswana wore clothes made from animal skins. Boys wore
ditshega and girls wore makgabe. Today people wear shirts, trousers and
dresses made from cotton. Most of the clothes are imported from other
countries.

Food: Batswana used to eat food they produced for themselves and veld
products such as phane, thepe and moretlwa. Nowadays they eat imported
food like rice, macaroni and cucumber.

Entertainment: Traditionally Batswana entertained themselves by dancing
and storytelling around the fireplace, poetry and drama. In modern times
people entertain themselves by watching television, going to clubs, cinemas,
bars etc.

Leadership: Traditionally leadership was hereditary and Batswana were led
by dikgosi and headmen. After independence people elected their leaders such
as President, MPs and Councillors.

Beliefs: Before the coming of missionaries Batswana believed in ancestral
spirits (badimo) but after independence most Batswana changed their belief
system to Christianity. Some people no longer believe in witchcraft and
traditional doctors. Rainmaking ceremonies are no longer practiced as it was
the case in the past.

Marriages: Traditionally a man was attached to a wife chosen by his elders.
Nowadays a man can find a wife for himself and can marry without the
involvement of his elders. Polygamous marriages are no longer common.
Bogadi has also been commercialised, in the past it was paid in the form of
cattle but in modern days it can be paid in the form of money.

Identity: In the past Batswana could identify themselves by attributes such as
mephato, language, totem, ward etc. Nowadays Batswana identify themselves
by attributes such as national anthem, coat of arms, Omang, currency etc.
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Technology: Botswana used simple tools or instruments that were suited to

their local environment e.g. hoes ox-drawn ploughs, baskets, pottery etc.
Nowadays there are lots of imported tools and equipment such as pliers,
refrigerators, computers, cell phones, trains, vehicles etc.

Changing attitudes towards non-verbal aspects of culture

Culture is dynamic, this means that it is changing over time. The meeting of two or
more different cultural groups results in cultural changes. This is called
acculturation. Due to globalisation and interaction with other cultural groups some of
the Tswana cultural values and norms are no longer practised. Certain non-verbal
aspects of Tswana culture that promote the concept of botho are no longer practiced.
Examples of such behaviours include the following:

Kneeling and clapping of hands when greeting elderly people.

Bending on knees when giving something to an elderly person.

Not finger-pointing an elderly person to show anger.

Removing one’s hat or cap when talking to an elderly person.

Surrendering a seat to an elderly person.

Shaving of heads when one family member has passed away.

Administration of punishment of a wrongdoer by any elderly person.

Gender disparities resulting from cultural practices

These are inequalities between males and females resulting from traditional cultural
practices.

Division of labour: In the past labour was divided according to sex and age.
There were male and female duties. Male duties included hunting, herding
livestock, digging wells, destumping etc. Female duties were cooking,
gathering, cleaning, weeding etc. Men did jobs that require muscles whereas
women did light jobs.

Leadership: Traditionally chieftainship and leadership were hereditary
through the male lineage in most Tswana societies. Only Basubiya have a
history of matrilineal leaderships. Women could only become regents. Men
also held other important positions e.g. headmanship.

Inheritance: In most societies chieftainship, surname, totem and wealth were
inherited through the male lineage. When a couple married automatically the
man became the head of the family. Traditionally families preferred boys than
girls because boys inherited family surname and ensured its continuity.

Marriage: Lobola (bogadi) was paid by males only and the woman
abandoned her surname and adopted that of the husband. Only the woman was
expected to relocate to the husband’s residence.

Education: In terms of schooling priority was given to boys as there was a
belief that girls will be married and taken away from their families. This
reduced investment on female education as it was regarded as a waste of time.
There were separate schools for boys and girls, boys went for bogwera and
girls went for bojale.

Provider in the family: Society strongly believed that the man should be the
main provider in the family and as such it was common for men to seek
employment while their wives stay at home to do household chores hence the
name mosadi (meaning that who remains home or behind). Poverty in the
family was mainly blamed on the husband and as a result a husband who fails
to provide for his own family lost society’s respect.
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Setswana sayings: There are some common Tswana proverbs or sayings that
discriminate against women e.g. Ga di nke di etelelwa pele ke manamagadi
(meaning that women can never be rulers in the presence of males), monna
selepe o a adimanwa (this encouraged men to indulge in extra-marital affairs).

Bereavement: Upon death of a marital partner only women are expected to
wear mourning dress (usually black or blue) for certain period of time and
they also have to undergo certain rituals. Men are not expected to wear any
clothes that symbolise loss of a spouse.

Global gender disparities resulting from cultural practices

Equality: In many societies women are regarded as second class citizens and
given fewer opportunities than men.

Religion: In some religions women are not allowed to occupy certain
positions in the church hierarchy.

Employment: Some jobs are regarded as men’s jobs only e.g. joining the
military.

Education: In some countries the males and females have different
curriculum. There are also some schools for boys only and those for girls only.

Political leadership: In some countries women are not allowed to vote or
stand for political office e.g. Saudi Arabia.

Marriage: Men pay bride price and women are expected to relocate to the
husband’s place. Women also have to abandon their surname and adopt that of
the husband.

Possible solutions to addressing issues of gender imbalances within cultural

practices

Education: Both males and females should be equally encouraged to go to
school and they should be taught about gender issues. Courses offered should
not be gender discriminatory. Education will also change the mindsets of
people as it will eradicate the so-called ‘masculine and feminine’ jobs.

Change in constitutional law: Traditionally Tswana laws and customs
oppressed women and it is important that all laws that are gender
discriminatory are cancelled from the constitution so that both sexes can have
equal rights, opportunities and privileges.

Women empowerment: Women’s rights have to be improved. They should
be encouraged to take up positions of responsibility such as being MPs and
councillors. They should also form more organisations that will advocate for
their rights such as Emang Basadi, Metlhaetsile and Women Against Rape.

Equal access to job opportunities: Women are educated as men and
therefore they should be given the same opportunities as men. The SADC 30%
gender quota has been adopted by many memberstates as a way of addressing
gender inequality in many countries.

Removal of gender stereotypes: Society should be encouraged to change
attitudes towards gender issues as some people have a negative attitude
towards females resulting in discrimination in society and in the workplace.

Possible solutions to addressing issues of gender imbalances within cultural

practices internationally

International conferences on promoting equality between men and women.
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Education on equality between males and females across the world through
the school curriculum, media such as radio or TV shows e.g. Oprah Winfrey
show.

Changing attitudes towards gender issues i.e. changing mindsets towards
gender stereotypes.

Change in international laws; International organisations can play a leading
role in making some guidelines on how to address issues of gender inequality
e.g. SADC 30% gender protocol.

Formation of more international pressure organisations that lobby for equality
between males and females.

The need for cultural tolerance, space, appreciation and liberty in the world
As citizens of the globe with different cultural backgrounds every individual should
be free to do their activities according their cultural practices. A good global citizen is
a person who appreciates and respects the cultures of others. It is therefore important
that people across the entire world should tolerate unique cultural practices of other
citizens. Tolerance of culture unites people from different cultural denominations.
This can promote sharing of knowledge and exchange of ideas between people across
the world, Unity is an important aspect of promoting peace between people because if
people are united there are fewer chances of conflicts and misunderstandings which
may result in unnecessary wars or squabbles. Cultural tolerance and appreciation may
also lead to preservation of important cultural elements which would otherwise
disappear due lack of practice. Preservation of culture keeps norms and values of a
society alive and thus promoting continuity of culture. If people look down upon
others because of their cultures, this may embarrass some people who may end
abandoning their cultural practices. This intolerance may lead to extinction of their
cultures and hence loss of cultural identity. For instance, some people associate
Sesarwa culture with poverty and lack of civilisation. This has made some Basarwa to
be ashamed of their cultural practices and tradition. Tolerance of culture will make
people to be free to speak their indigenous language, dress traditionally when the need
arises and to intermingle freely with people from other cultures.

Ways of promoting traditional culture locally

Cultural festivals and games: Various cultural groups should come together
and organise cultural competitions where cultural groups can showcase their
heritage such as dance, poetry, artifacts etc. This will help ethnic groups to
preserve their culture.

Education in schools: ‘Culture’ as a topic should be emphasised by the
school curriculum from primary to tertiary level. Other local languages like
Hambukushu, Kalanga, Herero, Wayei etc. should be taught in schools so that
they cannot become extinct.

Formation of cultural associations: Each ethnic group should form a cultural
association which will help to advertise its culture and advocate for the rights
of its people e.g. Wayei (Kamanakao), Hambukushu (Mbungu Wa
Kathimana), Kalanga(SPIL).

Encouragement of literature based on tradition: Each ethnic group should
encourage its people to write poems, novels and plays in their indigenous
languages so that the coming generations can also learn their culture.
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Establishment of more museums: Each ethnic group should have a museum

where its culture can be preserved and appreciated by other people. This will
prevent their cultures from extinction.

Curio shops: These are shops that sell traditional crafts like baskets,
sculptures and paintings. Such shops should be encouraged because they
provide a suitable market for locally made crafts and this will encourage more
people to venture into the business of manufacturing traditional crafts.

Advertising in the media: Radio and television should broadcast more
cultural progammes such as Sedibeng and ‘museum o o tshelang’ so as to
sensitise people about the importance of culture.

Revival of cultural practices: People have to be encouraged to do certain
practices in a traditional way e.g. reintroduction of bogwera and bojale,
traditional marriages and funerals.

Ways of promoting one’s culture internationally

Advertising on international media such as radio, magazines and television so
that people in other countries can also see what other cultural groups or
nations have to offer in terms of cultural activities and artifacts. This will also
attract more tourists from abroad into the country.

Organising international festivals and culture based competitions such as
dance, poetry, sculpturing, drama and painting. These will bring together
different people from different cultural backgrounds to showcase their cultural
expertise on stage. Such competitions will sell different cultures to a larger
scale and will also inspire people to stick to their cultural roots.

Establishment of national museums where all the important cultural aspects of
the nation can be displayed especially in large settlements such as urban areas.

Practising traditional culture in foreign countries so that other people can have
a chance to view our cultural aspects. Welcoming foreign dignitaries with
cultural activities such as traditional dancing and poetry may also advertise
culture to foreigners.

Exporting cultural materials to other countries so as to enlarge market for local
products. An enlarged and reliable market will encourage more people to
venture into the business of manufacturing traditional artifacts.

Formation of international cultural organisations that will spearhead all
international activities concerning cultural groups across the world.

The role of mass media in promoting culture

Radio, TV, Newspapers and Internet can help to influence and promote culture
through:

Through advertising in the media people develop love and pride in their own
cultures especially if the advertising is done in local languages.

Television and radio have programmes on culture such as Sedibeng,
Makgabaneng and Dipina le maboko. All these programmes educate the
young people and foreigners about our cultural practices which would
otherwise become extinct due to globalisation and acculturation.

The media often brings together people from different cultural backgrounds to
come and address issues of cultural concern. This promotes mutual
relationships between various ethnic groups.
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The media can also be used as storage for cultural aspects, for example,
historical photographs and videos of past activities can be stored and viewed
by people for many generations to come.

Cultural education can also be acquired through the media. There are
educational programmes such as museum o tshelang, ngwao boswa and
sedibeng. Other newspapers have columns written in local languages such as
Herero, Kalanga and Sesarwa. This promotes cultural enrichment.

Impacts of globalisation on local and national culture

The interconnection and interdependence between different cultures has affected both
the culture of Batswana as a nation and the culture of individual ethnic groups in the
following ways:
Positive impacts

The increased interaction has led to adoption of better ideas, skills and
technology from other people e.g. the use of computers and modern medicine.

Introduction of legislation to protect the institution of marriage.

Improvements in the rights of women and children as opposed to traditional
culture which regarded them as second class citizens e.g. through amendment
of constitution.

Allocation of duties is no longer based on sex and age only. It also takes into
consideration factors such as ability, willingness and educational level or
qualification.

Introduction of social welfare services for the poor, orphans and other
disadvantaged members of society e.g. supplementary feeding for
undernourished children and old-age pension for the old.

Negative impacts

Loss of important cultural practices such as initiation ceremonies, traditional
healing and rainmaking.

Negative attitudes towards other cultures as they are regarded as old-fashioned
or primitive e.g. culture of Basarwa.

Introduction of homosexual relationships e.g. gay and lesbian love affairs.

Cohabitation has reduced the frequency of marriage.

Rise in nuclear families as opposed to extended families.

Reduced family sizes due to introduction of family planning education and the
use of contraceptives.

Reduced family ties and relationships as some family members migrate to
work hundreds of kilometres away from other relatives.

Bogosi institution has been replaced as the main governing institution by
elected leaders such as MPs and councilors.

The impact of culture in promoting national principles of Democracy,

Development, Self-Reliance, Unity and Botho for peace and prosperity of the
nation of Botswana
Democracy:

Many Setswana expressions promote democracy e.g. mmualebe o a be a bua
la gagwe (ensures that there is freedom of speech), mafoko a kgot!a a mantle
otlhe (promotes tolerance of other people’s view), kgosi ke kgosi ka batho
(means that a chief rules with the consent of his people). All these proverbs
promote democracy and prevent dictatorship.
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The kgotla as an institution promotes participatory democracy because every

person is allowed to attend kgotla meetings and can contribute in kgotla
proceedings.

The kgotla is used to try cases in the open and fair manner in order to resolve
issues or punish offenders.
Self Reliance:

Some cultural forms of cooperation encourage self-reliance e.g. molaletsa and
letsema.

Ipelegeng: Some public projects were assigned to some regiments e.g. digging
of wells, communal hunting (letsholo) and construction of roads by mephato.

Some schools were built by local people e.g.Moeng College, Phuthadikobo
(formerly Bakgatla National School).

Every culture encourages its citizens to produce its own tools and artifacts e.g.
ditlatlana, dikika.

Other Tswana sayings encourage self-reliance e.g. mpha mpha o a lapisa
inotho o kgonwa ke sa gagwe, mokodue go tsoswa o itsosang etc.
Unity:

A lot of Tswana sayings promote unity e.g. moroto wa esi ga o ele, mabogo
dinku a a thebana, setshwarwa ke ntsa pedi ga se thata. All these proverbs
encouraged people to work hand in hand with others rather than working
independently.

Traditional forms of cooperation also promoted unity e.g. in ‘motshelo’ people
came together to do some fundraising activities like selling beer and
traditional food whereas in a ‘molaletsa’ people came together and helped
each other in activities like harvesting, weeding, thrashing, decorating mud
walls etc.

Other social gatherings like marriages, funerals, dikgafela and initiation
ceremonies promoted unity. Such gatherings brought people together to
celebrate or mourn.

Intermarriages help the nation to exchange ideas and information which is a
vital element for nation-building.
Botho:

Through socialisation some cultural practices promoted botho e.g. greeting
elders using both hands, bending of knees when giving something to an
elderly person, helping neighbours and respecting society symbols.

Tswana proverbs encouraged botho e.g. ngwana yo o so utlweng molao wa
batsadio o utlwa wa manong, lore lo ojwa lo sale metsi.

Punishment of wrongdoers at the kgotla discouraged misbehaving and other
offences.

Traditionally every elderly person in the society could punish children who
misbehaved. This discouraged wrong behaviour even in the absence of
biological parents.

Culturally Batswana helped economically disadvantaged people through forms
of cooperation such as mafisa.
All these made an individual to be well behaved, polite, considerate, disciplined and
fair. Botho encourages people to work hard to achieve the best they can for
themselves and their community.
Development:
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Traditionally Batswana produced their own food and tools. They traded
through the battery system for things that they did not produce so as to
improve their standard of living.

Economic forms of cooperation like mafisa and motshelo promoted
development as they could help poor people, for instance, through mafisa poor
people could own cattle and use them for milk and draught power.

Through initiation schools knowledge, skills and good habits were cultivated
among people.

Tswana sayings like mosele wa pula o epiwa go sale gale and se monate se
ingwaelwa encouraged development because it made Batswana to be prepared
all the time.

World cultures
Comparison between the culture of Batswana and the culture of Maasai (found
in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania)
Similarities:

Both have subsistence farming as their major economic background.

They both have rites of passage e.g. Maasai males go through three stages;
boy, warrior and elder.

In both cultures marriage between a man and a woman was determined by
the elders, couples could not marry without the involvement of the parents.
The wife was chosen by the parents of the husband without the
involvement of the husband.

Polygamous marriages are common between both Maasai and Batswana.

In both cultures cattle are a measure of wealth and social status. Cattle
were also used to pay brideprice.

Household activities were divided according to age and sex e.g. in Maasai
culture boys herded cattle, warriors protected livestock from predators
such as lions and women milked cattle and managed the household.

Both males and females went for initiation and circumcision was practiced
on both sexes.

Wealthier cattle owners in both societies could lend some of their livestock
to poor families to look after. In return poor families could be rewarded
with some cattle after a certain period of time. This is called mafisa in
Setswana.

Just like Batswana, the Maasai traded with their neighbours to get goods
that they did not produce by themselves e.g. through the bartery system
Maasai obtained products such as grains and vegetables in exchange for
milk, game meat and animal skins.

Differences:

Maasai are predominantly nomadic pastoralists whereas Batswana practice
both arable and pastoral farming equally. Only a few Maasai groups who
lived in the plains practised arable farming when the rains were good e.g.
the Arusha.

In Maasai culture a man must have been a warrior before he can be
allowed to marry whereas in Setswana culture a man must have gone for
Bogwera.

Milking cattle is a duty assigned to females in the Maasai culture whereas
in most Tswana cultures the task of milking is done by males.
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Settlements of the Maasai are divided into kraals of elders and warriors
whereas settlements in Botswana are divided into wards comprising people
of different ages and social status.

Maasai drank milk mixed with blood drawn from the neck of cattle
whereas Botswana drank pure milk or sour milk (madila).

Maasai practiced transhumance whereas Botswana’s grazing areas were
almost permanent.

At the age of eight a Maasai girl could be bethrothed (go beeletswa) to her
future husband but in Botswana this practice is only common amongst the
Herero society.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

Culture refers to a way of life of a particular people.

The physical environment in which a society lives has an influence in the
culture of that society especially the material elements of culture.

Elements of culture can be classified into material and non-material elements.

Culture is important as it gives people their unique identity and promotes unity
and cooperation among people who share a common culture.

Globalisation has resulted in both positive and negative impacts on the culture
of Batswana and the culture of different Tswana ethnic groups.

Culture has a role in promoting national principles such as democracy, unity,
botho, self-reliance and development.

Botswana culture has some similarities and differences with other cultures in
Africa such as the culture of the Maasai.

Revision Test
1. Outline the importance of culture. (5)
2. Identify five cultural elements of Batswana and show how they have changed since
independence. (10)
3. Discuss five ways in which culture promotes inequalities between males and
females. (10)
4. Explain five possible solutions to gender inequalities resulting from cultural
practices. (10)
5. Explain three ways in which the media can promote culture. (6)
6. With relevant examples show how culture promotes the following national
principles:
a. Botho
b. Development
c. Unity (9)

CHAPTER TEN
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN BOTSWANA
Introduction
The term development refers to a process of change and growth in societies and
countries. Development may imply changes in population conditions such as
declining birth rates, increasing life expectancies, increasing Gross National Product
(GNP) and Gross Domestic Products (GDP) as well as social improvements such as
greater equality for women, reduced voter apathy and improved human rights.
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Economic development is the use of resources to improve people’s standard of living.

It is about creating wealth and improving aspects such as health, food, housing,
education and income levels of people.
Some countries have more resources than others and as a result those countries with
more resources are more likely to attain economic development than those that have
fewer resources. However, an abundance of resources alone does not indicate
economic development as those resources may not be used wisely or may benefit only
a few members of society. In Botswana minerals contribute over 50% to all
government revenue. This shows that Botswana is heavily dependent on the mining
sector. Other important economic sectors are tourism, agriculture, manufacturing and
trade and communication.

Factors that contribute to economic development

For a country to attain economic development certain factors are a prerequisite.
Without those factors there can be no improvement in various sectors of the economy.
These factors include:

Availability of natural resources: Natural resources are all materials from
nature that can be used to produce finished or semi-finished products. People
cannot be involved in production without the use of natural resources such as
land, water and veld products e.g. land is very important because every major
activity takes place on land, other important resources like vegetation and
minerals are also found on land.

Human resources: These are the people of a country. People need to have
skills and knowledge in order to turn raw materials into finished products and
to effectively use profits accumulated to develop other economic sectors.
Apart from providing labour a large number of people is important because
they provide a reliable market for goods produced from various economic
sectors.

Entrepreneurship: For economic development to take place the country
needs people who are prepared to take the risk of investing money in business.
The government of Botswana encourages people to invest in business by
providing loans and grants through agencies such as CEDA, National
Development Bank and Culture & Youth.

Availability of capital: Money is needed for buying raw materials,
machinery, pay for services such as water and electricity, for training workers
and paying their wages even facilitating the daily running of the industries.
Most of the businesses need money in order to start production.

Technology: Technology includes many kinds of machines from cell phones,
tiny computers to large industrial machines. By using appropriate technology
and skills people can increase the production of goods and services and thus
contribute to economic development. Modern technology enables fast and cost
effective exploitation of resources which would otherwise become expensive
and slow due to use of outdated technology.

Political stability: Good interrelationship and peaceful coexistence between
various government institutions, general public, NGOs, private sector and
other stakeholders in development promote a good environment for economic
development. When there is peace in a country industries are unlikely to
collapse as there will be cooperation and smooth running of business.
Negative practices such as corruption will be at a minimal and good
government policies can be put in place to attract further investments.
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Availability of market: A market is a basic requirement for any business.

Market is important because it is where finished or semi-finished goods are
sold to make profit. If businesses have a reliable market they are more likely
to grow because profits will always accumulate.

Availability of infrastructure: For economic development to occur a country
needs to have good facilities such as roads, telecommunication networks,
electricity and serviced land. For instance, good roads are vital as they make
various places accessible to each other. In industrialisation good roads connect
the business to sources of raw materials as well as the market. They also make
transportation of raw materials and finished goods cheaper.

Contributions of various economic sectors to economic development

Botswana’s major economic sectors are mining, agriculture, manufacturing, tourism
and trade and communication. The major contributors to Botswana’s economic
development are mining, tourism and agriculture respectively.
a. Contributions of Mining:
Mining involves the extraction of raw materials from underground. This sector is
important because it:

Creates employment for thousands of Batswana employed in mines as miners,
engineers, artisans, doctors, nurses etc. This helps in upgrading the lives of
Batswana as they can afford to provide basic needs for their families.

Generates revenue for government in foreign exchange as most of the minerals
are exported to European countries. Government also gains revenue in the
form of taxes, dividends and royalties. The revenue accumulated is used to
develop the country’s facilities such as schools, roads, hospitals and
telecommunication networks.

Leads to improvement in infrastructure such as roads, hospitals, schools and
entertainment facilities such as sporting complexes. People who work in the
mines are usually provided with social welfare facilities such as housing and
banking facilities.

Improves the country’s manpower as mining companies often train people for
various professions locally and abroad. They sponsor them in the field of
engineering and science and when they graduate they work for these sectors

Social responsibility e.g. donating money and other materials to the needy and
charity organisations. Mining companies can also sponsor sporting activities
such as football and volleyball tournaments.

Promotes development of associated industries. When a mining industry sets
up in an area it attracts other businesses that provide services to the mine. For
example, the establishment of BCL Mine in Selibe Phikwe led to
establishment of a railway line, Shashe dam and a power station in the area.

b. Contributions of Agriculture:
Agriculture involves growing of crops and the rearing of animals for subsistence or
commercial purposes. This sector is important because it:

Provides people with food such as beef, milk, sorghum etc.

Source of income as farmers can sell some of their products

Creates employment for people such as farm managers, herdboys, livestock
officers etc.

Provides raw materials for other industries e.g. skins used to make leather
products such as bags and jackets and cotton used to make clothes.
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Increases government revenue through taxation of commercial farmers.

Promotes economic diversification as it makes the country to be less
dependent on the mining sector.

c. Contributions of Tourism:
Tourism refers to the business of providing travellers or people who are on holiday
with services such as accommodation and recreational facilities. Tourism is important
because it:

Creates employment for people such as tour guides, hotel workers, game
managers, waiters etc.

Provides a market for local craftsmen who sell traditional crafts like baskets,
sculptures, pottery and other artworks to tourists. It also provides a market for
those selling vegetables, fruits, beef and dairy products to hotels.

Brings income to the country in foreign exchange since most tourists are
foreigners from countries such as South Africa, Zimbabwe, USA and United
Kingdom.

Leads to improvement in infrastructure such as roads, hotels, airports and
telecommunication networks.

Encourages conservation of natural and cultural resources such as wild
animals, pristine environments such as Okavango Delta and places of
historical interests such as Tsodilo Rock paintings.

Promotes the image of the country throughout the world which may help to
attract foreign investors.

Promotes economic diversification as it makes Botswana to be less dependent
on the mining industry.

d. Contributions of Manufacturing:
Manufacturing is the process of turning raw materials into finished or semi-finished
products or the assembling of parts to make a complete product. Manufacturing is
important because it:

Creates employment for people working in various manufacturing industries.

Brings foreign exchange since some industries manufacture goods that are
exported e.g. textiles, hides, meat products etc.

Saves Botswana’s foreign exchange as some goods are manufactured locally
instead of being imported.

Generates revenue for government through taxation, rent and licenses.

Manpower development through in-service training and workshops for people
such as managers, accountants, administrators etc.

Provides manufactured goods and services to other industries and the public.

Adds value to raw materials as finished goods are sold at a higher price than
unprocessed goods.

e. Contributions of Trade and Communication:

Trade and communication involves businesses that sell manufactured goods such as
wholesales and shops. It also involves moving goods from one place to another,
sending and receiving information. This sector is important because it:
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Creates employment for people providing services such as banking,

telecommunication, mail and transport.

Provides revenue to government through taxation, licensing of trade and from
the process of trading.

It contributes to development of infrastructure such as banks, post offices,
airports, roads and telecommunication networks.

Facilitates quick, safe and cheap exchange of information and goods.

Brings revenue to advertising businesses such as newspapers and commercial
radio stations as they have to advertise goods and services provided by trading
companies.

Through international trade Botswana gains foreign exchange which can be
used to pay for imported goods.

Trade provides Batswana with raw materials and goods used by manufacturing
industries.

Challenges faced by each economic sector and possible solutions

a. Challenges faced by the Mining sector:

Shortage of local skilled personnel resulting in recruitment of foreigners
especially in science related jobs.

Lack of capital to buy expensive machinery used in the mining industry.

Most of the mining companies are owned by foreigners which means they can
invest most of the profits back to their home countries.

Fluctuation of prices in world markets resulting in low profits when selling at
a time when prices are low.

Environmental problems e.g. air pollution in Selibe Phikwe and salt pan
flooding at Sowa.

Lack of economic diversification as the country is hugely dependent on the
mining industry. This is risky because minerals are non-renewable resources
and once the mining sector collapses the country’s financial resources will be
crippled.
Possible solutions to challenges faced by the Mining sector:

Lack of skilled personnel: Train more Batswana in specialised jobs such as
engineering, surveying, medicine etc.

Lack of economic diversification: Invest profits from mining to develop other
economic sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing and tourism. This will
also help Botswana to attain economic diversification.

Lack of capital: Getting loans from international banks and negotiating for low
interest rates.

Environmental problems: Investment by companies in rehabilitating damaged
environment and penalties against companies that degrade the environment.
This problem can also be addressed through national planning and legislation
for protection of the environment such as compulsory EIA for all mining
projects and regular check-ups for compliance to stipulated environmental
laws.

Fluctuation of prices: Reserving minerals and selling them when world prices
are high (Stockpiling). Government can also intervene in negotiating with
European Union for a better deal on the prices of minerals.

b. Challenges faced by the Agricultural sector

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Batswana are not self-sufficient in food production and therefore import most
foodstuffs from South Africa.

Unreliable, seasonal and unevenly distributed rainfall which often results in
poor yields which end up demoralising farmers.

Poor soils which are mostly sandy and saline. These soils are not suitable for
arable farming. This indirectly affects pastoral farming because the soils
cannot support enough pasture for livestock.

Poor methods of farming due to lack of farming skills e.g. ploughing along the
slope and overstocking.

Pests and diseases such as quelea birds, locusts and foot & mouth.

Lack of capital to buy farm inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides. Also due
to financial constraints many farmers use traditional storages such as serala,
sesigo and sefalana which make crops vulnerable to destruction by extreme
weather conditions.

Competing landuses e.g. agricultural land turned into residential areas.

Inadequate markets or long distance to markets such as Botswana Agricultural
Marketing Board (BAMB) and Botswana Meat Commission (BMC).

Competition for market with imported foodstuffs from South Africa.
Possible solutions to challenges faced by the Agricultural sector

Poor farming methods: Provision of extension services to teach farmers
modern methods of farming such as row planting, contour ploughing and the
use of good quality seeds and breeds of animals.

Lack of capital: Give loans and credit schemes to farmers to buy machinery,
fertilisers and pesticides.

Lack of self-sufficiency in food production: Encourage more people to go into
commercial farming as they will provide enough food products to feed the
nation. This will reduce the amount of food imported from neighbouring
countries and hence save Botswana’s foreign exchange.

Conduct seminars and workshops to teach farmers about good farming
methods. Also farmers can be educated through the media such as radio and
TV programmes like Molemi ithute, Pitso ye balemi and Setshwantsho.

Shortage of market: Improve farmers’ access to markets such as BMC and
BAMB especially farmers in rural areas.

Competition with imported foodstuffs: Protect local products by imposing tax
and quotas on imported foodstuffs.

Unreliable rainfall: Build dams, boreholes and plant drought resistant crops.
Farmers can also irrigate their crops.

Poor soils: Addition of fertilisers and other land augmenting inputs.

c. Challenges faced by the Tourism sector

Needs expensive and well maintained facilities such as hotels and roads. For
instance, good roads are important as they make it easy and cost effective for
tourists to reach areas of attractions.

Poaching often results in killing of endangered species which may lead to their
extinction.

Disturbance of the ecosystem and environmental damage as too many vehicles
and tourists may scare away and even reduce wild animals in game reserves
and national parks. This may also lead to soil erosion and littering,

Tourism is a seasonal business as most tourists come around winter time. In
other seasons the sector experiences a decline in business.
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Competition for tourists as there are many countries in Africa with more
developed tourist attractions e.g. Kenya, Zimbabwe and South Africa.

Foreign ownership as most of the safaris and other travel and tour businesses
are owned by foreign nationals who often invest profits back to their home
countries.
Possible solutions to challenges faced by the tourism sector

Need for well maintained facilities: Improve tourist accommodation and roads
to areas where there are tourist attractions.

Disturbance of the ecosystem: Promote culture-based tourist attractions such
as traditional dancing, poetry and manufacturing of traditional crafts to shift
attention away from game reserves and national parks.

Foreign ownership: Encourage more Batswana to be involved in the tourism
industry by providing them with loans, grants and education on tourism related
businesses.

Competition with other countries: More advertisement of Botswana’s tourist
attractions locally and abroad.

Poaching: Employ more personnel to guard against poaching. In Botswana the
Wildlife and National Parks Department works hand in hand with the
Botswana Defence Force to curb poaching.

d. Challenges faced by the Manufacturing sector

Poor infrastructure e.g. poor roads that make it expensive to transport raw
materials and finished goods and a lack of railway line connecting the north
and west parts of the country to the more developed eastern side.

Small domestic market as Botswana has a small population which does not
provide enough market for manufactured goods.

Expensive utilities such as water and electricity and this increases production
costs and hence the prices of finished goods.

Lack of skilled labour as few Batswana have managerial and entrepreneurial
skills and therefore most industries are owned by foreigners.

Foreign competition as locally manufactured goods are often of low quality
and more expensive due to high production costs. This makes Batswana prefer
goods from neighbouring countries like South Africa.

Lack of capital to establish industries and buy equipment to start operation.

Landuse conflicts as some industries may be located on land reserved for
residential or agricultural purposes.
Possible solutions to challenges faced by the Manufacturing sector

Small domestic market: Expanding the market by entering into some trade
agreements with other countries.

Poor infrastructure: Improvement in infrastructure such as roads, provision of
serviced land and factory shells by government.

Lack of skilled labour: Educating Batswana on courses related to business
management.

Foreign competition: Protection of local products by imposing quotas and
heavy tax on imported goods.

Land use conflicts: Consultation between concerned parties over the use of
land and enhance land use planning.

Lack of capital: Establishment of more financial institutions that will give
people loans and grants to establish businesses.
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e. Challenges faced by the Trade and Communication sector:

Small domestic market with a low buying power.

Poor transport network in remote areas and this makes some potential markets
inaccessible.

Lack of managerial or entrepreneurial skills for local people.

Competition from goods produced in other countries.

Crimes such as burglary and corruption.
Possible solutions to challenges faced by the Trade and Communication sector

Lack of managerial or entrepreneurial skills: Training more personnel in
business management.

Low purchasing power of locals: Creation of more employment opportunities
to increase purchasing power of Batswana.

Poor transport networks: Development of the country’s infrastructure
especially roads and telecommunication to make remote areas more
accessible.

Small market: Widen market through more advertising locally and abroad.
Enforcing security and strict penalties against offenders.

Crime: Enforcing security and strict penalties against offenders.

How corruption undermines economic development

Corruption is the process of acting dishonestly or illegally in return for money or
personal gain by people with authority or power. It implies the use of one’s official
position for a personal or group gain. Common forms of corruption include fraud,
bribery and embezzlement. Corruption can undermine economic development in the
following ways:

Investors are scared away by corrupt practices and by so doing less jobs are
created for the local people. In addition, the image of the country is tarnished
and the country will be ranked amongst the most corrupt countries in the
world. This will discourage foreign and private investment and savings.

Corruption inflates or prolongs the actual time spent on projects. This in turn
increases the money that is spent on these projects because the more time is
spent on a project the more expensive the project becomes.

Through corruption, a lot of money is used for wrong reasons by corrupt
officials; this means that not all the money is going to be used for its intended
purpose.

Corruption undermines government’s efforts of developing the people.
Through nepotism and favoritism incompetent and unqualified people are
given posts and this will bring government’s projects to a standstill because
such people do not have adequate knowledge about implementation of
particular projects. This in turn hampers the effective delivery of public goods
and services.

Corruption widens the gap between the rich and the poor because some people
easily get rich through some illegal means. Those people who have no access
to money and resources will remain forever poor.

If the tendering process is full of corrupt practices the projects are not going to
be completed in time or are going to be below standard because the projects
have been given to undeserving contractors by corrupt officials.
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Delays economic growth as economic sectors or businesses that are ravaged

by corruption are unlikely to grow because their profits are not invested back
into the sectors.

Demoralises the workforce as competent employees may be denied benefits
such as salary increment and promotion. Due to corruption some undeserving
people may be promoted based on their personal relations with their
supervisors instead of basing promotion on merit or hardwork. This will lower
the morale of the workers and lead to decline in production. Unsatisfied
workers may also resort to resignations, boycotts and strikes.

Undermines the rule of law because corruption is against constitutional law. It
also undermines social values because people find it easier and more lucrative
to engage in corruption than to seek legitimate employment.

Ways of sustaining economic diversification

Economic diversification is the addition of new or different activities to an economy
to make it less dependent on one economic sector. Dependence on one sector is risky
because if the sector collapses the whole national economy collapses and this will
lead to economic, social and even political problems. Economic diversification can be
achieved through:

Promotion of corrupt free practices: People should be encouraged to abstain
from corruption and other economic crimes so that businesses can make
maximum profits.

Investment in other industries: The government can invest in promoting
other industries like manufacturing and those based on tourism so as to shift
attention away from the mining industry.

Import substitution: Batswana should locally produce those goods that they
mostly import. This will create more jobs for Batswana and save the country’s
foreign exchange.

Training more personnel: People need to be trained in the latest
technological skills so that they can be readily available to companies or
institutions that need skilled manpower.

Improved work ethics: There should be sufficient dialogue between
employer and employees. Those employees who excel in their work should be
rewarded accordingly.

Provision of loans and grants: This will help to address the problem of lack
of capital which often prevents people from venturing into new businesses. If
funds are available people will be able to buy the necessary business inputs.

Protection of local industries: Government can protect local industries
through legislation and policies to prevent competition with foreign industries
e.g. imposing quotas on imports that are also manufactured locally and
reserving some businesses for Batswana only.

Foreign direct investment: Government can create a conducive investment
climate so that foreign investors can be attracted into the country e.g. free
market economy and protection of property rights. Foreign investors can also
be attracted through bilateral and multi-lateral trade agreements.

The role of stakeholders in promoting economic development

a. Government

Provision of finance: Government provides financial support in the form of
loans and grants through agencies such as CEDA so that people can get capital
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to set up industries. Investors are normally attracted to places where they have
access to financial assistance.

Provision of basic infrastructure: In order to attract investors government
has provided serviced land to reduce expenses of establishing new industries.
In some new industrial areas government has already provided water,
electricity, telecommunication networks and sewage services. This makes it
easy and cheap for new industries to setup businesses.

Promoted a stable political climate: When a country’s political climate is
stable different investors will setup different industries because they will be
free to run their businesses without any interference from the government and
other organisations.

International advertising: The government (through the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and International Cooperation) and its agencies such as BEDIA
advertise the country to foreign investors so that they can come and setup
industries in this country. This is done by the President, Ministers, diplomats
and BEDIA officials during their visits to other countries. When foreign
government officials and investors visit Botswana they are also informed
about investment opportunities in this country.

Encouraging locals to set up industries: The government is encouraging
local people to set up their own industries so that the country can have a
diversified economy. This is done through agencies such as LEA which
promote entrepreneurship of locals in Botswana by equipping them with
business skills and information on viable projects.

Provision of technical support: The government provides technical support
to potential investors through CEDA and LEA so that people can know how to
set-up and sustain their businesses. This is done through workshops and
seminars for this people.

Government policy and incentives: The legislators have formulated suitable
polices for those sectors which can reduce the country’s dependency on the
mining industry. The government is giving incentives such as tax holidays for
some foreign owned industries and infant industries.

Protection of local industries: Locally produced goods have been given a
market advantage over imported commodities by imposing heavy tariffs and
quotas on imported goods.

Provision of relevant education: The government has setup local schools that
provide education especially on those professions or jobs that are currently
dominated by foreigners. Government has also introduced scarce skill
allowance for those jobs that are in high demand such as engineering,
accountancy, medical and legal practioners.

b. Youth

Setting up own businesses and companies: Some youth have formed their
own companies and businesses so that they can be self-employed and
contribute towards diversifying the country’s economy. They have ventured
into businesses such as internet cafes, consultancies, tourism companies and
dress making companies.

Formation of clubs: The youth can form clubs which can educate and inspire
other youths to be involved in business ventures instead of indulging in anti-
social activities such as smoking, drinking and crime. These clubs include
among others, Junior Achievement Botswana (JAB) and Work Camps
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Association. In this clubs the youth learn a lot of business ideas and initiatives
which can assist them to be business minded from a tender age.

Being professional sports men and women: The youth of today should take
sports seriously and turn professional so that they can earn a living from
sports.

Forming entertaining groups: Drama groups and musical groups have been
formed by the young people so that they can earn their living from an
economic sector which is not common. They make money through
entertaining people thereby improving their own standards of living as well as
the community in which they live.

c. Private Sector

Setting up industries: They have set up industries since they have the
financial and technical potential to do so. These industries have employed a
large number of people. The industries also generate revenue for government
through taxation.

Provision of financial assistance: The private sector assists potential
investors with loans in order for them to set up industries that will promote
economic diversification.

Providing scholarships: The private sector often trains more personnel by
giving them bursaries to go and learn technical skills. These young people can
be sent to institutions locally and abroad e.g. through the ‘Festus Mogae
scholarship’ Barclays Bank Botswana sponsors some youths to go and study
for different courses as far as Russia.

Human resource development: Employees in the private sector are often
trained through in-service workshops or going for further education in some
institutions in or outside the country in order to improve their productivity.

Building schools for training: Some of these private businesses like Barclays
and Debswana have established their own training institutions in order to
improve the manpower.

d. Non-Governmental Organisations

Creation of employment: Some people have been hired by some NGOs to do
some. They are employed to work as researchers, administrators and policy
makers. This helps to reduce shortage of employment in the country.

Education on business: Some NGOs teach people to be innovative and form
their own companies in order to improve their standards of living. These
organisations also impart business skills to women in order for them to know
how to run and sustain businesses.

e. AID Agencies

Provide finance: Some Aid agencies provide financial assistance to
developing countries such as Botswana to improve basic infrastructure.

Humanitarian assistance: They help in times of natural disasters such as
floods and drought.

Create employment: Some of these Aid agencies have some offices based in
the country and as such they have employed some locals.

Importance of global economic forces for economic development in Botswana

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Financial institutions
a. European Union (EU)
As discussed in Chapter 7 the EU is an organisation made up of European countries
with the aim of removing all trade barriers between member-states. Members of EU
have a common market and currency. EU provides development funds to members of
Commonwealth and Botswana as a member of Commonwealth does benefit from EU.
The EU is the main market for Botswana’s exports such as diamonds and beef.
Botswana’s exports enjoy duty free and quota free access to EU markets under the
Cotonou Agreement.

b. World Bank
The World Bank was formed in 1947 to provide aid to developing countries in the
form of loans and technical assistance. The World Bank operates primarily with funds
borrowed from rich nations of the world. Botswana can acquire loans from World
Bank for reconstruction and development purposes such as construction of dams,
roads, schools and other basic infrastructure. The World Bank can also offer help
(under certain conditions) in case of balance of payment difficulties.

c. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The main purpose of IMF is to regulate international monetary exchange. It controls
fluctuations in exchange rates of world currencies on order to address problems of
balance of payment. Member-states contribute money to a central fund according to
their wealth. The money can then be lent to other countries like Botswana to help
cover balance of payment difficulties. Botswana has used funds from IMF for
development of infrastructure and alleviation of problems such as poverty. The IMF
also offers technical advice to countries that borrow its money.

Other factors influencing Botswana’s economic development

Devaluation of currency: This means reducing the value of the local
currency so that exports become cheaper for other countries to buy. At the
same time imports will become more expensive and people will not want to
import more. This has improved Botswana’s economy as it has made
Botswana’s exports cheaper and as such many countries are able to buy
Botswana’s products. Devaluation has also encouraged more Botswana to buy
local products by making imports more expensive. This makes importation of
raw materials and other commodities more expensive for Botswana’s
industries.

Global inflation/recession: This is a rise in prices and wages caused by an
increase in the money supply and demand for goods resulting in a fall in the
value of money. Global inflation can negatively affect Botswana’s economic
growth as it can lead to reduced purchasing power of those countries’ whose
currencies have lost more value. This may encourage dependency syndrome.

Fluctuation of world prices: Terms of trade for developing countries are
falling due to unstable prices. When Botswana sells her products at a time
when prices are low it means that less profit is made and hence less revenue is
accumulated for economic development.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:
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Economic development is the improvement in a country’s productive capacity

to create more and improve the standard of living of people.

The ability of a country to develop is influenced by factors such as availability
of capital, technology, natural resources and human resources.

The main sectors that contribute to Botswana’s economic development are
mining, tourism, agriculture and manufacturing.

Most of the economic sectors contribute to Botswana’s economic development
through employment creation, generation of income, improvement of
infrastructure and manpower development.

Most of Botswana’s economic sectors are faced with problems such as
shortage of skilled personnel, lack of capital, small market and landuse
conflicts.

Corruption has negative consequences on the economy of Botswana as it can
lead to collapse of economic sectors, delay growth of economy and make the
country less attractive to foreign investors.

Economic diversification is the addition of new or different industries to an
economy to make it less dependent on one economic sector.

Revision Test
1. Define the following terms:
a. Economy
b. Development
c. Corruption
d. Economic diversification
e. Tax holiday (5)
2. Identify five factors and explain how each factor contributes to economic
development.
(10)
3. a. Outline five problems faced by the Agricultural sector in Botswana. (5)
b. Suggest possible solutions to each of the problems mentioned above (3a). (5)
4. Describe five ways in which government can promote economic diversification in
Botswana. (10)
5. Evaluate the role of the private sector in promoting Botswana’s economic
development. (10)
6. a. Suggest three ways in which Botswana benefits from European Union. (3)
b. Suggest two ways in which Botswana benefits from World Bank. (2)
TOTAL: 50 Marks

CHAPTER ELEVEN
EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT IN BOTSWANA
Introduction
Education is the process of learning or acquisition of knowledge and skills. Human
resources refers to people, their knowledge and their skills that are needed for the
country’s development. For people to contribute significantly to a country’s
development they must be educated so that they can use the country’s resources in
order to produce goods and services needed to improve their living standards.
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Education plays a very important role in promoting economic development. For an

individual to enjoy a better socio-economic status, he or she should be educated and
thus contribute towards the improvement of the economy of the country. Education is
the most important way of improving a country’s human resources. For a country to
attain economic development there is need to provide education to the citizens.
Through education individuals of a society are taught how to turn raw materials into
finished products, adapt to change or solve new problems and thus helping both the
individual and society to reach their fullest potential. Without education the rate at
which a country develops becomes very slow as human resources are not used to their
fullest potential.

Purpose of education

Creates awareness as educated people are able to acquire knowledge about
their rights and freedoms together with the responsibilities that go along with
such freedoms. For instance, through education people can have a say in the
way their country is run because they are aware that they are entitled to such
rights.

Education can help prevent diseases that are linked with human behaviour
such as HIV/AIDS and bilharzia as it makes them aware of ways in which
such diseases can be caused and prevented.

It can help prevent degradation of the environment because it creates
awareness of the environmental issues and develops a sense of responsibility.

Education is important in developing human resources. An educated person
can take part in the political, social and economic decision-making in his local
area or country.

It creates a pool of knowledge for improving the country’s productive
capacity e.g. scientific, business and technical knowledge.

Health education increases chances of adopting family planning methods. It
helps to reduce population growth because educated people tend to have
smaller families due to increased knowledge on family planning and the use of
contraceptives.

Through socialisation and academic learning education provides people with
behavioural ethics and morals so that people could be able to conform to the
society within which they live. It develops good characters in individuals e.g.
respect, punctuality, hardwork, honesty etc.

Education can improve the standard of living because people can use their
knowledge and skills to meet their daily needs. It improves people’s ability to
think logically i.e. people can make right decisions and come up with correct
solutions to such problems.

It leads to improvements in manpower. People that are educated in a specific
profession are able to work diligently and produce quality goods and services
as they would be very competent in whatever they do.

The role of education in promoting economic development

Gives people self-esteem and self-confidence as they develop their unique
abilities.

It facilitates research which is a prerequisite for deciding on policies which
can contribute to economic development.

Teaches people problem solving and decision making skills.
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Equips people with skills and knowledge that can help them to reach their
fullest potential.

Encourages people to take an active and thoughtful part in social, political and
economic activities of the country.

Education is an engine for economic growth as it assists in the production of
better workers. It makes people develop or invent new and appropriate
technology which they can use to increase production and improve their
standard of living.

It is a force of modernisation and social change. It removes social and cultural
barriers that are an obstacle to economic development.

Types of Education
There are three major types of education: formal, non-formal and informal.

1. Formal Education
It involves reading and writing and takes place in learning institutions such as schools,
colleges, vocational institutions and universities. In this type of education learners
attend lessons, lectures, classes and seminars. This type of education was first
introduced in Botswana by missionaries and colonial officers.
Formal education also has the following characteristics:

Involves professional teachers for each stage of educational process and has a
specific curriculum and syllabus

Has a fixed length of terms and duration of courses

There is an entry qualification for progression to higher stages of learning

There are tests, examinations and certificates.

Takes place in a special setting e.g. an auditorium or classroom.

2. Non-formal education
This type of education is designed to complement formal education. It is aimed at
educating adults and some sections of the youth that have missed formal education. It
caters for those people who cannot read or write and those who wish to upgrade their
educational qualification to a higher level. Non-formal education has the following
characteristics:

It normally caters for people (mostly adults) in the rural areas since they are
far away from some educational institutions.

Learners are taught as a group in churches, kgotla shelters and adult education
centres by adult educators.

Learners can also study through correspondence learning groups, in-service
training and even through radio and television programs.

Hours of teaching or learning are more flexible and can be changed to meet
the needs of the group.

It has no age limit as it can cater for both the young and the old under the
same roof.

3. Informal Education
This refers to knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that people learn from their
families, friends, media and other members of society. It is the education that one
acquires through life experiences, imitation and conversation. It includes, for
example, being taught how to greet elders and how to do some errands in the
household. It also involves learning traditional jobs such as basket weaving, thatching,
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phane processing and animal or crop production. Other characteristics of informal

education are:

There is no documented syllabus and specific hours of learning.

It is a life-long process as it starts from birth to death.

It can take place anywhere.

There are no special teachers as any knowledgeable person can impart
knowledge.

There are no written tests and examinations.

Importance of traditional education

Traditional education involves learning about the culture, values and beliefs of one’s
society and it is important for the following reasons:

Preparation for adult life: It teaches young people about challenges of adult
life and how they must deal with them so that they become successful in life.
In other words, it grooms them into responsible future adults who will be able
to face life positively.

Teaches Productivity: Traditional education teaches young children the
importance of productivity at home and how to do it as they learn by copying
what the adults did.

Preservation of culture: Through socialisation culture is transmitted to new
members of society. Education in the home differs from one culture to
another. It ensures that culture is not lost by any generation in that parents and
the society make it a point that they teach their children their culture.

Production of independent individuals: Through imparting of practical
skills by adults, the society makes sure that young people grow up to be self
sufficient adults who are able to do things for themselves in order to survive.
Bogwera and Bojale also taught boys and girls how to become responsible
adults. Initiation schools taught practical skills such as woodcarving, weaving,
fighting etc.

Cultivates moral behaviour among children: Children start learning the
norms and values of their society within the family, ward and community
respectively. Through rewards and punishment children learn the difference
between what is right and what is wrong. This helps in moulding the
behaviour of children from childhood to adulthood.

Promotes sense of belonging: Learning particular roles in society means that
everyone feels he or she is part of that community. This promotes mutual
understanding between members of the same community.

Differences and similarities between modern and traditional education.

Similarities
Traditional Modern
Teaches aspects of local culture e.g. Teaches some aspects of culture e.g.
woodcarving. woodwork.
Has practical lessons e.g. cooking, Has practical subjects e.g. art and design,
decorating. home management.
Socialises the youth e.g. teaching good Socialises the children e.g. through
behaviour guidance and counseling.
Taught by trained teachers in their Teachers are qualified in their specific
specific fields. fields
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It is voluntary It is voluntary

Differences
Traditional Modern
Syllabus not documented. Syllabus is documented.
Boys and girls learned different activities Boys and girls attend same school and do
or roles. similar subjects.
Teaching occurs everywhere and Teaching occurs mostly indoors and
anytime. during specific times.
Only local culture is promoted. Promotes both local and international
cultures.
Mostly prepared children for adulthood. Prepares the youth for careers they want
to enroll in.
It is continuous and lifelong. Neither continuous nor lifelong.
Involves part time volunteer teachers and Has specially trained and professional
any elder or experienced person can teachers.
teach.
Relatively cheap to implement as it does Relatively expensive as it takes place in a
not need much facilities. special setting e.g. a classroom with
desks and chairs.
It is mostly informal. It is mostly formal.
Does not use scientific methods in its Uses scientific methods in its approach.
approach.

The role of education in promoting:

1. A healthy society

It is a tool for spreading or disseminating health related information so that
people may have the knowledge on how to tackle some health issues.

Spreads health awareness as it sensitises people about their health. These
people will in turn take appropriate steps to improve their health since they are
up to date with health issues.

It changes the way people think about health issues because they would find
out about different perceptions regarding a particular health issue e.g. through
education people can find it necessary to test for HI V/AIDS, stick to one
partner and use condoms.

People can learn about the importance of a clean environment and thus avoid
diseases that result from unsanitary conditions like cholera and bilharzia.

Education changes people’s attitudes and behaviour. For instance, females
with education tend to have fewer children than those who lack education. The
chances of survival of their children also increase with increased female
education.

2. Consumer awareness

Education makes people to be aware of their consumer rights hence they will
expect to be given good services for the value of their money.

People can read vital information whenever they buy goods in a shop e.g.
expiry dates and conditions of purchasing goods.

It also makes people to be aware of the quality of goods because they can read
and compare different products and finally buy the best product.
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Consumers will know what to do when their rights have been violated by
service providers and retailers.

People will not be cheated by retailers and service providers in terms of
money because with education consumers will be able to calculate their own
expenditure.

3. Voter education

Through education voters can find out information on voting through reading
on their own on newspapers and information booklets. They will know when
to register and whether their Omang card is valid for voting.

Education trains people who can come up with better plans for people to vote
well e.g. IEC officials.

If a voter is educated they will be able to exercise their privacy when it comes
to voting since they are able to read the election information on their own
without help from anyone.

It also teaches people about the steps to take when leaders abuse powers.

Informs voters on how the government operates, its structures and what steps
to take when voter rights have been violated.

Steps taken when:

1. Consumer rights are violated

Complain to the shop assistant or service provider assistant.

Report to the manager.

Complain to the business owner.

Mobilise people to boycott the business.

Report to the Consumer Affairs Office in your area.

Inform either your Member of Parliament or the Office of the Ombudsman.

Report to the Minister concerned.

Report to the Vice President who is the overseer of all ministries.

Go to court to seek legal action.

2. Voter rights are violated

Complain to the polling officer who violated your rights.

Report to approved Presiding Officer.

Report to the Principal Elections Officer.

Report to IEC.

Inform either your Member of Parliament or the Office of the Ombudsman.

Report to the Office of the President.

Go to court for legal intervention.

3. Health rights violated

Complain to the medical person who violated your rights.

Report to approved supervisor.

Report to hospital superintendent.

Inform either your Member of Parliament, the office of the Ombudsman or the
District Commissioner.

Report to the Minister of Health or Permanent Secretary in the ministry.

Report to the Vice President who is the overseer of all ministries.

Take legal action against the service provider.
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Consumer rights, obligations and choices

Be informed

Choose from a variety of goods and services wherever he or she wants.

Representation (consumer rights have to be included in the constitution)

Redress (consumers have the right to receive a fair settlement of just claims
including compensation.)

Consumer education

Register dissatisfaction

Seek clarity on contract

Voter rights, obligations and choices.

A voter has the right to complain and be listened to if not satisfied.

Has the right to be helped by election authorities.

A voter has the right to privacy when voting.

He or she has the obligation to respect election officers.

Voters have the obligation to ask for clarification if they do not understand
something about elections.

Can vote for any party or candidate that he or she wants

Can vote wherever he or she wants in the country as long as he or she has
registered where he or she wants to vote.

Health rights, obligations and choices

A patient has the right to complain and be given an audience if not satisfied
with the service given to him or her.

Has the right to privacy of the disease he or she is suffering from.

A patient has the right to know the side effects of the medicines given to her or
him,

Has the obligation to pay for services rendered to him or her.

Has the obligation to respect the medical personnel.

A patient has the obligation to follow the instructions given to him or her
when taking medication.

Has the choice to go to any preferred registered medical practitioner.

Challenges of self-employment in Botswana

Self-employment is about setting up ones own business instead of waiting to be hired
by someone else. It encourages citizen participation in the national economy by
generating wealth and income and also helps to reduce unemployment. Self-employed
people face several challenges such as:

Lack of finance: Potential businessmen do not have enough money to buy
machinery or raw materials to start business. Some cannot afford rental fees
resulting in operation of some businesses in residential areas or unauthorised
locations.

Lack of managerial or technical skills: The technical knowledge of starting
and managing a business is not possessed by many people. This therefore
leads to many businesses closing down because they are not operated in the
correct way.

Lack of serviced land: Most of the land in which most people want to set up
businesses does not have already existing facilities such as water, electricity,
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telecommunication, sewerage and tarred roads. Since these services are

expensive to install, potential investors are demoralised by the cost of
providing such services.

Limited access to market: Inadequate market can be due to many factors
such as competition from already existing businesses, lack of advertisement,
low quality products and high transport costs.

Jealousy or negative attitude towards others: People are normally jealous
of others in that they will not support small businesses which are owned by
people who are self-employed. Small businesses owned by self-employed
people will not thrive due to this negative attitude. A person would rather buy
from a large supermarket than from a tuck-shop in his or her own
neighbourhood.

Lack of research or information on viable projects: Individuals do not
normally research or get information about a certain project in order to find
out whether it is viable or not. They just get involved in a certain business
because somebody they know or many people are involved in it. In the end
many people get involved in the same kind of business and they later on
collapse because of the limited market. In Botswana many people are engaged
in common businesses like phone shops, bars and street vending therefore
their market is limited or nonexistent.

Expensive utilities: Utilities such as water and electricity are normally
expensive and as such small business people cannot afford them. This makes
the businesses of self-employed people to close down because they cannot
sustain themselves.

Lack of commitment to business: Some businessmen never spend much time
in their businesses as they only come to collect money. People who normally
spend more time in those businesses are the workers. The owner just operates
from a distance and his or her presence is never felt by workers. Ultimately the
business closes down because of lack of proper management.

Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as floods, drought, famine and
diseases are a major threat to small enterprises especially in the agriculture
sector. Some businesses such as farming depend much on rainfall therefore if
there is a drought this venture collapses. Farming is the most common venture
for self-employment so if there is drought it means that a lot of self-employed
people will suffer.

Crime: It is a problem which is affecting every self-employed person because
they are robbed of their hard-earned cash by thieves. Due to the high rate of
crime, most businesses owned by self-employed people have collapsed
because they are not insured against any theft and owners cannot afford hiring
security personnel or installing some security alarms.

Strategies for job creation of the youth in Botswana

Educating the youth so that they can have technical or business skills that will
make them to create jobs for themselves through self-employment.

Provide grants and loans for the youth through government agencies such as
CEDA so that they can engage in projects that can make them to be self-
employed.

Localisation of jobs of which young Batswana qualify will create some jobs
for young people since the posts would not be filled by foreigners.
 154

Provision of serviced land so that people can establish more industries to

employ the youth.

Government must avail part time jobs for the youth by having some projects
that can employ the youth so that they can have some money to sustain
themselves.

Some vocational workshops and seminars should be set up to equip the youth
with entrepreneurial skills.

Foreign investment should be encouraged through government agencies such
as BEDIA so that the foreign companies can set up factories in this country
especially in rural areas in order to employ more young people.

A quota system should be set for industries and government departments to
employ a certain percentage of youth e.g. 30% of employees in a company
should be the youth.

Ways of catering for disabled people in Botswana’s Education system

People with disabilities constitute about 4% of the population. The most common
types of disabilities are sight, hearing and mobility impairment caused by accidents,
illness or birth. The disabled have been marginalised and neglected for a long time.
They have limited access to community services and opportunities available to other
citizens. The disabled can be catered for in the following ways:

Build specialised institutions with specialised equipment to cater for the
disabled so that they can easily learn without any hindrance.

Train personnel for the special needs of the disabled so that they can he taught
appropriately by qualified teachers in order to fulfill their educational needs.

Provide school curriculum that can accommodate them without any
discrimination.

Encourage the society to change its perception in order to accommodate the
disabled members of the society e.g. the parents of the disabled should be
sensitised about the importance of sending disabled people to school. This will
prevent a situation whereby some families hide the disabled because they are
embarrassed but their disability.

Education should be made compulsory for all and there should be equal access
to education for all even if one has some disabilities.

Education for the disabled should not only be put on the shoulders of Non-
Governmental Organisations but the government should increase its
involvement in the education of the disabled.

In schools the buildings should be accessible so that the disabled can easily go
for lessons.

The disabled should also have some sport facilities for them in schools for
example a basket ball pitches for them.

Ways of empowering the youth, disabled and disadvantaged members of the

community.

Provision of equal opportunities to education so that they can learn various
technical and vocational skills that can be used in various economic sectors

Training family care-givers, educators and other professionals with the skills
to facilitate development and rehabilitation of people with disabilities.

Buildings must be constructed in such a way that they are accessible to people
with disabilities. They should have rumps for those using wheel chairs and
have facilities like furniture and equipment that accommodates the disabled.
 155

Creation of rehabilitation centres where the heavily disabled are provided with
special equipment such as artificial hands and legs and specialised chairs and
transport.

Promoting and protecting their rights through legislation and cooperation
between government, NGOs and other stakeholders.

Sensitising the general public about their needs and potential. This will reduce
discrimination and help integrate them into the general society.

Offering them programmes of study and special training and then using them
as service providers since they are more likely to be sensitive to the needs of
their compatriots.

The disabled must be fully supported by exempting them from medical and
educational fees, providing them with medical fees, giving them emotional
support and housing subsidies.

They should be given credit with low interests and training in order for them
to venture into self-employment projects.

How the youth, disabled and disadvantaged members of the community can
contribute to Botswana’s economic development.
The disabled people can contribute immensely to the country’s development. When
given positions of responsibility they tend to work with greater passion and
commitment than other able-bodied people. The disabled can form self-help
community programmes designed to serve disabled people and their families
including forums where they could come together for social integration If employed
they contribute to economic deve1opment by paying tax. Among the disadvantaged
members of the society are the very old people who possess a wealth of experience
that could be used in community projects. They are custodians of cultural wealth,
values and history. Grandparents can help look after children who are orphaned or
handicapped when their parents are at work. Empowerment of the youth, disabled and
disadvantaged members of society will reduce
government budget as they will be able to sustain themselves instead of relying on
government handouts.

The role of stakeholders in human resource development in Botswana

1. Government

Making education accessible to all Batswana e.g. 10 year basic education for
all people.

Training of workers through workshops or in-service training in order to
improve the productivity of workers without having to grant them study leave.

The expansion and upgrading of some institutions such as BIAC and
Technical colleges to train more people to do certain jobs. Government also
allows private tertiary institutions as long they meet the required standards of
education and training.

Understudying or job-shadowing of some foreigners who are employed to do
some certain jobs so that when their contracts expire those Batswana who are
working with them can inherit special skills.

The government should ensure that there is a healthy working class by
providing adequate health facilities which have modern equipment and well
trained health personnel.

Upgrading of educational levels of employees through further training locally
and abroad. This helps to increase productivity.
 156

Introduction of career guidance in schools so that students can make informed

choices about career opportunities.

External placement of students if there is no local institution that offers some
courses which the students want to enroll in. This can also be done if the
vacancies in the local institutions are all filled up for a particular year.

2. Non-Governmental Organisations

Provide finance for in-service workshops to train human resources in order to
promote and improve productivity at work.

Sponsor people by giving them scholarships to either learn different jobs or
further their education to prepare them for work.

Support the government’s efforts to improve productivity at work by
physically training government workers on productivity.

Offer learning support system to government and companies as donations e.g.
televisions and computers.

Offers incentives to enhance learning through activities such as essay
competitions with prizes.

They also provide educational training facilities such as typing and tailoring
courses offered by the Young Women Christian Association (Y.W.C.A.).

They also recruit some skilled human resources to be understudied by the
locals.

Sponsor training of local people to teach other locals to know special
traditional skills e.g. the training of Basarwa people to make traditional tools
by Kuru Development Trust.

Summary
In this chapter we learnt that:

Education is the process of learning or acquisition of knowledge and it is
an important factor in promoting economic development.

There are three major types of education; formal, non formal and informal.

Traditional education is mostly informal and based on local cultures
whereas modern education is mostly formal and based on both local and
foreign aspects.

Education has an important role in promoting a healthy society, consumer
awareness and voter education.

The youth, disabled and disadvantaged members of the community can be
empowered through education, provision of equal employment
opportunities and protecting their rights through legislation.

Revision Test
1. Explain the importance of education in promoting economic development. (10)
2. Outline five characteristics of formal education. (5)
3. Discuss three reasons why traditional education is important. (6)
4. Describe four roles of education in promoting voter education. (4)
5. Outline five steps that a consumer can take if his or her rights are violated. (5)
6. Discuss the problems faced by people who are self employed in Botswana. (10)
7. Evaluate the role of NGOs in promoting human resource development in
Botswana. (10)
TOTAL: 50 marks
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***************************************************
****Gantsi Senior Secondary school
Social Studies Department
Revision Questions (2013)
Topic one: Research Methods
1. Explain the importance of carrying out a research.
(8)
2. State three factors that a researcher should consider before selecting a
research topic. (3)
3. Outline five steps that the researcher can do with the data after collecting it.
(6)
4. Outline any six common steps of a research process.
(6)
5. State four weaknesses of interview as a method of data collection.
(4)
6. State four strengths of questionnaire as a method of data collection.
(4)
7. Give four problems commonly encountered by researchers when trying to
gather information from respondents.
(4)

Topic two: Environmental Concepts and Concerns

1. Explain four effects of pollution on the environment.
(8)
2. Discuss the impacts of global warming on the environment.
(6)
3. Explain four ways of sustaining the environment.
(8)
4. Discuss how Environmental Impact Assessment is important.
(6)
5. Explain the importance of the Swamps to human life in Botswana.
(6)
6. Describe four ways in which local communities care for the environment.
(8)
7. Evaluate the roles government in conservation of the environment in
Botswana. (8)

Topic three: Population Dynamics

1. Discuss any three socio-economic factors that can lead to increased fertility
rate. (6)
2. Explain four negative impacts of rapid population growth on the environment.
(8)
 158

3. Describe the importance of population census.

(6)
4. Explain four negative impacts of rural-urban migration on the destination
area. (8)
5. Discuss four possible solutions to rapid population growth on the
environment. (8)
6. Explain four causes of conflicts over the use of natural resources.
(6)
7. Discuss three ways of addressing conflicts arising from the use of scarce
resources. (8)

Topic four: The family

1. Explain the importance of socialisation at family level.
(6)
2. Explain the role of the family in addressing the issue of HIV/AIDS.
(8)
3. Discuss how the issue of gender inequality can be addressed at community level.
(6)
4. Discuss four changes that have taken place in families in Botswana.
(8)
5. Describe four issues that threaten the family as a social unit in Botswana.
(8)
6. Explain the role of the church in promoting family life.
(6)
7. Evaluate the role of government in promoting family life in Botswana.
(8)

Topic five: Nation-building

1. Discuss three political impacts of Mfecane wars on Batswana.
(6)
2. Discuss the roles played by Batswana dikgosi in preservation of the lands of
Batswana during the colonial period.
(8)
3. Explain how the 1934 proclamations reduced the powers of Tswana dikgosi.
(8)
4. Discuss how the Legislative Council prepared Batswana for independence.
(8)
5. Explain the importance of nation-building.
(6)
6. Discuss three challenges faced by Botswana in nation-building.
(6)
7. Evaluate the role of NGOs in promoting nation-building in Botswana.
(8)
 159

Topic six: Governance

1. Explain four characteristics of good governance in Botswana.
(8)
2. Outline six stages of law-making in Botswana.
(6)
3. Discuss the role of the Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime in
promoting good governance in Botswana.
(8)
4. Evaluate the roles of opposition parties in promoting good governance in
Botswana. (8)
5. Discuss four strengths of Botswana’s electoral system.
(8)
6. Explain the functions of the executive branch of government.
(6)
7. Describe three main features of Botswana’s constitution.
(6)

Topic eight: Citizenship

1. Describe four ways in which a person can acquire citizenship of
Botswana. (8)
2. Outline six qualities of a good citizen.
(6)
3. Outline six roles of the state to its citizens.
(6)
4. Discuss four ways in which women can promote participatory democracy
in Botswana.
(8)
5. Discuss four ways in which government can promote peace between
Botswana’s diverse ethnic groups.
(8)
6. Discuss four impacts of HIV/AIDS as a global crisis.
(8)
7. Evaluate the roles of the UN peace-keeping forces in promoting peace.
(8)
8. Evaluate the impacts of globalisation on Batswana.
(8)

Topic nine: International Relations

1. Discuss how any four principles guide Botswana’s foreign policy.
(8)
2. Explain how international relations are important.
(6)
3. Explain four roles played by Botswana in international relations at
regional level. (8)
 160

4. Discuss four challenges faced by Botswana in international relations.

(8)
5. Explain four ways in which countries promote international relations.
(8)
6. Discuss three roles of International Court of Justice in promoting peaceful
relations.
(6)
7. Explain how Botswana benefits from international relations at regional
level. (6)

Topic ten: Cultural diversity in Botswana

1. Discuss cultural changes that have taken place in Botswana since
independence. (8)
2. Evaluate the importance of culture.
(8)
3. Discuss four gender disparities resulting from cultural practices.
(8)
4. Discuss four ways of promoting one’s culture internationally.
(8)
5. Explain how Botswana culture promotes the following principles:
a. Democracy (6)
b. Unity (6)
6. Discuss ways of addressing gender imbalances resulting from cultural
practices in Botswana.
(6)

Topic eleven: Economic Development in Botswana.

1. Explain four factors that contribute to economic development.
(8)
2. Explain how the mining sector contributes to Botswana’s economic
development. (8)
3. Explain the challenges faced by the manufacturing sector in Botswana.
(6)
4. Discuss four ways in which corruption undermines Botswana’s economic
development.
(8)
5. Evaluate the role of government of Botswana in promoting economic
diversification.
(8)
6. Explain three global factors that have an impact in Botswana’s economic
development.
(6)
7. Explain how the youth can promote economic diversification.
(6)
 161

Topic twelve: Education and human resource development in Botswana.

1. Explain the importance of traditional education.
(8)
2. Explain the differences between modern and traditional education.
(6)
3. Discuss the role of education in promoting economic development.
(6)
4. Discuss four challenges faced by people who are self employed in Botswana.
(8)
5. Evaluate the role of government in promoting human resource development in
Botswana.
(8)
6. Suggest four strategies that can be used by government to create employment
for the youth.
(8)
7. Explain how the disabled should be catered for in Botswana’s education
system. (6)

PAST BGCSE SOCIAL STUDIES EXAMINATIONS (2006-2011)

2006
1. a. Assess the impacts of terrorism as a global crisis. (10)
b. Discuss the importance of NGOs in promoting democracy in Botswana. (10)
2. a. Explain five ways in which government promotes economic diversification in
Botswana. (10)
b. Discuss five ways in which mining contributes to the economy of Botswana.
(10)
3. a. Explain how colonialism led to the formation of early nationalist movements.
(10)
b. i. Outline the roles played by Batswana dikgosi in preventing a take-over by the
British South Africa Company in 1895.
(5)
ii. Discuss the role played by Bogosi institution in nation building.
(10)
4. a. Evaluate the effects of international migration in Botswana.
(10)
b. Explain five factors that can lead to high population growth.
(10)
5. a. Describe how government is formed in Botswana.
(8)
b. Outline eight qualities of a good citizen.
(8)
c. Explain why international relations are important.
(4)

2007
1. a. Examine the impacts of rapid population growth on available resources.
(10)
 162

b. Discuss five effects of rural urban migration on rural areas.

(10)
2. a. Discuss how the youth can help to address the problem of unemployment in rural
areas.
(6)
b. Evaluate the contribution of NGOs in nation-building.
(14)
3. a. Discuss three advantages and three disadvantages of Botswana’s first past the
post electoral system.
(12)
b. Explain why there is voter apathy in Botswana.
(8)
4. a. Discuss with examples how culture promotes gender disparities in Botswana.
(10)
b. Assess how globalisation has negatively affected the economy of Botswana.
(10)
5. a. Discuss the impacts of desertification.
(10)
b. Discuss five ways in which government of Botswana is encouraging peace and
harmony among ethnic groups in Botswana.
(10)

2008
1. a. Discuss the factors that influence the division of labour in a modern society.
(10)
b. Describe the role of the family in addressing the issue of HIV/AIDS.
(10)
2. a. Explain five ways in which globalisation has impacted negatively on Batswana.
(10)
b. Explain five possible solutions to rapid population growth.
(10)
3. a. Show with examples, how culture promotes the following principles of nation-
building:
i. Unity (2)
ii. Botho (2)
iii. Democracy (2)
iv. Development (2)
b. Explain six factors that influence economic growth.
(12)

4. a. Explain how transparency promotes good governance.

(10)
b. Analyse the significance of the following national symbols in nation-building:
i. National flag (4)
ii. National Anthem (3)
iii. Coat of arms (3)
5. a. Explain the importance of traditional education.
(10)
 163

b. Assess five ways in which the tourism industry has positively contributed to the
economy of Botswana.
(10)

2009
1. a. Describe five causes of conflicts over the use of natural resources.
(10)
b. Describe five socio economic factors that influence population growth.
(10)
2. a. Discuss five ways in which international relations are important.
(10)
b. Discuss five challenges faced by Botswana in international relations.
(10)
3. a. Discuss five challenges faced by manufacturing industries in Botswana.
(10)
b. Describe five possible solutions to challenges faced by manufacturing industries
in
Botswana.
(10)
4. a. Discuss the factors that led to the British declaration of a protectorate over
Bechuanaland.
(10)
b. Describe the characteristics of a non- democratic government.
(10)
5. a. Explain why socialisation is an important aspect of the child’s upbringing.
(10)
b. Evaluate the importance of culture.
(10)

2010
1.a. Discuss the significance of intermarriages across ethnic groups.
(4)
b. Explain the role of the family in addressing issues of sex education.
(6)
c. Evaluate the impacts of changing family systems in Botswana.
(10)
2. a. Using examples, discuss how Tswana culture encourages gender disparities.
(10)
b. Evaluate the contribution of Emang Basadi in nation-building.
(10)
3. a. According to the Ministry of Education, all Batswana have equal access to
education. Assess this with particular reference to the disabled learners in Botswana.
(10)
b. Discuss the role of education in promoting economic development.
(10)
4. a. Al Qaeda is regarded as an international terrorist organisation. Discuss the
impacts of terrorism in the world.
(10)
 164

b. Discuss five challenges faced by Botswana in her efforts to develop international

relations.
(10)
5. a. Explain two challenges faced by the mining sector of the economy of Botswana.
(4)
b. Using three examples evaluate the significance of global economic forces on the
economy of Botswana.
(6)
c. Assess the role of the government of Botswana in economic diversification.
(10)

2011
1. a. Explain three challenges of self-employment in Botswana.
(6)
b. Discuss three ways in which agriculture contributes to the economy of
Botswana. (6)
c. Evaluate the role of government in promoting agriculture.
(8)
2. a. Some dikgosi, like Kgosi Kgafela, have reintroduced initiation schools to revive
traditional education.
i. Explain how this type of education is important to culture in Botswana.
(6)
ii. Discuss the importance of cultural tolerance in Botswana.
(6)
b. Assess the social impacts of globalisation in Botswana.
(8)
3. a. The rapid increase of Zimbabweans into Botswana has directly affected
Botswana.
i. Explain any three factors that could have forced Zimbabweans to migrate into
Botswana.
(6)
ii. Evaluate how this type of migration has economically benefitted Botswana.
(6)
b. Describe four causes of conflict over the use of natural resources.
(8)
4. a. Discuss three challenges faced by Botswana in international relations.
(6)
b. Explain three principles that guide Botswana in her international relations.
(6)
c. Evaluate four ways in which NGOs promote human rights in Botswana
(8)
5. a. Contrast Botswana’s constitutional democracy with Swaziland’s monarchy.
(6)
b. When people in power or authority act dishonestly in return for money or
personal gain, economic development is negatively affected.
i. Discuss three ways in which this type of practice affects economic development.
(6)
 165

ii. Explain four ways in which the Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime
promotes good governance in Botswana.
(8)
2012
1a. Explain the roles of the following branches of government:
1. Executive
2. Legislature
c. The spirit of nationalism brought changes in the lives of Africans. Discuss
how nationalism affected the lives of Batswana.

2a. Explain three ways of acquiring citizenship in Botswana.

b. Explain three traditional attributes of Batswana citizens.
c. Discuss how the UN peace-keeping forces help to sustain human dignity.
3(a) Explain the importance of education in promoting economic development. (6)
(b) Explain the steps to be taken by individuals when health rights have been
violated. (6)
(c) Assess the effects of global economic forces on the economy of Botswana. (8)
4 (a) Using examples, show how the Hardveld has influenced the economic activities
of people living there.
(b) A woman’s fertility rate is influenced by both socio-economic and cultural
factors. Explain three factors that can lead to increased fertility rate.
(6)
(c) Explain the importance of population policy. (8)
5. (a) Using examples, show how elements culture differ from one group to another in
Botswana. ( 6)
(b) Discuss how Tswana culture promotes gender disparities in Botswana. (6)
(c) Media has an influence on people’s way of life. Evaluate ways through the
media has influenced the Setswana culture. (8)
2013
1. a. Explain three factors that can lead to an increase in population.
(6)

b. Explain three effects of high population on available resources.

(6)
c. Discuss four possible measures that can be taken to reduce rapid population
growth. (8)
2.a. Explain three ways in which the 1934 Native Tribunal Proclamation reduced the
powers of dikgosi and the kgotla as judicial institutions.
(6)
b. Explain the contributions made by Batswana dikgosi in preserving the lands of
Batswana from the period of Mfecane up to the time when Bechuanaland attained
independence. (6)
c. Assess four political impacts of Mfecane wars on Batswana.
(8)

3. a. Explain three principles that guide Botswana’s foreign policy.

(6)
 166

b. Explain any three roles played by Botswana in international relations at regional

level. (6)
c. Assess four roles of the United Nations in promoting world peace.
(8)

4. Culture is our heritage; a nation without a culture is a lost nation.

a. Explain the importance of culture in Botswana.
(6)
b. Explain three ways in which culture promotes the principle of Botho.
(6)
c. Assess the impacts of globalisation on Tswana culture.
(8)

5. In recent years the government of Botswana has invested a lot in addressing the
problem of shortage of skilled labour.
a. Explain the importance of education.
(6)
b. Outline six challenges faced who are self employed in Botswana.
(6)
c. Assess four roles of government in promoting human resources development in
Botswana. (8)

Glossary
1. Absolute monarchy: a system of government in which the head of state is a
king, queen or emperor.
2. Acculturation: the meeting of two or more groups of different cultures
resulting in cultural changes.
3. Arbitrary powers: being above the law or having absolute powers.
4. Assimilation: making someone or something part of another.
5. Balance of payment: the difference between the money a country earns from
its exports and what it spends on imports, including foreign investments.
6. Bilateral relations: relationship between two countries.
7. Birth rate: the number of children born alive per 1000 people in a given year.
8. Bribery: giving money or anything valuable to someone in return for an
illegal favour.
9. Child mortality: the average number of children who die before the age of 5
per 1000 live births.
10. Citizen: a person who belongs to a particular group and has rights and
responsibilities within that group.
11. Citizenship: the act of belonging and having rights and responsibilities within
a particular group.
12. Cohabitation: a practice whereby a man and a woman live together as
husband and wife but not legally married.
13. Cold War: political tension between the USA and USSR.
14. Colonialism: practice whereby powerful countries take over political control
of weaker countries.
 167

15. Colony: a country that is ruled and controlled by a more powerful nation.
16. Concept: a thought, idea or principle.
17. Concern: something that is worrisome.
18. Constituency: an area that is represented by a single member of parliament.
19. Constitution: a set of rules by which a country is governed.
20. Constitutional democracy: a system of government in which political
authority lies in the constitution.
21. Cultural diversity: when there are many different cultures co-existing in a
community or country.
22. Cultural heritage: cultural elements such as tools, works of art, values and
customs that have been passed on from earlier generations.
23. Culture: a way of life of a particular group of people.
24. Corruption: acting illegally in return for money or personal gain.
25. Cyber-terrorism: disruption of computer systems for terrorist purposes.
26. Data: information or facts.
27. De facto population: total number of people who are in a country during a
census (It includes all visitors and foreigners but excludes citizens who are out
of the country at a time when census is conducted).
28. De jure population: total number of people present in a country during a
census (de facto) plus all citizens outside the country during a census.
29. Death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people in a given year.
30. Debt: amount of money that a person, institution or country owes to another.
31. Decentralisation: movement of developments or services from large areas to
smaller centres like small towns or villages.
32. Democracy: a system of government in which people have the right to elect
government representatives or leaders.
33. Densely populated area: an area occupied by many people e.g. 10 or more
people per square kilometre.
34. Dependency ratio: the proportion of the working to the non-working
population.
35. Dependent population: people who are economically dependent or
inadequate e.g. children aged below 15 and the very old who are no longer
working.
36. Devaluation (of currency): when a country deliberately lowers its exchange
rate to make its exports less expensive.
37. Diplomacy: skillful and tactful management of international relations.
38. Economic development: process of improving the production and distribution
of a country’s wealth and resources.
39. Economic diversification: Addition of new and different activities to an
economy or business so that it is less dependent on just a few.
40. Economy: total activities undertaken by people to use resources to create
wealth.
41. Ecotourism: an environmentally friendly alternative form of tourism which
safeguards the environment.
42. Ecosystem: a community of plants and animals within a physical
environment.
43. Emigration: movement of people out of a particular place (out-migration).
44. Embezzlement: a type of corruption in which a person diverts institutional,
government or company funds to his or her personal account.
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45. Environment: manmade and natural surroundings in which people and

animals live.
46. Environmental determinism: the idea that activities of people within a
particular area is determined by the natural environment in which they live.
47. Environmental possibilism: the idea that the environment does not
necessarily influence human activity but provides a set of opportunities which
offers freedom of choice of action.
48. Ethnic group: a group of people who belong together and have a common
origin and cultural elements such as language, food and technology.
49. Ethnicity: the practice of identifying people according to the ethnic group to
which they belong.
50. Eutrophication: excessive growth of algae as a result of over-supply of
organic or mineral nutrients in water.
51. Extended family: a family consisting of various relatives e.g. mother, father,
children, grandfather, uncle, cousins etc.
52. Family: a group of people related to each other by blood, marriage, adoption
or assimilation.
53. Fecundity: the biological capacity of a woman to reproduce.
54. Fertility rate: the average number of live births that a woman is capable of
producing during her reproductive period.
55. Foreign policy: the picture through which a country wants to be known by
others.
56. Fossil fuels: fuels that come from the remains of dead plants and animals such
as coal, oil and gas.
57. Fraud: a type of corruption in which a person uses false documents to obtain
something.
58. Game farming: the rearing of wild animals in privately owned game reserves.
59. Genocide: deliberate murder of people from a particular ethnic group or race.
60. Gender: the state of being male or female.
61. Gender quota: a limit on the number or proportion of males and females
allowed at a particular time e.g. an agreement to have 30% females in
managerial positions by SADC.
62. Gender stereotypes: the belief that a particular work or behaviour is for a
particular sex only.
63. Geneva Convention: an international agreement signed in Geneva,
Switzerland in 1864 to formulate code of practice for handling wounded
soldiers, refugees and prisoners of war.
64. Governance: act of ruling or being ruled.
65. Government: a system through which society is ruled or the institutions that
are used to rule people in a country.
66. Greenhouse effect: the process by which the earth’s atmosphere absorbs
reflected radiation from the sun resulting in rise in temperature of the lower
atmosphere.
67. Gross Domestic Product: total value of a country’s production in one year,
excluding earnings from abroad.
68. Gross National Product: total value of a country’s production in one year,
including earnings from investments abroad.
69. Immigration: coming of people from other areas into a particular area (in-
migration).
70. Import duty: tax imposed on goods from outside the country.
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71. Infant mortality rate: the number of children who die before the age of 12
months per 1000 live births.
72. International relations: official interactions or contacts between countries.
73. Land degradation: process by which land quality or condition is made poor
due to misuse.
74. Land reclamation: when land that has been damaged is improved so that it
can regain its initial quality.
75. Life expectancy: the average number of years a newborn child is expected to
live from birth.
76. Material culture: physical elements of culture that can be seen or touched e.g.
pottery, dress, technology, food, tools etc.
77. Menopause: when a woman no longer experiences menstruation.
78. Mfecane/Difaqane: inter-tribal wars in Southern Africa between 1810 and
1840s.
79. Migration: movement of people across a specified boundary either
permanently or temporarily.
80. Military coup: overthrowing of government by the army.
81. Multi-ethnicity: having many ethnic groups living together.
82. Multi-lateral relations: relationships between more than two countries.
83. Nation: a group of people who belong together as one state or country.
84. Nationalism: a strong feeling of loyalty or faithfulness towards ones country.
85. Nationalists’ movements: organisations or associations formed to pursue or
represent the interests of a particular group of people.
86. Natural increase rate: the difference between the birth and death rate in a
similar year.
87. Natural resources: items or goods found in nature that are of importance to
man and other living things e.g. trees, water, fruits etc.
88. Nepotism: the practice of people with power or influence to favour their own
relatives.
89. Non-renewable Resources: items or goods that cannot be replaced or take
millions of years to regenerate e.g. minerals.
90. Non-material culture: elements of culture that cannot be seen or touched e.g.
beliefs, ideas, customs, religion, language etc.
91. Nuclear family: a family which consists of mother, father and their children
only.
92. Optimum population: when the population and available resources are equal
i.e. there is a balance between resources and people.
93. Orphan: a child who has lost both parents.
94. Overpopulation: when there are more people in an area than the available
resources can support.
95. Political asylum: protection given by government to people who have
escaped political troubles in their own country.
96. Patriotism: having love or pride for ones country
97. Population density: the average number of people per unit area.
98. Population dynamics: the ever-changing structure of population due to
factors such as birth rate, death rate, migration.
99. Population structure: composition of a population e.g. ratio of males to
females or proportion of working to non-working population.
100. Pressure group: a group of people who seek to influence the
government without actually taking power themselves.
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101. Primary data: first hand information collected by the researcher.

102. Primary elections: elections conducted by individual parties to
nominate candidates who will represent them in general elections.
103. Proclamations: laws made by the colonial government and imposed
on people without consultation.
104. Protectorate: a country that is protected and controlled by a more
powerful country.
105. Protestants: members of a part of the Christian church that separated
from the Roman Catholic in the 16th Century.
106. Referendum (Plural: referenda): a special vote in which all citizens
take part in order to take a decision on a particular issue or topic.
107. Remittances: money sent back to the family by a migrant.
108. Renewable Resources: goods or items that can be replaced, reused or
replenished e.g. trees, water.
109. Sanctions: official orders or laws prohibiting trade with a particular
country.
110. Secondary data: data collected by the researcher from already
existing sources such as official documents, diaries, magazines and other
published documents.
111. Self-determination: the right to make own decisions without outside
influence.
112. Separation of powers: division in terms of powers and functions of
the executive, judiciary and legislature.
113. Single-parent family: a nuclear family which is headed by one parent
e.g. mother and her children only.
114. Social contract: unwritten agreements or relationships between
leaders and people who elected them into power.
115. Socialisation: the process through which individuals learn the culture,
values and norms of their society.
116. Sovereignty: power of independent countries to make decisions or run
their affairs without interference from other states or international
organisations.
117. Sustainability: ability of resources or items to exist for a long time
without being damaged or depleted.
118. Tax holiday: a period in which new industries are exempted from
paying tax so that they can establish themselves.
119. Terrorism: the act of using violence to achieve a certain goal.
120. Totem: an animal or natural object that is treated with great respect
because it is a symbol of a particular ethnic group.
121. Tradition: the passing of beliefs and customs from one generation to
the next.
122. Transhumance: a seasonal movement of pastoral farmers and
livestock in search of good pastures and water.
123. Tribalism: discrimination based on ethnic group.
124. Visa: an official document that allows a person to enter or leave a
particular country for a specific purpose or period of time.
125. Voter Apathy: low turn-outs in general elections.
126. Xenophobia: fear or hatred of people from other countries.
 171

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