EBN 111 – Summary

Chapter 1
Charge and Current
 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists – measured
in coulombs
o Charge on 1 electron: -1,602 x 10-19C
o 1C = 6.24 x 1018 electrons
o Charge cannot be created/ destroyed, only transformed
 Current – rate of change of charge (Ampere)
q
o i=
t
dq
o However, current is not always constant, therefore i=
dt
 Example 1 – Determine the current if q ( t )=8 t 2+ 4 t −2 at t=3

dq
i=
dt
d
i= ( 8 t 2 + 4 t−2 )
dt
i=16 t+4
i=16 ×3+ 4
i=52 A

 Example 2 - Determine the current if q ( t )=10 sin ⁡( 120 πt) at t=0.5

dq
i=
dt
d
i= 10 sin ⁡( 120 πt)
dt
i=10 cos ( 120 πt ) ×120 π
i=1200 πA
t

o Similarly Q=∫ i dt
t0
π
 Example 1 – Find Q if i ( t )=20 cos ⁡( 10 t + ) ) and between t(0) and t(1)
6
t
Q=∫ i dt
t0
t
π
Q=∫ 20 cos ⁡( 10 t+ )dt
t 0
6

[ ]
1
π
Q= −200 sin ⁡(10 t + )
6 0
Q=278,13 C

 Direct current – current remains constant

 Alternating current – current that varies sinusoidally with time
Voltage
 Emf/potential difference/ voltage – the energy required to move charge through a conductor
w
 v=
q
dw
 If v is not constant then v=
dq
 Voltage can be positive or negative depending on how it is represented
o As current moves through an element, the voltage drops or is used up
o Thus the voltage “up current” will be higher (or lower if it is a cell) than that below
the element
o Thus if voltage is represented from above to below the element then it is positive
and if it is represented from below to above then it is positive
 Voltage can also be represented positively or negatively according to whether it is supplied
or used up buy the element

Power and Energy

 Power – the rate at which energy is expended (Watts)
dw
o p= =vi
dt
o Power calculated using p=vi – instantaneous power
o Power is either positive or negative
 Positive when
 Energy is expended or used (as in a resistor)
 Current enters the positive terminal of the element
 Negative when
 Energy is supplied (as in a cell)
 Current enters the negative terminal of the element
o Energy must be conserved, therefore total power of a system must equal zero
 Energy – the capacity to do work
o Measured in joules or watthours
o w= v dq∫
Circuit elements
 Active elements – elements that generate energy
o Ideal independent source – supplies voltage or current of a specific quantity no
matter what the rest of the circuit looks like
 Symbol - + voltage current
o Ideal dependant source – supplies energy in quantities controlled by another
-
element
 Types
 Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
 Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
 Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
 Current controlled current source (CCCS)
 Symbol – same as independent with a diamond instead of a circle
 Passive – elements that is not capable of generating energy
Chapter 2
Ohm’s Law
 Used to calculate resistance – the force that resists the flow of electric charge
 Can be calculated using:
l
o R= ρ
A
 P – resistivity of the material
 L – length of the resistor
 A – cross-sectional area of the material
v
o R=
i
o R – measured in Ohms (Ω)
o R is always positive
 Power in resistors
2
o P=i R
2
o v
P=
R
o Power in a resistor is always positive
 Law only applies to linear resistors (where v α i)
 Open circuit – circuit with an element with resistance approaching infinity
 Short circuit – circuit with resistance approaching zero
 Conductance – the ability of an element to conduct electric current
o Measured in mhos or Siemens (S)
1
o Is the inversion of resistance - G=
R
Nodes, Branches and Loops
 Branch – a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor
 Node – a point of connection between two or more branches
o Two elements are in series if they are connected by a single node
o Two elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes
 Loop – any closed path in a circuit
o Independent loops
 Loop cannot be broken down into smaller loops
 Contains an element not found on other independent loops
o Calculate numbers using – b=l+ n−1
 Where l represents independent loops

Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Current law – the sum of all currents entering and leaving a node must be zero
1. Write down the current value for all known branches around the node
2. Make each of these positive or negative according to whether the current is entering
or leaving the node through the branch
3. Add together equalling 0

Example:
 −i 1+i 2 +i 3−i 4 =0

 Voltage Law – the sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero
1. Start from any point and move clockwise
2. If current enters at the positive, add, if enters at negative, subtract
3. Add together, equalling zero

Example:

R1 +R2−R3 −C4 =0

5 ×103 i+10 ×10 3 i−7,5 ×10 3 i−45=0

3
7,5 ×10 i=45
i=166,7 A Series resistors and voltage
division
 Resistors in series carry the same current
v
o ∴i=
Req
o Req =R1 + R2 + R3
 Voltage division in series
Rn
o vn = .v
R eq
Parallel resistors and current division
 Resistors have the same voltage as the whole parallel system
1 1 1 1
o = + +
R eq R 1 R2 R3
 Current division
o If there are only 2 resistors
R2
 i 1=i
R 1 + R2
o If there are more than 2 resistors
1
 G=
R
 ∴Geq =G1 +G2 +G3
Gn
 ∴i n=i
G eq
1. Convert all resistances into conductance
2. Find total G
3. Sub into formula

Wye-Delta Transformations
 Often is a more complex circuit, there are no obvious parallel and series resistors, however
this can be changed to make it easier
 Circuits in a delta form can be converted to wye form and visa-versa
  Balanced resistors – all resistors have the same ohm value
1. Ra=R b ¿ R c =R∆
2. R1=R2 ¿ R3=R y
3. R∆ =3 R y

Example:

R∆ =3 R y

R∆ =12 Ω

∴ R y =4 Ω

 Wye to delta
R1 R 2+R 1 R3 +R3 R2
1. R a=
R1
all the products of possible 2 R n values
2. R a=
Rn val ue opposite
Example:
R 1 R 2 + R 1 R 3 + R 3 R2
Ra=
R1
30.20+20.50+30.50
Ra=
30
Ra=103,33 Ω
Rb=155 Ω
Rc =62 Ω

 Delta to wye
Rb Rc
1. R 1=
Ra + R b + R c
Product of adjacent resistors
2. R a=
∑ of all resistors∈delta
Example:

Rb R c
R 1=
Ra + Rb + R c
 30.60
R 1=
30+60+10
R1=18 Ω
R2=6 Ω
R3=3 Ω

Chapter 3
Nodal Analysis
 Provides us with node voltages, using Kirchhoff’s current law
 Reduces the number of equations required to solve a circuit
 Steps
1. Select a node as the reference node (ground) – this node will have 0V as its potential
difference
2. Assign voltages, V1,V2 etc. to each critical node (nodes with more than two branches)
3. Apply KCL to each of these named nodes – use ohms law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages
4. Solve the simultaneous equations (this case used Cramer’s rule)

Example: Find the node voltages

V 1−V 2 V −V 3 0=−3 V 1+6 V 2+4 V 3

V1: 0= −i+ 1
3 2
V 1−V 2 V 1−V 3

[ ][ ] [ ]
0= −10+ 5 −2 −3 V 1 60
3 2
0=2V 1−2V 2−60+ 3V 1−3 V 3 −4 −5 0 V 2 = 0
60=5 V 1−2V 2−3 V 3 −3 6 4 V3 0
∆= ( 5.-5.4 ) + ( -4.6.-3 ) + ( -3.-2.0 ) - ( -3.-5.-3 ) - ( 0.6.5 ) - ( 4.-2.-4 )
∆=−100+72+0+ 45−0−32
V 3−0 V −V 1 ∆=−15
V3: 0= + 4 i+ 3
6 2
V 3−V 1 V
0= +4 i+ 3 ∆2
2 6 V 2=
0=6 V 3−6 V 1 +12 V 2 +2 V 3 ∆
 960
V 2=
−15
V 2=−64 V

V 2−V 1 V −0
V2: 0= −i+ 2
3 4
V 2−V 1 V2
0= −4 i+
3 4
V2
0=−4 V 1 +4 V 2−12.4 . +3 V 2
4
V
0=−4 V 1 +4 V 2−12.4 . 2 +3 V 2
4
0=−4 V 1 −5V 2

∆1
V 1=
∆

[ ]
60 −2 −3
∆1 = 0 −5 0
0 6 4
∆1 = ( 60.-5.4 ) + ( 0.6.-3 ) + ( 0.-2.0 ) - ( -3.-5.0 ) - ( 0
∆1 =−1200
−1200
V 1=
−15
V 1=80 V

∆3
V 3=
∆
−2340
V 3=
−15
V 3=156 V
Supernodes
 The enclosed voltage source connected between any two non-reference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it

 This is useful as it reduces the number of nodes and simplifies the problem
 Also creates a new equation: v 1−v 2=2 v 0 (voltage across the supernode)
o This is easier to work with then most other simultaneous equations

Mesh Analysis
 Mesh – loop that does not contain any other loops
 Mesh analysis – only applies to planar circuits
1. Planar circuit – can be drawn without any branches crossing
2. Nonplanar circuit – cannot be drawn without branches crossing
 Applies Kirchhoff’s voltage law to find mesh currents
 Steps
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2,…in to each of the meshes – draw them as a current
flowing clockwise through each mesh
2. Apply KVL to each of the meshes using Ohms law to express the voltages in terms of
currents
a) If the branch is only present in one mesh then the current value will just be
i1, or whatever the mesh number is
b) If the branch is present in two meshes then the current is expressed as: i 1-i2,
where i1 is the mesh that you are currently working with and i 2 is the other
mesh
3. Solve the equations simultaneously

Example:

i 0=i 3
 10 i0 =10 i3 0=−2i 1−18 i 3 +10 i2

i 1 :0=−20+4 ( i 1−i 3 ) +2 ( i1−i2 ) (

4
0=−2 i 3+ i2 +
6
2
6
20
6 )
−18i 3 +10 i 2
0=6 i1 −4 i 3−2 i 2−20 −4 2 20
0= i − i − −18 i 3 +10 i2
4 2
i 1= i3 + i 2 +
20 3 3 3 2 3
6 6 6 28 58 20
0= i2 − i3 −
4
i 1= i3 +
6
2 58
( i +
6 28 3 28
20 20
+ )6
3
58
i 2 = i 3+
3
20
3

19 25 28 28
i 1= i 3 + 58 20
14 7 i 2= (−5)+
19 25 28 28
i 1= (−5)+ i 2=−9,64 A
14 7
i 1=−3,21 A

i 3 :0=6 i 3+ 4 ( i 3−i 1 ) +8 ( i 3−i 2 ) i 0=i 3

0=−4 i 1 +18 i3 −8 i 2 i 0=−5 A
0=−4 (19
14
i3 +
25
7 )+18 i 3−8 ( 58
28
i3 +
20
28 )
0=−4 i 3−20
i3=−5 A
i 2 :0=−10 i3 +2 ( i 2−i 1 ) +8 ( i 2−i 3 )

Supermeshes
 Supermesh – two meshes have a current source with or without other elements in series, in
common
 Steps for super meshes
1. Assign the currents as normal for mesh analysis
2. Then combine the two meshes with the common source into one current
3. Then derive two equations from this supermesh
 i 1−i 2=current flowing throughthe source
 The general mesh analysis equation is terms of i 1 and i 2 for the large
current

i 1−i 2=3 A

i
2(¿ ¿ 1−i 3 )+4 (i 2−i 3)+8 i 2−6
0=¿
6=2i 1 +12i 2−6 i 3

0=2 ( i 3−i 1 ) +2 i 3+ 4 ( i 3−i 2 )

0=−2i 1−4 i 2+ 8 i3

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 −1 0 i 1 3
2 12 −6 i 2 = 6
−2 −4 8 i 3 0
 i 1=3,47 A
i 2=0,47 A
i 3=1,11 A

Nodal Analysis by Inspection

 Only can be used if all sources are independent current sources
 Use the equation:

[ G 1 +G2 −G2 v 1
−G2 G2 +G3 v 2 ][ ] [ ]
i −i
= 1 2
i2

o Where the diagonal elements from the top left to the bottom right are the sum off
all the conductances branching off the node
o The other elements in the matrix are the value of the conductance directly between
the two nodes
o The current values represent the current entering (+) and exiting (-) the node – onlt
applies to branches with current sources on them
 Equation can also look like:

[ ][ ] [ ]
G11 G21 v 1 i ¿ −i out
=
G 12 G22 v 2 i ¿ −i out

Example:

Mesh Analysis by inspection

 Only can be used with all sources as independent voltage sources
 Use the equation:

[ ][ ] [ ]
R 1 + R2 −R 2 i 1 v
= 1
−R 2 R 2 + R3 i 2 −v2
 o Where the diagonal elements from the top left to the bottom right are the sum off
all the resistances in the loop
o The other elements in the matrix are the value of the resistances common between
the two loops
o Voltages represent the sum of all the voltage increases due to voltage sources within
the loop
 If current enters at – then sign is +
 Enters at + then sign is –

Example:

Nodal vs Mesh Analysis

 If the question specifies then follow it, if not then look at the following factors
o Weigh up whether there are fewer nodes or meshes and then chose the one with
the least
o If there are more parallel elements – use nodal
o More series – use mesh

Transistors
 Work with a BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) - most often made of layered materials (npn)

 Working with currents (mesh analysis)

o Current Ic is increased by the current IB, like a valve
o I C =β I B – where β is the common emitter gain (value of 50-100 usually)
o I C =α I E – where α is the common base current gain (value: 0.98-0.99)
 α
o ∴ β=
1−α
o Only really use the β value in
practise
 Working with voltages (node analysis)
o First redraw the circuit so that
it is in the equivalent network
model
o Use KVL to calculate the values

Example with Mesh analysis:

0=I b ( 10000 ) +V BE + (1+ β ) I b ( 200 ) −5

0=I b ( 10000 ) +0,7+ (101 ) I b ( 200 )−5
I b=0,14 mA

0=−500 βI b +12−200 (1+β ) I b −V CE

0=−50000. I b +12−20200 ( I b )−V CE
V CE =2V

V o=200(1+ β) I b
V o=2,87

Example with Nodal analysis:

1V −0,7 V
I B= =2,5 μA
120000
V C −10 VC
I C :0=80 I B + +
20000 20000

0=160000 ( 2,5 × 10−6 ) +2 V C −10

V C =3 V =V o

Vo
I o= =0,15 mA
20000
Chapter 4
Linearity
 A circuit in which the output is directly proportional to the input
a) The voltages and currents across the linear circuit will remain at a constant ratio
 Properties of linearity
a) Scaling – v =iR → kv=kiR
b) Additivity - v =( i 2+i 1 ) R=v 2+ v 1
 Calculating values using linearity
a) Assume the final outcome (what you are calculating) to be 1 units or whatever is
requested in value
b) Work backwards through the circuit using KVL and KCL for the assumed value until
you reach a component with a fixed value
c) Find the ratio between the assumed outcome value for the fixed value component
and its stated value
d) Use this ratio to calculate the correct value for the final outcome

Example:

a) Assume I 0 ¿ be 1 A
b) Work backwards through the problem
4
 Using current division – I 0=I 2 =1
3+5+4
 I 2 =3 A
7 7
 I 2 =I 4 =I 4
7+2+4∨¿ 8 11.67
 I 4=5 A=I s
c) Create a ratio for assumed values
I0 1
 =
I4 5
d) Use this ratio to calculate I0
1
 × I s=I 0
5
 I 0=3 A
Superposition
 The voltage and current flowing through each element is made up of the sum of the
influence of each independent source
 Is a calculation of the contribution of each independent source separately
 Steps for calculations
1. Turn off all independent sources except for one, then calculate the output asked in
the question
2. Repeat step one for each independent source
3. Add each of the values calculated in step one and two together
 Turning off sources
1. Voltage sources are replaced with a wire and leave all elements in series as part of
the circuit
2. Independent current sources are replaced with an open circuit meaning that all
elements in series are excluded

Example:

v x v x −20
0=−0.1 v x + +
4 20
0=−2 v x +5 v x +v x −20
20=4 v x
v x =5 V

vx v x
0=−4−0.1 v x + +
20 4
4=−2 v x +v x +5 v x
4=4 v x
v x =1V

v x =4 +1
v x =5 V

Source Transformations
 Involves the creation of an equivalent circuit with the same v and I values
 Voltage to Current
1. Change the resistor from series to parallel
2. Replace the voltage source with a current source with the current flowing I the
direction that the positive terminal pointed
v
3. Use the equation i s=
R

 Current to voltage
1. Change the resistor from parallel to series
2. Replace the current source with a voltage source
3. Use ohms law to calculate the new voltage value
Thevenin’s theorem
 A two terminal circuit can be replaced with an equivalent circuit made up of a voltage source
in series with a resistor
1. Vth is the open circuit voltage at the terminals
2. Rth is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off
 Method 1 – circuit contains no dependant sources
1. Remove the load part of the circuit and draw in the open circuit V th
2. Simplify/ use KCL and KVL to determine the value of V th
3. Turn off all the independent sources and calculate the equivalent resistance - R th

Example:

Step 1:

Step 2: Find Vth

V 1−18 V 1
0=−3+ +
6 10
0=−90+5 V 1−90+3V 1
V 1=22.5 V
4
V ab=V 1 .
10
V ab=9 V
∴V th =9V

Step 3:

( 6+6 )∨¿ 4=3 Ω

Final Circuit:

 Method 2 – With dependant sources

1. Use the same method for determining Vth
2. Dependant sources can’t be turned off thus they need to be kept
3. Thus a Test source needs to be applied to the circuit either a
a. Voltage source if using node voltages is easier
b. Current source if mesh analysis would be easier
v0
4. Use the equation Rth =
i0
a. Where V0 is either the 1V test source or the voltage across the 1A test
current source
b. I0 is either the 1A test source or the current flowing through the 1V test
source

Example:

Vx:
Vx V −1
0= −1.5 I x + x
5 3
V
0= x −1.5 x
5 ( 3
+ )
V −1 V x −1
3
0=3V x −7.5 V x −7.5+5V x −5
V x =−5V
V1:
1− (−5 ) 1
0=−i 0+ +
3 4
i 0=2.25 A
Rth:
v0
Rth =
i0
1
Rth =
2.25
Rth =0.4 Ω
Norton’s Theorem
 Exactly the same as Thevenin’s theorem except resulting in a current source in parallel with a
resistor
 Just the source transformation of Thevenin’s equivalent
 Use same steps as thevenin just short circuit a-b to find I N

Example:

Step 1: Determine IN

Thus Vx = 0 and the current flowing through 6Ω is 0A.

Isc = 10A

Using Method 3: short circuit terminal a-b and do not zero any sources. R N=Voc/isc

Voc: Use source transformation

0=6 ( I ) −60+2 ( 2 ) I +2 I
I=5 V
∴V x =V oc =10 V
Isc:
Previously calculated to be 10A
V oc
RN =
I sc
10 V
RN =
10 A
RN =1 Ω

Maximum Power Transfer

 Applies when the whole circuit except for the load is replaced by the Thevenin equivalent
 Then the max power transferred to the load is:

o P=i 2 ( R L )= ( V th
)
R
R th + R L L
V th2 V 2
o Simplified to: P= = L
4 ( R th ) ( Rth )
o The load resistor must equal thevenins resistor for maximum power transfer to apply
 Method – use thevinins rule to simplify the circuit then just apply the equations

Operational Amplifiers
 Also called an op amp
 Behaves like a voltage controlled voltage source
 It is an active circuit element designed to perform mathematical operations such as addition,
multiplication, differentiation etc.
 Made up of many different transistors and resistors inside the amplifier but not shown in the
course
o Connected up but the
following pins

Non Ideal Op Amp

 Represented in the following way
 Equivalent Circuit is:

 Parameters are given as:

 Thus the output current is related to the voltage across R i

1. But it is limited to |Vcc| the maximum voltage that can be supplied by the op-amp
 Method of calculating
1. Replace the op-amp symbol with the equivalent circuit (make sure that the positive
and negative terminals are connected in the right places)
2. Simplify the circuit graphically and by using source transformations, inserting all the
given information
3. Solve as one would solve any other circuit problems

Example: Find V0/Vs when A = 2 x 105, Ri =

2 MΩ, R0 = 50Ω.

Step 1:

Step 2:
 V1 V −V s V 1−V 0
0= + 1 +
5 000 2 000 000 40 000
0=400 V 1+ V 1−V s +50 V 1−50 V 0
V s=451 V 1−50 V 0

V
(¿ ¿ s−V 1) V0 V −V 1
V 0−(2× 1 05) + + 0
50 20 000 40000
0=¿
V
800(¿ ¿ 0−200 000 V s +200 000 V 1 )+2 V 0 +V 0 −V 1
0=¿
160 000 000V s=803 V 0 +159 999 999 V 1
451 V s=0.00226V 0+ 451 V 1

∴ 450V s=50.00226 V 0
V0
=8.9996
Vs

Ideal Op Amps
 Has the ideal characteristics as seen in the
table above
 Since Ri = ∞
o i 1=i 2=0
o v d =v 1−v 2=0
o v1 ¿ v2

Example: Assume Vs = 1V and find V0

 1 1−v 1
0= +
5000 40000
v 1=9V

∴V 0 =9 V

Inverting Amplifier
 This form of an op amp supplies similar voltage
to the circuit just polarised
 Must have the following characteristics
o An equivalent resistance in series with
Vi
o An equivalent resistance: Rf
o An inverting input or output of 0V
 Thus the following equation applies:

−R f
v0 = v
R1 i
 Special case where
o Current is supplied and not voltage
o The resistance in series with the source = 0
o Thus v 0 =−i s R

Non-Inverting Amplifier
 Designed to produce positive voltage gain
o The voltage source is present in the positive
inverting voltage terminal
o The two equivalent resistors are in the same
place as the ones in inverting op amps

Rf
V 0=(1+ )V
R1 0

 Special case: Voltage follower

o The R1 branch is replaced with a short
circuit
o In this case the input = output V 0=V i
o Two uses

 Vi can only source low current due

to Vcc values whereas V0 can source
much higher ones

 Can be used as a buffer to isolate

one stage of a circuit from another
Summing Op Amps
 Combines multiple inputs to make one common weighted output
 Uses superposition theory to determine the contribution of each source to the output

 Uses idea of superposition to make a common equation

o v 0 =−( Rf
R1
R R
v 1+ f v 2+ f v 3
R2 R3 )
Example:

o v 0 =−( 208 1.5+ 108 2+ 86 1.2)

o v 0 =−3.8 V
Difference op amp
 Combination of an inverting and a non-inverting op amp
  Can be done using first principals
 Or use the equation:
R1
R 2 (1+ )
R2 R
o v0 = v 2− 2 v 1
R3 R1
R1 (1+ )
R4

Example:

Design a difference op amp with inputs v 1and v2 such that v0 = 3v2 – 5v1

R2
=5
R1
R1=1 Ω R 2=5 Ω

( )
R2 1+ 1
R
R2
=3

( )
R 1 1+
R3
R4
1
5 (1+ )
5
=3
R3
1(1+ )
R4
1
5(1+ )
R3 5
= −1
R4 3
R3
=1
R4
R3=R 4=5 Ω
Cascading Op amps
 Is the head to tail arrangements of many op amps
 Each op has an amplification value – the ration of v 0/vs
 Generally just the value of the of the resistor ratios
 For cascaded ones use the equation
Chapter 6 – Conductors and Inductors
Capacitors
 Passive element designed to store energy in an electric field
 Consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator
 Has a value of stored charge – capacitance
εA
o C=
d
o A - Surface area of the metal plate
o ε – permittivity of the dielectric
o d – distance between the plates

 Capacitance - ratio of charge on one plate to the voltage difference between the two plates
measured in Farads (F)
q
o c=
v
 Thus the following equations are used to calculate current and voltage as neither are
constant across the capacitor
d
o i ( t )=c v (t)
dt
 I is positive if capacitor is charging and negative if discharging
t
1
o v ( t )= ∫ i ( t ) dt +v ( t 0 )
Ct 0

 Energy and power

1 2
o w= c v
2
dv
o p=vi=vC
dt
 Capacitors are open circuits under DC conditions (capacitor is fully charged)

Example: The voltage source connected across a 10μF capacitor is given as v ( t )=5 sin ( 200 t ) V .
Calculate i(t).

dv
i=c
dt
−6dv
¿ 10 ×10 ( 50 sin ( 2000 t ) )
dt
¿ 10 ×10−6 ×50 ×2000 × cos ( 2000 t )
¿ cos ( 2000 t )
 Capacitors in series are added like resistors in parallel
 1 1 1 1
o = + +
C eq c 1 c 2 c 3
o Thus voltage division in series works like current division in parallel
c2
o v 1= v
c 1 +c 2
 Capacitors in parallel - act like resistors in series
o C eq=c1 +c 2 +c 3
o Thus current division works the same as voltage division in series
c1
o I1 = I
c 1 +c 2
Example: Find the equivalent capacitance

¿ ( ( 60 s 120 )+ 20 ) s (50+70 )

¿ ( 40+20 ) s ( 120 )
¿ 40 μF

Inductors
 Passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field
 Equation for physical characteristics – measured in Henries (H)
o N 2 μA
L=
l
 l – length of the coil
 μ – permeability
 A – cross sectional area
 N – number of turns
 Voltage and current equations
d
o v ( t )=L i (t)
dt
t
1
o i ( t )= ∫ v ( t ) dt+i ( t 0 )
Lt0

1
o w= Li 2
2
di
o p=vi=iL
dt
o Is a short circuit under DC conditions
 Inductors in series are added like resistors in series
 o C eq=c1 +c 2 +c 3
o Thus voltage division in series works like voltage division in series
c1
o v 1= v
c 1 +c 2
 Inductors in parallel - act like resistors in parallel
1 1 1 1
o = + +
C eq c 1 c 2 c 3
o Thus current division works the same as current division in parallel
c2
o I1 = I
c 1 +c 2
Calculating problems with conductors and inductors
 the equations for the inductors/ capacitors given
o Do not remove anything in the circuit
o Use simplification and or voltage/current division to isolate the desired element
o Use the above equations to calculate the answers
 No equations are given
o Use DC conditions and solve the circuit without the other elements

Example using DC conditions:

i=6 mA
v =120V

−2 t
Example using equations: If i 1 ( t )=0.6 e and
i(0) = 1.4A. Find i2(0), i2(t), i(t), v1(t), v2(t) and v(t)

d
v ( t )=L i (t)
dt
d
v 1 ( t ) =6 0.6 e−2t
dt
−2t
v 1 ( t ) =6 (−1.2 ) e
−2t
v 1 ( t ) =−7.2 e

t
1
i ( t )=
Lt
∫ v ( t ) dt+i ( t0 )
0
 t
1
i 2 ( t )= ∫ −7.2 e−2 t dt +i ( t 0 ) i 2 ( t )=1.2 e−2 t−1+i ( t 0 )
3t0

i 1+i 2=i
i 1 ( 0 ) +i 2 ( 0 )=i ( 0 )
−2 (0 )
0.6 e +i 2 ( 0 )=1.4
i 2 ( 0 )=0.8 A
i 2 ( t )=1.2 e−2 t−1+0.8 A
−2 t
i 2 ( t )=1.2 e −0.4 A

−2 t
i 1 ( t )=1.8 e +1.4 A
d −2 t
v 2 ( t ) =8 1.8 e +1.4 A
dt
−2 t
v 2 ( t ) =−28.8 e V

v 1 + v 2=v
v =−36 e−2 t V

Chapter 9 – Sinusoids and phasors

Complex Numbers
 Complex numbers have both a real and an imaginary part
 Appear in 3 forms
o Rectangular - z=x + jy
 X – real part
 Y – imaginary part
o Polar - z=r < φ
 Similar to polar co-ordinates
 R –combination of the real and imaginary magnitudes
 Φ – the angle between r and the positive real axis
 Must lie in (-180,180)
o Exponential - z=r e jφ
 Seldom used
 Conversions between types
o Rectangular to polar
 r= √ x 2 + y 2
y
 φ=tan −1
x
 Counter clockwise is positive
o Polar to exponential
 Use the same variables
 Complex number arithmetic
o Addition – use rectangular form
 z=x 1+ j y 1+ x 2 + j y 2
 z=x 1+x 2 + j( y 1+ y2 )
o Subtraction – same as addition
 o Multiplication – Use polar form
 z=r 1 <φ ×(r 2 <φ)
φ+φ
 )
z=r 1 ×r 2 <¿
o Division – same as multiplication
 Subtract angles instead of add
o Square root – use polar form
φ
 √ z=√ r 1<
2
o Inverse – use polar form
1 1
 = ←φ
z r1
o Conjugate – use rectangular form
 Change the sign before the imaginary part of the number

Sinusoids
 Signal in the form of a sine or cosine function
 v 1(t)=v m sin ( ωt−φ )
o ω – the angular frequency in radians/s
o vm – the amplitude (maximum signal)
o φ – the phase change of the function
2π
 T=
ω
o T – the period of the function (s)
1
 f=
T
o F – the frequency of the function (Hz)
 To simplify some equations the compound angle trig equations my need to be used
o sin ( a ± b )=sin ( a ) cos ( b ) ± cos ( a ) sin ( b )
o cos ( a ± b ) =cos ( a ) cos ( b ) ∓sin ( a ) sin ( b )
 All sinusoids must be converted into the form: v 1(t)=v m cos ( ωt ± φ )
o To do this use the following graph form

-sin(ωt)
-sin(ωt+75) = cos(ωt+165) -sin(ωt-60) = cos(ωt+30)

-cos(ωt) cos(ωt)

Example: Transform v =27 sin ( 3t−60 ) into standard form

sin(ωt)
v =−27 cos ( 3 t+ 30 )
v =27 cos ( 3 t −150 )
 Leading and lagging
o Considering two vectors:
o Use the smallest angle between the two
o When moving clockwise from one vector to the other across the smallest vector:
 The starting vector is lagging
  The second is leading
 Converting sinusoids to into phasors
o Change the phasor into standard form
o v 1(t)=v m cos ( ωt ± φ ) → v m< φ
dv
o = jωV
dt
V
o ∫ v dt = jω
Impedance and Admittance
 Admittance – the equivalent of resistance for AC circuits
o Represented by Z and measured in Ohms
o Same as resistance for resistors
o All equations such as voltage division, wye to delta equations and series/parallel
equations are exactly the same as the resistance ones
o For inductors
 Z = jωL
 Using CIVIL – voltage leads current
o For capacitors
1
 z=
jwC
 Using CIVIL – current leads voltage
 Impedance – equivalent of conductance for AC circuits
o Represented by Y and measured in Siemens
o Simply the inverse of admittance
 When working with circuits of multiple types of passive elements and AC current
o Change all capacitance and inductance into admittance
o Convert all sources into phasors
o Look to find Zeq – likely needed for the problem
o Treat the equation as one would a normal DC circuit

Example:

Example 2: Find Z