USEFUL MEASUREMENTS

FOR VIOLIN MAKERS

A REFERENCE FOR SHOP USE

Henry A. Strobel

THIRD EDITION

.'
 l
Publ i shed by the Author
Aumsvllle, Oregon
97325 USA

j
Copyr ight© 1988, 1909
by Henry A. Strobe l

Al 1 rights reserved, No part of this

book may be r eproduced in any form or
by any means without prior writ ten
permission of the author.

Library of Congress Catalog

Card Number:
89-90382

ISBN 0- 9620673- 2- 6

Third Edition
Wi th Minor Revisions and Additions
July 1989
Second Printing . .
March 1990

Third Pr inting of the Third Edition l

September 1990

Printed in the United States of America

 page 5
PREFACE TO THE SECOND (REVISED) EDITION
The first edition, published with some reservations, was surprisingly well
received. Rather than simply reprint it, I wanted to make a few needed changes
and add some further measurements, clarifying notes, and drawings. For example,
I revised the bass bridge spacing, and added a cello diagram and bridge
templates for small instruments . Minor changes were made to various values in
the tables where it was felt t hat the new value was better or more typical. The
number of words in the "dictionary" was doubled and a true cross-reference
added. The text was reviewed and expanded throughout.
The book is unchanged in essentials, a convenient, compr ehensive , working
reference. The master violin maker may not derive much new inspiration in his
area of specialization. Others will find it very useful, especially in areas
outside their normal experience. To the extent that it gives specific single
values it attempts an impossible task; no one value is always optimum. To give
an "acceptable range" of values would be equally flawed, The optimum va lue of a
variable depends on others, the relationship of which I have tried to explain in
some cases, but the final determination must be left to the perception and
judgment of the violin maker in the context of a particular instrument.
No one has expressed an objection to the exclusive use of metric measures,
u. S. vioi'in makers having recognized their convenience and universality.
Thanks to all those who offered helpful suggestions for this second
edition.
November 1988

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

The material presented here was originally compiled in 1984 for use in my
violin workshop. Since then, I have continuously used, revised, and added to
it.
This is not a book on the violin making process itsel f (of which there are
sufficient), nor on specific repair techniques Cof which there are t oo few). ,It
does provide, compactly and conveniently, most of the basic SIZE and ADJUSTMENT
data needed for working on instruments of the violin family.
The material presented, while simple in appearance, represents a
substantial effort in research and validation. This is basic factual
information, not magic formulae, pet theories , "how-to hints", or rhapsodies on
old varnish.
I do not presume to set myself up as an authority. Many readers will have
more experience and training. However, this useful information is not readily
available in similar form elsewhere.
Chapter 1 is on full size, Chapter 2 on smaller instruments. Chapter 3
just gr ew, a paragraph at a time, to include brief no tes on many things.
Chapter 4 is on those "early" or unusual bowed instruments t hat the violin
maker may encounter.
Out of my collection of books on the violin and violin making, several
appeared to be (more or less) relevant and reliable. These are l isted
alphabeticall~. with comments, in the bibliography in Chapter 5.
In Chapter 6, Maker's Addendum, and in the Afterword, I allowed myself a
more personal point of view.
Your suggestions for future editions are welcome.
HAS Oregon (July) 1988
For Henry,Jr., Marguerite , and George
 TABLE OF CONTENT S

PREFACES 5
Frontispiece 8

I
Chapter 1. STANDARD SIZE INSTRUMENTS
Introduction 9
Table of Useful Measurements in MM. 10
Remarks on the Table 11
Bridge and Fingerboard Templates 12
Bow Measurements 13
Chapter 2. OTHER INSTRUMENT SIZES
I ntroduction 14
Table of Vio lin Sizes 16
Table of Viola Sizes 16
Table of Cel l o Sizes 17
Table of Bass Sizes 17
Bridge Templates for Small Instruments 18

Chapter 3. NOTES ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS

Introduction 19
Tuning 19
Strings 19
The Bridge 21
Standard Violin Diagram 22
Standard Cello Diagram 22
The Sound Post 23
Measuring the Post Position 23
The Bass Bar 24
Wo lf Tones 24
The Doub 1e Bass 24
Common Fiddle Faults 25
Factory Fidd les 25
Plywood Cel los and Basses 25
Chapter 4. SOME HISTORICAL AND OTHER BOWED
INSTRUMENTS .. •
The Baroque Violin 26
Viola d'Amore 27
The Viol Family 27
Historical Note 28
The New Violin "Octet " 28
Misce llaneous Others 29
Chapter 5. FURTHER REFERENCE
Introduction 31
Bib I iography 31
Periodicals 33
'•'Term Trans I a tor" 33
Vio 1inist 's "Notes" 37

J
 page 7

Chapter 6. MAKER'S ADDENDUM Page

Introduction 38
Measuring Tools 38
Table of Additional Measurements 40
Graduation 41
Varnish 42
Wood 42
Glue 43
Graduation Control 43
AFTERWORD
Making and Repair 44
New and Old 45
About the Author 45
Notes 46
About the Book Back

The drawing reproduced here by kind permission of

the artist, Fritz Eichenberg, was an illustration
for "Fiddler's Folly", Robert H. Schauffler, 1942
 l

A Viola (upper) ahd a Cello by the Author

 CHAPTER 1
STANDARD SIZE INSTRUMENTS

INTRODUCTION
It is part of the paradox of the vio lin that all
i ts makers work within l imits of size, shape, color,
etc., such that unless one is a player, maker, or
connoisseur, all violins look and sound more or less
alike. Yet t o a person familiar with violins, each
has its own personality (voice, fee l, and appearance)
just as human singers do.
There is room for subtle style and sound
differences, but every competent violin maker works
to ACCEPTED STANDARDS of adjustment and dimensions,
whether in new making or repair in order to satisfy
the needs of the player. First, the basic standards
must be met, which are the same for all p layers, and
then perhaps minor adjustments to suit the individual
performer.
This presentation deals only with the basic standards required by all
pl ayers. It does not tel I how to cut a bridge for a certain tone, or how to set
a post to satisfy a particular musician; the finer adjustments can be achieved
only by experience, patience, and insight. They are more in the category of
tone (acoustic) adjustments rather than playability adjustments, the principal
subject here. Tone adjustments tend to be somewhat subjective and problematic.
The violin maker is often'asked what happens if a certain change is made. He
must frequently try to answer this question in the case of a particular
instrument he is working on, but it cannot be answered generally (or in a boo~)
because of al l the other variables invo lved.
The standardization of playability adj us t ments does not exclude artistic
indivi duality in violin making, but it does establish an essent ial common
ground.

The violin maker is not a machine, calibrated for a production run, but an
ARTIST giving individual expression to each instruinent within the accepted
limits. He has to determine each time the dimensions of each detail of · the
instrument. For these measurements two kinds of reference are used: numeric
measurements, and direct patterns or gauges. Each maker provides his own
patterns and gauges according to his needs and methods. (One will measure every
detail; another will carve freehand.)

As an aid in making these patterns, and as a convenient numeric REFERENCE,

I compiled fot my own use the "Table of Useful Measurements" on the next page
and the "Table of Additional Measurements" on pages 40 and 41. In doing so, I
tried to compare, ~elect, and reconcile (as far as practical) the information
from various sources, and from my own experience.
The measurements given in these tables and in the tables of other sizes in
Chapter 2 are not the rigid answer, but a reasonable starting point. The final
criteria are always "Is it easy to play, and does it sound good?"
 page 10
TABLE OF USEFUL MEASUREMENTS IN MM. VIOLIN VIOLA VIOLA CELLO BASS
Henry A, Strobel, Violin Maker 4/4 15. 5" 16. 5" 4/4 3/4
********************************************************************************
Body Length, Approximate 356 394 419 755 1110
Upper Edge of Top to Bridge Center 195 210 225 400 610
Neck Length, Upper Edge of Top to Nut 130 140 150 280 425
Neck Thickness, Upper, Excluding FB 13 13,5 14 17 22
Neck Thickness, Lower, Excluding FB 14 14. 5 15 19 30
Neck Thickness, Upper, Including FB 19 19,5 20. 5 29 34
Neck Thickness, Lower, Including FB 21 21.5 22.5 33 41
Neck Height Over Top Edge (Page 22.)

Fingerboard Length
6.0*

270
8.0
27.5

290
9. 0
28

305
19
* (Violin E Side 0.7mm lower.or: reduce fingerboard 0.7mm on E side. )
Neck Heel Measurement (See page 22.) 26 42

580
25
66
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
850
l
Fingerboard Width at Nut 23 . 5 24 25 31 42
Fingerboard Width at Lower End 42 45 46 63 87
Fingerboard Thickness on Sides 5.0 5.0 5.5 7.5 10
FB Surface Concavity under String 1 o. 5 o. 7 0.7 0.9 1, 6
FB Surface Concavity under String 4 0.7 0,9 0.9 1. 5 2.5
FB Surface Radius of Curvature 42 38 38 62 ,95
FB Flat Surface under String 4 See next page. 9x22 11x25
FB Height Projected to Bridge 27 31 32 81 150
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
String Length, . Nut to Top of Bridge 330 356 380 695 1060
String Length, Bridge to Tailpiece 55 60 68 120 200
String 1-4 Spacing at Nut 16.3 16.5 17 22 30
(Divide into 3 equal parts along the arc to locate strings 2 & 3.)
String 1-4 Spacing at Bridge 33,5 37 38 47 80
String to String Spacing at Bridge 11.5 12.5 13 16.5 28
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
String 1 FB Clearance, Gut 3,5 4,0 4.5 5,5 11
String 1 FB Clearance, Steel 2.5 3.0 3,5 -4.0 7.0*
*CPerlon Symphony or Steel Rhythm Bass 8.5)
String 4 FB Clearance, Gut 5.5 6.0 6,5 \ 8.0 16
String 4 FB Clearance, Steel 4.0 4,5 5.0 6.5 8. 7*
*CPerlo~ Symphony or Steel Rhythm Bass 11)
(Please see "string CLEARANCE" on page 20.)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
String Clearance at Nut (See page 20.) (About 1/3 the st-ring diameter)
String 2 Angle over Bridge,Degrees 158 158 158 153 148
String Groove Depth at Nut and Bridge (About 1/3 the String Diameter)
String Groove Width at Nut and Bridge (About the string Diarnet~~)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bridge Thickness at Strings 1. 3 1. 4 1, 5 2.6 4,5
Bridge Thickness at Feet 4.2 5, 0 5.5 11 21
Saddle Height (See also ~age 40.) (Variable to ad.Just the string angle)
Sound Post Diameter 6.0 6.0 7.0 11 ' 17
Peg Hole Spacing,Strings 1-4 & 2-3 15 18 18 27
Peg Hole Spacing.Strings 1-3 20 26 26 37
Pegbox to Inside Edge of Thurnbpiece 16 17 17 28
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TO CHANGE MM TO INCHES, DIVIDE BY 25.4
For other sizes see Chapter 2. Chapter 3 explains more fully. The table in
Chapter 6 has additional information for the maker .
 page 11
REMARKS ON THE TABLE
The table Just presented gives reference measurements that primarily affect
STANDARDIZATION and PLAYABILITY rather than acoustics or esthetics.
The vio lin maker is assumed to have acquired or developed outlines,
patterns, ioolds, tools, and methods. The table excludes arching, graduation,
bass bar and soundpost fitting, and bridge cutting. However, they are treated
briefly in Chapters 3 and 6,
Another point: in working from published drawings, it is sometimes unclear
whether the measurement was intended along the arching or strings , or from the
plan projection, whether the drawing was rescaled in reproduction or whether the
original was accurately drawn. (Note that the string length is longer than the
sum of the neck length and stop.) The professional maker will adapt his own
templates from good models.
Some of the measurements are rrore IMPORTANT, such as string clearance,
upper edge of top to bridge center ("stop"), neck length and thickness, and
fingerboard projection (height projected to the bridge). Some others are Jess
critical. · Measurements are given in mm (and tenths in some cases). Of course,
dimensions cannot be controlled to a tenth of a ll'lll in wood. The measurements
given are typical or design center values. It is not practical to state the
range of acceptable variations, which depends on the rrodel and related
variables. Cellos, for example, often have a stop of 405 mm instead of the
"idealized" 400° shown here, and thus a string length closer to 700 mm than 695.
The VIOLIN is the most highly standardized of the string instruments.
VIOLAS and BASSES are quite variable, My table shows t wo very different viola
samples. The maker as artist should appreciate the opportunity for originality
provided by the viola. '
Bridge heights are not given here. They are determined by the stri,ng
clearance at the end of the fingerboard (after the fingerboard projection has
been verified or corrected). One standard height is not always optimum. See
THE BRIDGE in Chapter 3.
I have not included a height for the FINGERBOARD over the top, although
this is often used (20 mm is usual for the violin). This depends on the arching
and on the height of the neck over the top edge; it is far ioore reliable to use
the fingerboard height extended to the bridge using a straight edge (or an L-
shaped gauge). ·
Nominal RADII of curvature are given, but the fingerboard is often given a
varied curvature, less curved on the treble side. The FLAT surface under string
4 of the cello and bass is approx. 60 degrees from the vertical. Also , older
violas may have a flat surface under the C string, about 7x12 mm and a 42 mm
radius.
The longitudinal surface CONCAVITY is greatest not at the center of the
fingerboard length, but at that of the vibrating string. Ideally this concavity
is less for steel strings. ,
To complement;• the table, I have included a copy of my bridge and
fingerboard TEMPLATES on the next page. These are typical, but will not be
optimum for all archings, models, and player preferences.
Please see Chapter 3 for more detailed information.
 page 12
BRIDGE AND FINGERBOARD TEMPLATES

t
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~ VIOLIN
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~ VIOLA
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"'(. G.UT

i STEEL

CELLO

JAi!i?

BASS

These are tracings of lllY wood templates. (See the note about metal
templates on page 18,) String clearance gauges should be checked with cal1pers
against the table on page 10, IMPORTANT : See also "string CLEARANCE", page 20.
, The fingerboard template checks the nominal radius of curvature and string
spacing at the nut. See pages 10, 11 for the FLAT surface under string 4 of the
c~llo and bass fingerboards.
The string to string spacing for a 5 string bass may be less than 28 nm
depending on the width of the f1ngerbqard and bridge blank.
 page 13
BOW MEASUREMENTS
The three principal bow measurements, overall LENGTH, WEIGHT, and BALANCE
point from the frog, are not standardized. These are ultimately the choice of
the performer or instructor, based on personal requirements and preferences.
Other important bow characteristics, STIFFNESS of the stick, and thus the
TENSION that can be applied to the hair, are not usually measured objectively,
but are very noticeable to the player.
The bow lengths listed in the tables of Chapter 2 are primarily intended
for the identification of fractional sized bows.
VIOLIN bows range from about 728 to 752 mm overall, but most modern ones
are about 745 am.
Authorities often give the VIOLA bow length as slightly shorter than the
violin bow; they are in the same range, however. The viola bow is generally
heavier and stiffer.
The table below shows measurements in mm for full size bows. These are
only representative and do not indicate the acceptable range. Balance points
especially have a wide range; they can also be moved somewhat by choice of
fitt ings, wrapping, tip loading, etc. in the fini shed bow. BASS bows vary
widely. The samples given are not necessarily recommended.
The balance point is given as its distance in front of the frog in the
forward (loosened) position.

BOW LENGTH WEIGHT BALANCE FROG FERRULE BlITTON

TYPE OVERALL (GRAMS) POINT LENGTH WIDTH LENGTH
***"""**********************'"*****************************'"-********************
VIOLIN • 745 60 185 45 13,5 16
VIOLA 740 70 195 48 14 16
CELLO 715 80 170 51 15 18
BASS.FRENCH 725 125 140 68 18 30
BASS.GERMAN 750 150 120 70 19 60
(To Change Grams to Ounces, Divide by . 28. 4. >

CAMBER of the bow:

When the average, non-tensioned violin or viola bow is placed hair-down on
a flat surface, the stick should touch or nearly touch the hair. Otherwise it
needs respringing. (Stiffer bows, and cello and bass bows may have a greater
separation.)· The stick should be nearest to the hair about 5/8 of the way from
the frog end. •
With the frog (ully forward, the HAIR should be Just slack enough to allow
for the tightening from changes in humidity, and the GRIP should be within a rrrn
of the front of the frog.
Two books on BOWMAKING, those of Bolander and Henderson, are listed in the
Bibliography, page 31.
 CHAPTER 2
OTHER INSTRUMENT SIZES

INTRODUCTION
STANDARD SIZED instruments were tabulated in
Chapter 1 and are all full sized (4/4), except the
3/4 bass. With the exception of the 4/4 bass, all
the "other" instrument sizes are smaller than full ,.
size .
The SMALLER instruments have traditionally been
given fractional designations. These evolv~
haphazardly and were never standardized, 4/4 violins
are quite standard at about 356 nm or 14 inches in
body length, but have ranged from about 350 to 365.
A widely accepted schedule of TRADITIONAL SIZES
was published by Metropolitan Music, tabulating all
major dimensions in cm down to 1/64 for violin, and
down to 1/8 for cello and bass. Scher! and Roth used
this same tabulation in a decimal inch form.
The Gruppo Studi Liutari attempted to rationalize the series of small
violins on a different mathematical basis, In it the small sizes shrink
somewhat, the 1/16 approximating the rrore traditional 1/32 size,
Konrad Leonhardt presented a different series CGBM Standard 1978923), and
in this the small sizes swell somewhat, the 1/16 (his smallest) approximating
the oore traditional 1/8 size.
See the references in the Bibliography, Chapter 5, for the above sources.
A SUZUKI violin series is similar to the traditional sizes, except that its
1/10 approximates the 1/16, and its 1/16 approximates the 1/32. See also the
Suzuki ·note to the cello table on page 17.
A size schedule was given in the "The Instrumentalist" for May-June, 1950
by Christian Bryder, who was the violin expert at Lyon & Healy in Chicago. The
Warren School used this. It agreed with the traditional sizes, but only went
down to 1/ 4.
' .
Then there are the MENC (Music Educators' National Conference)
designations. These ("Standard, Intermediate, and Junior") are indicated along
with the traditional designations in the tables on pages 16, 17, Or, one may
try to avoid the issue of fractional size designations by referripg to "a
child's violin of <so many) ll1TI", for example. Ultimately the instrument must be
measured by the child.
Of course, the "new violin family" of the Catgut Acoustical Society is not
cori~idered in this context. But see NEW VIOLIN "OCTET" in Chapter 4. •

After a painstaking analysis of the size schedules mentioned above and

~asurements of actual instruments, I derived realistic nominal BODY LENGTHS and
rounded ranges of values to use in determining the nominal size . Instruments
with body lengths between these ranges can be designated 7/8, etc.
 page 15
NOMINAL TRADITIONAL VIOLIN SIZES
SIZE 4/ 4 3/4 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32
********************************************************************************
Length 356 335 310 280 255 230 215
From 350 330 300 270 250 225 210
To 360 340 320 290 260 240 220

A useful APPROXIMATION is that most measurements decrease by about 8% for

each downward step in the series 4/4, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, Thus, one
can multiply the 4/4 value by 0.92 to approximate the 3/4 value, by 0.85 for the
1/2, 0.78 for 1/4, 0. 72 for 1/8, 0.66 for 1/16, and by 0.61 fo r 1/32. To go up
a step, as from 3/4 to 4/4, one can mu lt ip ly by 1.09. This agrees within 3%
with the nomina l lengths above. Of course, all dimensions do not necessarily
change in scale on all 100dels. CELLO bows decrease in length about 61 for each
downward step.
The TABLES on pages 16 and 17 do not provide construction information for
these instruments; they do facilitate IDENTIFYING the nominal size of an
instrument or bow, or of parts in inventory (bridges, tailpieces, etc.)
They also provide APPROXIMATE ADJUSTMENT information for t he various sizes
based on the 8% rule. Common sense and a basic knowledge of playing
requirements will suffice to adapt the data given to a particular instrument.
Se lecting the correc t BRIDGE BLANK is the essential starting point. A wider ,
narrower, or lower b lank may be required by the instrument's width or
f ingerboard projection. If t he f-ho les are widely separated, the corresponding
bar position requires a wider bridge. Full size bridge blanks are available in
even mm widths: for viola about 46-52 (48 typical), for cello · about 86-98 (90
typical), and for bass in various 4 and 5 stringed sizes, sometimes custom made.
Finding the right model, size, and wood quality is sometimes a challenge .
One of the most important measurements is that of the FINGERBOARD
PROJECTION ("FB Height Projected to Br idge"), since it may involve resetting the
neck. Do not simply follow the tables; make sure that the proJection will be
r ight for the instrumen t and for the he ight of the bridge you want t o use.
The purpose of the tables is to guide, not to complicate. Use the size of
fitting that is practical, or available and appropriate. BAR dimensions · are
only a ·guide and depend on graduation and other acoustic considerat ions, The
length of the bar can be approximated by 7/9 of the body length. The shape and
height are more important t han the precise length.
String spacing is measured from center to center , but string clearance i s
from the bottom of the s tring to the surface of t he fingerboard. It is
convenient to make CLEARANCE GAUGES as part of the BRIDGE TEMPLATES.
APPROXIMATE bridge templates for the SMALLER instruments can be derived from
these by proportio~al reduction. See page 18. It may be desi r eable to make
bridges for young students slightly more curved and thicker at the top.
In violins and violas, t he "STOP " (upper edge of the top to the bridge
center ) should be in the ratio 3 to 2 to the neck length (upper edge of the top
to the nut). In eel los and many basses t his rat io is 10 to 7. This varies,
especiall y in basses, which are likely t o be individual in many r espects .
 page 16
TABLE OF VIOLIN SIZES
TRADITIONAL SIZE 4/4 3/4 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16
MENC DESIGNATION STD. INT, JUN. --*
********************************************************************************
Body Length, Nominal 356 335 310 280 255 230
String Length, Nomi nal 330 310 285 260 235 215
Bow Length, Nomi nal 745 690 630 550 500 450
Bridge Blank Width at Feet 41 38 35 32 29 27
Bridge Thickness at Feet 4,2 3.9 3-6 3.3 3.0 2. 8
Bridge Thickness at Strings 1.3 1.2 1, 1 1. 0 0.9 0.9
Sound Post Diameter 6 6 5 5 4 4
Bar Length 277 260 241 218 198 179
Bar Width 5,5 5, 1 4.7 4, 3 3.9 3,6
Bar Height at Bridge 12 11 10 9.4 8.6 '7,9
String 1-4 Spacing at Nut 16,3 15 14 13 12 11
String 1-4 Spacing at Bridge 33,5 31 29 26 24 22
String 1 FB Clearance, Gut 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.1 2,5 2,3
String 1 FB Clearance, Steel 2.5 2-3 2, 1 1,9 1,8 1,6
String 4 FB Clearance, Gut 5,5 5. 1 4-7 4,3 3. 9 3.6
String 4 FB Clearance, Steel 4,0 3,7 3,4 3. 1 2, 9 , 2.6
FB Height Projected to Bridge 27 25 24 22 20 19
Fingerboard Length 270 250 230 210 195 180
Tailpiece Length 114 105 95 89 82 75
Pegbox to Peg Thumbpiece 16 15 14 13 11 10
Peg Thumbpiece Width 22 21 20 19 18 17
TABLE-OF VIOLA SIZES
TRADITIONAL SIZE LARGE MEDIUM SMALL 3/4 1/2
MENC DESIGNATION STD, STD. STD, INT.# JUN.#
********************************************************************************
Body Length, Nominal 430 410 390 356 335
String Length, Nominal 390 375 355 330 310
Bow Length, Nominal 750 740 740 740 690
Bridge Blank Width at Feet 50- 52 48-50 46- 50 41 38
Bridge Thickness at Feet 5. 5 5.3 5.0 4.2 3, 9
Bridge Thickness at Strings 1, 5 1,5 1. 4 1,3 1.2
Sound Post Diameter 7 7 6 6- 6
Bar Length 334 319 303 277 260
Bar Width 6,6 6.3 6,0 5.5 5, 1
Bar Height at Bridge 15 14 13 12 11
String 1-4 Spacing at Nut 17 17 16,5 .16, 3 15
String 1- 4 Spacing at Bridge 38 37 36 33,5 31
String 1 FB Clearance, Gut 4-5 4,3 4,0 3.5 3.2
String 1 FB Clearance, Steel 3,5 3, 3 3,0 2.5 2,3
String 4 FB Clearance, Gut 6.5 6, 3 6,0 5,5 5. 1 '+
String 4 FB Clearance, Steel 5,0 4,8 4,5 4. o· 3. 7
FB Height Projected to Bridge 32 31 30 27 25
Fingerboard Length 305 300 290 270 250 !
Tailpiece Length 135 130 125 114 105
Pegbox to Peg Thumbpiece 18 17 17 16 15
Peg Thumbpiece Width 25 24 24 22 21
.~ Suzuk,1 1/10, 1/16 approximate the traditional 1/16, 1/32,
-'· # Maybe 4/ 4 and 3/ 4 viol ins, respectively, specially strung. True violas
Cwider and deeper bodies) are prefer.able.
 page 17
TABLE OF CELLO SIZES
TRADITIONAL SIZES 4/ 4 3/4 1/2 1/4 1/8
MENC DESIGNATION STD. !NT. JUN. --* --*
*******************************************************************************
Body Length, Nominal 755 690 650 580 530
String Length, Nominal 695 635 600 535 490
Bow Length, Nominal 715 670 630 590 560
Bridge Blank Width at Feet 90 83 77 70 65
Bridge thickness at Feet 11 10 9,3 8.6 7.9
Bridge Thickness at Strings 2.6 2, 4 2.2 2.0 1.9
Sound Post Diameter 11 10 9 9 8
Bar Length 587 536 505 451 412
Bar width 11 10 9,5 8,5 0.0
Bar Height at Bridge 25 23 21 19 18
String 1-4 Spacing at Nut 22 20 19 17 16
String 1-4 Spacing at Bridge 47 43 40 37 34
String 1 FB Clearance, Gut 5.5 5, 1 4.7 4,3 3.9
String 1 FB Clearance, Steel 4.Q 3. 7 3. 4 3. 1 2,9
String 4 FB Clearance, Gut a.a 7, 4 6,8 6,3 5.7
String 4 FB Cl earance, Steel 6.5 6.0 5,5 5,1 4. 7
FB Height Projected to Bridge 81 75 69 63 58
Fingerboard Length 580 530 500 450 410
Tailpiece Length 235 215 200 180 160
Pegbox to Peg Thullt>piece. 28 26 24 22 20
Peg Thucoopiece Width 38 36 34 32 30
TABLE OF BASS SIZES
TRADITIONAL SIZE 4/4 3/ 4 1/2 1/4
MENC DESIGNATION STD. INT. JUN. #
*******************************************************************************
Body Length, Nominal 1160 1110 1020 940
St r ing Length, Nominal 1100 1060 975 900
Bow Length, Nominal, French 725 725 675 675
Bow Length, Nominal, German 750 750 710 710
Bridge Blank Width at Feet 160 150 138 127
Br idge Thickness at Feet 23 21 19 18
Br idge Thickness at Strings 4.9 4. 5 4.2 3.8
Sound Post Diameter 18 17 16 15
Bar Length 932 855 792 726
Bar Width 25 23 21 19
Bar Height at Bridge 44 40 37 34
String 1-4 Spacing at Nut 33 30 28 25
St r ing 1-4 Spacing at Bridge 87 80 74 68
String 1 FB Clearance, Gut 12 11 10 9.3
Str ing 1 FB Clearance, Steel 7,6 1.0 6,5 5.9
String 4 FB Clearance, Gut 17 16 15 14
String 4 FB Clearance, Stee l 9.5 a. 1 a.a 7. 4
FB Height Projected to Bridge 160 150 138 127
Fingerboard Length 890 850 780 730
Tailpiece Length 350 340 310 290
* Suzuki 1/2, 1/4, approximate the traditional 1/4, 1/8. Suzuki 1/8, 1/10 are
about 455, 400 nxo long. (A viola with an end pin has also been used.)
# Another improvisation: a cello tuned an octave above the bass for teaching
children.
 page 18
BRIDGE TEMPLATES FOR SMALL INSTRUMENTS

CELL.O

'.3/'t

VIOL A

'i.2. r
T.hese are approximate templates for steel strings from the 8% rule . As always,
the final setup is determined by the characteristics of the instrument and
strings and the needs of the player. The templates may be made of alwnlnum,
about 1 mm thick. Slots may be cut at the string 1 and 4 positions to allow
-• marking the bridge blank for preliminary cutting. Fingerboard radii could also
be derived from the 8% rule (see APPROXIMATION on page 15), but in practice this
is not done, small fingerboards havfng very little more curvature than full size
ones. Check gauges with cal1pers against the tables on pages 16-17.
 CHAPTER 3
NOTE S ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS

INTRODUCTION
The intent of the brief notes in this chapter is
to provide basic facts without being too obvious,
dogmatic, or conject ural. Subjective statements
about tone are excluded, as are mathematical
definit i ons and lengthy rationales. I hope it is a
practical overview to the items covered.
TUNING
The numeric suffixes below refer to the octave
number as on the piano (page 46) . For example, A4 ls
in the 4th octave, which begins with middle C, An
A440 tuni ng fork is the usual reference.
STRING NUMBER · 4 3 2 1
********************************************************************************
VIOLIN G3 D4 A4 E5
VIOLA C3 GJ D4 A4
CELLO C2 G2 DJ AJ
BASS (Standard or "Orchestra" Tuning) El Al D2 G2
BASS C"Solo" Tuning) F#l 81 E2 A2
Tuning the bass requires the use of harroonics (page 46) . Or, a hands- free
electronic tuner is convenient in the shop. The r ange of the standard BASS can
be extended down to Cl by a mechanical extensi on of the El stri ng, or down t o B1
or Cl by the addition of a low fifth string. In ot her cases, the ra nge can be
extended upwards on a 5 stringed bass by a high CJ string in addition to the
standard se t .

STRINGS
Str ings are made of plain GUT or STEEL, which may be wound with various
metals, or of steel stranded "ROPE" or of synthetic fibers ( "PERLON'', nylon)
which are always metal wound for bowed instruments. Steel st ri ngs are usua l ly
used on the small (student > instruments. They require fine TUNERS at the
tailpiece (except the bass) . The first st ring of the violin is always steel , as
are often t he upper (or all) strings of the larger full size instruments. Gut
or perlon strings do not requi re fine tuners but some student s use proprietary
anti- s l ip pegs with them. Good perlon strings last longer and stay in tune far
better than gut, but good gut strings are s till preferred by many.
For a given tuning, the greater the TENSION, the louder. Al so, for a given
tuning, the heavler the string, the greater its tension. On small instruments,
where t he string length is short, the tension will be low unless heavier strings
are used. See page 46. This is provided for by using the special st rings made
for SMALL INSTRUMENTS:· It ls a lso usually preferable to use a heavier C str ing
on a smal l viola. However, lighter strings may be easier to play .
String GAUGE is simply t he string diameter as read from a micrometer , It
can also be expressed in t he traditional Pirastro Measure, 20 times the mm
r eading. Or, one may halve the number of thousandths of an i nch to approximate
PM. Gauge i t self does not determine the weight or t ension, which depends on the
kind of winding, etc. For example, a set of vio li n s trings might be 5, 14, 17,
 page 20
and 16 PM for E, A, D, G, respectively. Note that the gauge makes a big
increase from E to A (steel to gut), but dec r eases from D to G Cal uminum to
silver winding) because of the construction and heaviness of t he materi al.
Strings are labelled thin, medium, thick, stiff, or dolce, forte, etc.
The string CLEARANCE over the lower end of the fingerboard should be less
for strings under greater tension, and vice versa. A taut string is hard to
finger if too high and will sharpen; a slacker string will vibrate farther and
buzz if too low. Thus, steel strings are given less clearance than perlon,
perlon a little less than gut, and treble strings less than bass. Clearance may
be made somewhat LESS than shown in the table on page 10, especially on cello
and bass, if the curvature and concavity of the fingerboard are optimum and if
no allowance is given for seasonal bridge height variations Cor if adjusting
screws are installed). For BASS, the clearance is sometimes reduced to 9 and 12
mm (gut), and 6 and 7.5 mm (steel) for strings 1 and 4, respectively.
For smooth tuning and long string service, the GROOVES in the nut and
bridge must be free and smooth, no deeper than necessary to secure ly align the
strings. They should be rounded downward toward the pegs at the nut and toward
the tailpiece at the bridge, and b lackened with a soft penci l (graphite). The
nut must present a definite, non rounded, stop to the string at the finge rboard.
String clearance at the NUT is generally about 1/3 the string diameter, but
should be not less than 0.25mm, the thickness of an ordinary business card or
violin E string. Strings should be easy to stop in the first position yet never
buzz. The string 1 groove at the nut should not be too close to the edge of the
fingerboard; if necessary for secure fingering, the grooves may be shifted
slightly toward the bass side. (Everything else being correct, this is not
necessary.)
Various kinds of STRAIN RELIEF and "TONE FILTER" devices ar e supplied with
some strings. They are intended to reduce string wear at the bridge, to prevent
cutting into the bridge, or to dampen the higher harmonics and noise. With a
bridge of hard wood and properly fitted grooves, they are often unnecessary. A
triangular ebony insert is often used or, preferably, a small pad of parchment
glued under the violin E string, the viola A and D strings, etc.
PEGS should be spaced as stated on page 10, and located to avoid strings
rubbing on them. For ease of use and a graceful appearance their thumbpieces
should spaced from the side of the pegbox as noted on page 10. The measurement
given is to the thumbpiece itself, not the collar, of the peg.
Occasionally the C and G viola peg POSITIONS are interchanged to decrease
the bending and friction of the thick Cat the nut. Likewise,• the E and A
machine screw positions on the bass are sometimes interchanged: •
For ease of tuning, it is desirable to adjust the strings so the
THUMBPIECES of the pegs are approximately vertical. Use only a stardard
commercial peg compound.· ,
String HOLES in the pegs should be approximately in the center of the
pegbox to allow a single layer winding ending near, but not against the side of
the pegbox.
, Strings should not loop around the TAILPIECE but go straight f rom its
"fret" to the bridge. This length should be nominally 1/6 that of the string
length from bridge to nut, about two octaves and a fifth higher. This will not
, be achieved in many cases because of string characteristics, fine tuners,
attached mutes, available tailpieces, etc. In practice, this length is
increased on the larger instruments as shown on page 10.
 page 21
A related rule gives the length of the FINGERBOARD as 5/6 of the string
length. Thus touching the cello A string at the end of the fingerboard sounds
E5, This rule is followed only approximate ly in practice, especially on violas
and basses. Unneeded extra length adds undesirable extra weight at the end of
the fingerboard. A groove on its underside aids gluing and removal.
When shifting up, the thumb encounters the nee! of the neck in the 5th
position on the violin and viola, the 4th on the cello, and under D2 on the E
string on the bass.
THE BRIDGE
Cutting the bridge produces effects too complex and interrelated to analyze
or state simply . The mass and stiffness of various parts affect the timber and
response. The violin maker exercises his artistic idiosyncracies, of course,
but more importantly his acoustic intuition based on experience and careful
testing and listening, The THICKNESS of the upper part and the STIFFNESS of the
legs and center are the oost important adjustments.
The BACK of the bridge is flat (cut precisely on the quarter) and
approximately perpendicular to the top of the instrument. More precisely, the
center of the bridge should divide the string angle into two equal parts. The
WIDTH of the bridge at the feet should fit the bass bar position. See BRIDGE
BLANK, page 15 and BRIDGE FOOT, page 24.
The HEIGHT of the bridge affects tone, loudness, and playability. Also, a
sharp string angle over the bridge puts a little more force downward on the top,
a factor one might consider on old or delicate instruments with steel strings,
which may have perhaps 25t oore tension than gut. (Note that the downward force
spreads the legs of the cello bridge somewhat, which must be considered in
fitting its feet.) '
As required by the string clearance values shown in the tables, · t he bridge
is made-higher for gut strings; it may also become too high when the HUMIDITY ,is
high, necessitating a seasonal change of bridges , especially on cello and bass.
Some bridges have screw adJustments for this. (Also to adapt between classical
and jazz bass playing.)
The optimum string ANGLE wil l vary depending on the above factors and other
characteristics of the instrument. The angles given in the table on page 10 are
those formed by the 2nd string (about 158 degrees for the A string of a typical
violin with a 33 mm high bridge and a Hill model "tailpiece). If a string
adjuster is used, the angle may vary depending on the type of adjuster and
tailpiece thickness. Another way to measure the angle is without the tail
piece, from the top center of the bridge directly to the top of the saddle, It
will be about 157 degrees this way with a normal saddle, 156 with a low saddle,
and 158 with a high saddle. I use a wood template of 158 degrees on the A
strings of strange violins to quickly tell if the string angle is unusual,
THEORETICALLY, the SET UP would proceed thus:
1. Bridge height at center set by instrument design and tone requirements.
2, Fingerboard pr,oJection (height extended to bridge) set by bridge height.
3. Fingerboard curvature and concavity set by requirements of fingering,
bowing, and string type.
4. Bridge height at strings 1 and 4 set by string clearance requirments.
5. Bridge curvature (to locate strings 2 and 3) set by bowing requirements and
corresponding to the end of the fingerboard.
6. Bridge cutting for fit and tone requirements.
 page 22
PRACTICALLY, one usually:
1. Se lects (or accepts) the fingerboard projection, curvature, and concavity.
2. Fits the bridge feet .
3. Locates strings 1 and 4 by string spacing and c learance requirements.
4. Sets t he bridge curvat ure wi t h a standard template.
5. Locates strings 2 and 3 along the curve with the t emplat e or dividers.
6. Completes acoustical and artistic adj ustments to top, thickness, edges,
feet, and cutout s of bridge.
Bridge height and string angle can be adjusted by varying the FINGERBOARD
PROJECTION at the bridge, the height of t he NECK over the top, and the SADDLE
height. See the diagram below. The neck height over the top edge and/or the
saddle may also have to be increased for fingerboard and/or t ai lpiece c learance
in viol ins with very ful 1 or abr upt arching.
The question of how static forces affect the tone is complicated. But
stresses should not be built in (such as forcing ribs into line), and downward
bridge force should be balanced with the top and bar strength to avoid
deformation.
STANDARD VIOLIN DIAGRAM

,.
+-- - - 110 -------\--- - - -- - - ,,.. - - - - - - --
~ - -- I I Z (,,"')

STANDARD CELLO DIAGRAM

•
2 fo
k-----1.fld -
-===~""r.~;;-::--;:;----
. ~ ~ il_
280 T
'fOO
l
*-.If measured obl iquely with dividers from the edge of the top t o the center
·tine of the heel, the values on page 10 apply, 26 mm on violin, 42 on cello.
** The neck height over the top edge is measured from the highest point on the
edge vertically to the f ingerboard, not at the end of the neck.
 page 23
THE SOUND POST
The standard or initial POSITION of the post is in line wi t h the center of
the right foot of the bridge, vertical, with a space of about half the post
diameter between the back edge of the bridge foot and the front edge of the
post. It should be long enough (tight enough) to Just stand securely with the
strings slack, and fitted precisely to the inside arching of the top and back.
Various interrelated tone and playability changes occur when the post is
moved r el ative to the bridge or its length is changed. The violin maker
acquires a "feel" for this . He also is careful to maintain the fit of the post
t o top and back. Otherwise the tone is affected, and the top may be damaged.
The TIGHTNESS also varies with humidity; a seasonal sound post adjustment may be
necessary .
Given the above initial setting, t he post is first moved relative to the
bridge foot. Usually, the post may be moved LENGTHWISE of the violin without
changing its fit or length. This has little effect on tightness, but i t does
modify the. tone qualities , especially of the upper strings. The best position
will often be closer to the bridge in an instrument with a thin top. Moving the
post closer to the bridge usually gives a more intense, bright tone, farther
away, more me I low or soft. (Here I cannot avoid a verbal description of tone. )
The post should remain vertical when seen from the side, looking across the
instrument.
When the post is moved LATERALLY (nearer the bar or nearer the r ight
f- hole), the effect is more complicated since both the position and tightness
change at the same time. If the post was too tight, moving it toward the bar
allows free vibrat ion of the lower register and "evens out" the strings. But 1f
the post is shor tened and then moved toward the f-ho le (without getting
tighter), the lower register may be favored again because a larger area of the
top is affected by the action of the bridge pivoting over the post. The final
lateral setting is often in line with the outside part of t he bridge foot,
somewhat like that of the bar. (See t he next page.>
Once the best position is found, it may be advantageous to leave the top
end of the post undisturbed and t o make minor seasonal adjustments by a small
latera l adjustment of the bottom of the post . CA large movement would require
refitting the post.> If the ends fit well, the post. need not be completel y
vertical in this plane. Note that in looking at the post through the upper eye
of the f-ho le , the slope of the arching makes the bottom of the post appear
c loser to the rib. This effect is not present when looking through the end pin
hole. I t is advisable to slacken the strings before moving the top of the pc,st
to avoid damage to the spruce. Cin the larger instruments this is a practical
necessity.)
MEASUR ING THE POST POSITION
 page 24
THE BASS BAR
Fitting the bar is critical for tone and is part of the top tuning process.
"SPRINGING the bar" is not desirable of itself since it builds in a temporary
stress. The wood does not "wear out ", but the bar may become slightly flattened
over time; thus replacement bars are often sprung slightly to help preserve the
arching.
The bar is not centered under the BRIDGE FOOT, but is approximately under
the outside half of the bridge foot. (See page 40, bottom.) Its angle is
determined by taking 1/7 of the distance from the center to the edge at both the
upper and lower maximum widths of the top. The maximum height is under the
bridge. (Or, as many other makers prefer, at the center of the bar.) See pages t
15 and 40 for determination of the bar length.
The bar is trimmed to achieve the desired "tap tone"; the top is held near
the upper side edge (technically at a node of vibration mode 5) and tapped with
a finger in the center. A clear "ring" is thought to indicate a balanced, well
graduated top. A few violin makers "microtune" the bar through the f-hole with
special tools, a procedure not generally recommended. Rebarring is sometimes
elective, like rehairing or tonsillectomy.
WOLF TONES
The wolf occurs when a strong body vibrfttion interferes with the string
vibration. It is more likely to be severe in eel los. It is caused by design
anomalies, some parts being too heavy, others too thin. The wolf should not be
confused with rattles at certain notes caused by loose glue joints, etc. It is
frequently found at the second finger, first position on the second string, and
on the same note in higher positions on the lower strings. It is less severe in
more highly arched instruments. Too thin a top or too heavy a fingerboard may
aggravate it. <Excess wood should be removed from the bot torn of the
fingerboard, as a general rule. ) AdJ ustlng the sounclpost or a stiffer bar may
help.

Several kinds of "wolf eliminator" are used. One is a damped mass attached
to a string (usual ly the 3rd) between bridge and tailpiece , wich essentially
modifies and moves the wo lf note. Another is a mass attached to the top between
the lower end of the left f-hole and the tailpiece, position and weight
determined experimen~lly. Good responsive cellos are often on the verge of the
wolf; use no more weight than necessary. A third and very effective type is a
small mechanical resonator glued to the inside of the top in a similar position;
commercial units are made in the ranges D- E, Eb-F, and E-F#. . •
THE DOUBLE BASS
Like the viola, the bass is not wel l standardized. A descendant of the
double bass viol and tuned in fourths, it also has peculiarities of
construction, sloping shoulders and back bracing in the flat-backed (not the
ce 1 lo) sty le, outside "1 inings" (cornices) and, of course, machine screw tuning.
The information in the table on page 10 is for the standard, 3/4 bass. Larger
basses, chamber basses, different tunings, string extensions, 5 string versions,
and high saddles may be encountered. This last intended to partially reduce the
downward bridge force with steel strings on antique basses, or to correct the
!ltring angle if the neck was installed incorrectly, Basses, especially "ful I
•size" are quite variable in model and measurements. Tt)ere is also a wider range
of bows than the table on page 17 indicates . ·
 page 25
COMMON FIDDLE FAULTS
We are addressing here primarily design or adjustment faults, not repair
techniques.
On old or non- standard vio l ins:
An incorrect neck length or poorly placed f-hole notches.
Inadequate neck height over the top edge. CA shim at the
button, or, if the neck is too thin, under the fingerboard.)
On neglected or mistreated violins:
A warped bridge or a low fingerboard. (The neck should be
reset rather than wedge the fingerboard,)
Soundpost cracks or sunken top. (May require a plaster cast
and an inlaid patch with tapered edges.)
f-hole cracks, other cracks and openings, eroded top edges.
Top worked too thin.
Fingerboard needs planing, or was i ncorrectly planed.
On poorly made violins:
A thick neck, "clubby" heel. or scroll drooping below the
nut.
Too heavily buil t .
"Plastic" glue or varnish.
On poorly repaired or "unadjusted" violins:
Too high a nut, sharp edges on nut or fingerboard, poorly
fitted bridges, or too long a tailpiece fastener.
Top too thin, crude repairs, or wrong glue.
Sound post jarrmed in tightly or otherwise poorly fitted.

FACTORY FIDDLES
For 150 years or so these have proliferated, good and bad. The worst may
have no corner blocks, integral bass bar, no linings, painted purfling and faked
wood grain (sometimes artistic), machine pressed and ungraduated arching, with
tone to match.
The best are fine student instruments; the worst should be destroyed. The
rest contitute the mediocre majority.
Most modern mass produced instruments are dimensionally correct, at least
externally but some student viol ins are very "woody". These heavily sprayed,
machine routed fiddles are essentially ungraduated with thick plates and the
consequent uninspiring tone. This effect is unfortunately magnified in the
smaller violins. However, regraduation is usually not economically justified on
these.
PLYWOOD CELLOS & BASSES
Lamination cuts production cost and provides resistance to cracking, and
accordingly finds wide use in student instruments. It entails certain problems
in repair and adjustment, and fal l s short on artistic grounds. CThe same can be
said of fiber glass bows, and a good glass bow is preferable to a poor wood
bow.)
 CHAPTER 4
SOME HI STORICAL AND OTHER
BOWED INSTRUMENTS

BAROQUE VIOLIN
This is the violin as it was before the early
19th century changes involving higher pitch, greater
string tension, and a longer neck. Modern violins
are occasionally converted to baroque for the
performance of music with instruments "authentic" to
the period of composition, and usually at a slightly
lower pitch, A pre-Tourte outcurved bow is also
used.
The major differences are as follows. The
fingerboard is shorter, flatter, lighter (not solid
ebony), and wedge shaped (thicker at the body). The
neck is shorter and attached flush and nearly
perpendicularly to the ribs with a heavier heet, The
tailpiece is shorter and lighter, the bar shorter and
lower, the sound post thinner, the bridge flatter,
lower, and of a more archaic design. A chin rest was
not used originally.
Access to good models is essential for the maker. The Hill and Sacconi
books in the Bibliography are good references. Strings are all gut, plain for
the upper, "rope" for the lower.
TYPICAL MEASUREMENTS COMPARED MODERN BAROQUE
***********************************************"*******************************
Neck Length, Upper Edge of Top to Nut 130 123
Fingerboard Length 270 215
Fingerboard Width at Nut 23,5 25.5
Fingerboard Width at Lower End 42 40
FB Surface Radius of Curvature 42 52
Bridge Height 33 29
Sound Post Diameter 6 5
Bar Width 5,5 4,5
Bar Height at Bridge 11 7
Bar Length 270 240
.
CI recently converted a baroque violin back to 1110dern condition for a
customer. It was of the Turin school, about 1750, and had of course been
"modernized" in the 19th century. Several years ago it had been changed back to
baroque. My neck graft was at least the third for this violin.)
The term BAROQUE VIOLA is very non-specific, referring to any viola of the
period in original condition. Violas came in all shapes and sizes. (The very
large violas were actually tenors, tuned perhaps an octave below the violin or a
fifth below the alto viola.)
The BAROQUE CELLO too was not standardized, but like the baroque violin and
viola, it had the short fingerboard, the neck attached flush to the uppe r ribs
with nails through the block, and the characteristic bridge, tailpiece, etc.
 page 27

VIOLA D'At.()RE
Of the European bowed instruments with
sympathetic strings, onl y the viola d 'amore sees
significant modern use (if we except the Norwegian
hardanger fiddle). It i s unfretted with flame -shaped
sound ho les and (typical ly ) a carved head, held like,
and about t he same body length as, the moder n viola,
It has (usually) seven stopped strings and seven
metal s ympathetic strings. The stopped Cnnd bowed)
strings are typically tuned ln D rnaJ or CA2, D3, A3,
D4, F#4, A4, D5), or otherwise ·dependi ng on the key
of the compos ition and the playing technique. The
sympathetic strings are usually tuned in unison with
the respective stopped strings.
<The vio la d 'amore is epitomized in the fine
work of Johann Ulrich Eberle; my mother's name was
Eberle, and I like to thi nk of hi m as a possible
relative. )
A related instrument, the baryton, a sort of
bass viol wi th many sympathetic strings, is rare.

THE VIOL FAMILY

In t he 1500's the viols and the violin family
were a lready distinct. The violin fami ly had
essentially superseded the viols by 1700. The vio ls
have undergone a modest 20th century revival .
These usually had six (occasionally 5 or 7) thin
gut strings , seven tied f rets , flat backs, sloping
shoulders, C-shaped sound holes, carved heads, and
flush edges. An end pin was not used.
Most were tuned in fourths, with a third between
the two middle strings. They used outcurved bows
he Id underhand.
Our present double bass violin was deve1oped
from the double bass vio l.
The more important of the viols are listed here
with their typical body lengths and tuning. The
numeric suffixes indicate octave numbers as above.

VIOL NAME NOMINAL BODY LENGTH TUNING, STRINGS 6 TO 1

********************************************************************************
TREBLE 370mm D3 G3 C4 E4 A4 D5
TENOR 500 mm A fifth be low the TREBLE,
BASSC "GAMBA ") 700 mm An octave below t he TREBLE.
DOUBLE BASS 1020 mm An octave below the BASS.
 page 28

HISTORICAL NOTE
Historical instruments tend to be vague in terminology with many variations
in design and tuning. Further elaboration or a special bibliography (which
could be voluminous) are outside our present scope. Nor is t his an area of
special interest or expertise for me. Here is a list of only some of the
principal names by language.

ENGLISH FRENCH GERMAN ITALIAN l

********************************************************************************
violi n
viola
cello
double bass
vio lon
al t o
v1oloncel le
contrebasse
Geige
Bratsche
Cello
Kontrabass
violino
viola Cda braccio)
violoncello
contrabbasso
'
viola d'amore viole d'a,oour Liebesgeige • viola d'8IOOre
t r eble viol dessus de viole diskant Gambe viola da gamba
(soprano>
tenor viol tenor de vio le tenor Gambe vi ola da gamba
Ctenore)
bass viol basse de viole bass Ganbe viola da gamba
(basso)
double bass vio l cont rebasse kontrabass Gambe violone
de viol e

Anyone building "ear ly" instruments will work from authentic examples or
museum data. These instruments ar e so var ied that reliable adjustment data
cannot be given here. As an item of possible interest, I have, however,
tabulated below some old adjustment data from Tolbecque.

SOME ADJUSTMENT DATA ALTO TENOR VIOLA BASS

AFTER L'ART DU LUTHIER, 1903 VIOLA VIOLA D'AMORE VIOL
********************************************************************************
Spacing of Outside Strings at Nut 18 20 34 36
Spacing of Outside Strings at Bridge 38 40 68 76
First String Finger board Clearance 4. 5 5. 0 4. 5 · 4. O
Last String Fingerboard Clearance 5,5 6-0 5.5 6.0
Bridge Thickness at Strings 2.0 2,5 2-5 3.0
Bridge Thickness at Feet 5.0 7.0 6.0 14
Fingerboard Radius of Curvature 7.,2 • 76

NEWVIOLIN "OCTET"
Over the past 30 years the Catgut Acoustical Society has proposed and
developed a "new violin family" based on certain acoustic considerations,
covering a wide range, with consistent placement of the air resonances. These
instruments have not been widely accepted, but they are being made and played.
A 1ist follows.
 page 29

NAME BODY RIB TUNING

LENGTH HEIGHT
********************************************************************************
TREBLE 286 20 An octave above the violin.
SOPRANO 312 20 An octave above the viola.
MEZZO 382 25 Same as the violin.
ALTO 508 30 Same as the viola.
TENOR 654 40 An octave below the violin.
BARITONE 864 50 Same as the cello.
SMALL BASS 1042 180 A fourth above the double bass.
CONTRABASS 1300 240 Same as the double bass.

MISCELLANEOUS OTHERS
To many people, the word FIDDLE means the violin as used in folk or
"country" music. It is played ioostly in the first position, sometimes with
consummate skill. Steel strings and a flatter bridge are the usual departures
from standard adjustment. The violin maker will work on these (and perhaps
e lectric versions, too), but they are outside the scope of this book.

The unusual MUTE VIOLIN is for quiet practice; the body is largely cut
away. ( I recently restored one by Gand 8. Bernarde I. )

The POCHETTE, pocket violin or kit, was made in various bizarre shapes.

The 19th century. German BOWED ZITHER is tuned like the violin; it is
fretted and placed on a table in front of the player. CI have one as a wal 1
decoration.)
There are many other bowed folk instruments, ranging f rom the hurdy-gurdy,
with an integral rotary bow, to the odd and obsolete trumpet marine , but they
r emain outside our interest here .

.-- --- -· ..
. . t!
.;
 page 30

; ..
:,
.,.·
;,
,,

tlh Toot.. n I l l\ (,.\\' t-: l'I' O;-.'k ·rw11u. ltOl: ~m ASH SA'J'OWll•: 1, 111\ll'IV.I.I-' 1·r WA,.; A t'lhJII,,.;,
J,.,ft •( .W '/"1'1111,11, t 'Jw pt,,r /,

An··engraving from the 19th century novel by Char les Reade (Peter Fenelon Collier
edition) based on the life of the Engli$h violin maker John Lott. Here Thomas
Dodd checks t he adjustment of the appprentice Lott's sample violin.
 CHAPTER 5
FURTHER REFERENCE

INTRODUCTION
These are the books that seem most relevant to our subject. There are
doubtless others that I have not studied or may not be aware of. There are lots
of good fiddle books that are excluded here, concerned as they are more with
history, makers, collecting, dealing, and esthetics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arakelian, Sourene: PRECEPTS AND OBSERVATIONS OF A L1JTHIER, Verlag Das
Musikinstrument , Frankfurt, 1987 Worthwhile views on violin making, graduation,
and adjustment.
Bolander, John Alfred: VIOLIN BOW MAK ING, Boyd Poulsen, San Mateo, California,
1981. One of the few good books on the subject.
Burgan, Arthur: BASIC STRING REPAIRS, Oxford University Press, London 1974. For
the teacher or player.
Elgar, Raymond : INTRODUCTION TO THE DOUBLE BASS, The author, Sussex, 1960.
General, wi th a useful section on making. His MORE AB01JT THE DOUBLE BASS, 1963,
includes a section on repair.
Ford, Charles (Editor): MAKING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, Pantheon, NY, 1977.
Includes Dietrich Kessler on making a bass vio l, Adam Paul on making a violin
<including baroque), and Friedemann Hellwig on restoration and conservation of
historical . instrument s. A brief overview.
Geiger, Leroy & Cole, L. M.: VIOLIN MAKING MADE CLEAR AND CONCISE, Lafosse
Music House, Chicago 1935. Exactly what the title says. The late Leon Lafosse,
a Mittenwald graduate, was my first guide in violin making when I was an
engineer in Palo Alto, California in the 1960s.
Gruppo Studi Liutari (under Gio Batta Morassi): THE VIOLIN AND ITS REDUCED
SIZES, Cremona 1980. Includes full size outlines of different models.

Henderson, Frank V. : HOW TO MAKE A VIOLIN BOW, Murray, Seattle, 1977. Another
good book on the subject.
Heron- Allen, Ed,: VIOLIN- MAKING, AS IT WAS AND IS, Ward Lock & Co., Ltd.,
London, 1885. Antiquated, encyclopedic, this English classic ls still
worthwhile background reading for violin makers. Available in reprint.
Hit 1, W. Henry, Arthur F., ·and Alfred E.: ANTONIO STRADIVARI. HIS LIFE AND
WORK , London~ 1902, Dover reprint, New York, 1963. Reliable descriptions and
measurements of original instruments.
Lamb, Norman: A GUIDE TO TEACHING STRINGS, Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa,
1971. Includes MENC requirements and general information on instruments.
Leonhardt, Konrad: GEIGENBAU UND KLANGFRAGE, Verlag Das Musikinstrument,
Frankfurt am Main 1969. The author was Director of the Mittenwald
Geigenbauschule. Acoustica l experiments, the translucency graduation method,
and dimensions.
 page 32
Mayer, Ralph: THE ARTIST'S HANDBOOK OF MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY, Viking Press
N. Y. 1974, Reference on varnish, colors, etc.
Metropolitan Music: PROFESSIONAL HINTS ON REPAIR, Stowe, Vermont, n.d. A
booklet containing bow and instrument sizes and adjustment suggestions.
Millant, Max et Roger: MANUEL PRACTIQUE DE LtITHERIE, Larousse, Paris 1952. A
c lassic handbook on making and repair. Recormiended,
Moeckel,Otto and Winckel ,Fritz : DIE KUNST DES GEIGENBAUES, Verlag Handwerk und
Technik, Hantiurg 1977. Moeckel 's practical classic of 1930 on making and repair
updated by Winckel. Reconmended,
Monica), William L.: SHAPES OF THE BAROQUE, American Federation of Violin and
Bow Makers, Inc., William L. Monica), Staten Island, NY, 1989. Catalog of the
exhibition of unaltered oaroque instruments at Lincoln Center in New York.
Nicolini, Gualtiero, e Scolarl, Giorgio: COME NASCE UN VIOLINO CTHE BIRTH OF A
VIOLIN), Ed. St radivari, Cremona, 1985. Straightforward, wel I 11 lustrated
description of the classical process with a partial English translation.
Peterlongo, Paolo: THE VIOLIN, Paul Elek, London, 1973. Simplified acoustical
discussion and more general violin topics.
Petherick, Horace: THE REPAIRING AND RESTORATION OF VIOLINS, The Stred Library,
London, 1903. An unusual book exclusively on this subject. 200 readable pages
on turn of the century repair techniques, largely still applicable.
Reid, Joseph V.: YOU CAN MAKE A STRADIVARIUS VIOLIN, Popular Mechanics Press,
Chicago 1958. Excellent set of drawings.
Robertson, William K,: FIDDLEMAKER'S WORKSHEETS, Argus Books, Herne) Hempstead,
UK, 1983. An English method, clear drawings.
Roedig, Hans Joh.: DER NEUE WEG, NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN IM GEIGENBAU, Verlag Das
Musikinstrument, Frankfurt, 1974. Interesting rationale of static forces and
their effect on tone production.
Roussel, Andre': GRUNDLAGEN DER GEIGE UNO DES GEIGENBAUES, Verlag Das
Musikinstrument, Frankfurt am Main 1973. Theories and me'thods of adjustment.
Tra.nslated into German by Adolph Koenig, Director of the Brienz, Switzerland
Geigenbauschule. . .
Sacconi, Simone F.: THE "SECRETS" OF STRADIVARI, Libreria de! Convegno, Cremona
1979. The modern violin maker's Bible. Essential,
St. George, Henry: FIDDLES: "THEIR SELECTION, PRESERVATION, AND BETTERMENT, The
Stred Library, London, 1910. A pleasant and sound little book.
Tolbecque, A.: L'ART DU LtITHIER, Th. Mercier, Niort, 1903. Compr ehensive if
so~what dated. Detailed on repair. Reprint, Broude, New York, 1969.
Wake, H.S.: THE TECHNIQUE OF VIOLIN MAKING, The author , San Diego, California,
19?3- A popular "how to" book.
'
Weisshaar, Hans, and Shipman, Margaret: VIOLIN RESTORATION, A MANUAL FOR VIOLIN
MAKERS, The authors, Los Angeles, · 1989. A long awaited, comprehensive,
professional work, expected to become the classic in its field.
 page 33
PERIODICALS
The various newsletters, magazines, and Journals frequent ly carry useful
articles. Some of these are
The JOURNAL OF THE VIOLIN SOCIETY OF AMERICA. An elegant professional
quarterly. Recommended.

The Newsletters of the SOlITHERN CALIFORNIA ASSOC IATION OF VIOLIN MAKERS and that
of the VIOLI N MAKERS OF ARIZONA, INTERNATIONAL. Both are practical and popular
far beyond San Diego and Tucson.
The JOURNAL OF THE CATGlIT ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY. Semi-annual. Research papers and
sometimes practical conclusions and methods.
STRINGS. Recommended for players and makers. Six issues a year.
THE STRAD. London. The oldest and best known. Monthly. Fine color
photographs of classic instruments. Recommended.
AMERICAN LITTHERIE. Quarterly journal, Guild of American Luthiers. For the
guitar maker but includes some excellent violin articles.
ARTE LilITARIA. Three issues a year, in both Ital ian and English. Edited by
violin maker and dealer Carlo Vettori, Florence, Italy.
CThe public library can provide addresses of publishers. J

"TERM TRANSLATOR"
For those who read French, German, or Ital ian more or less haltingly, as I
do, there fol lows a short cross reference of about 200 violin and bow related
terms . See also page 28 for the pr incipal instrument names, Actually, the
first section, English to French, German, and Italian, may serve as a par tial
glossary for international readers of t his book, while the subsequent sections,
French, German, and Italian to English, may be helpful to those reading books or
catalogs in those languages,

Such a short list, including few synonyms, is necessarily quite limited,

given the richness of language, much as a l ist of single-valued measurements is
limited, given the variety in instruments. For example, "on the quarter" in
Italian may be "di quarto, assiale, radiale, a cuneo, a spicchio", etc.
Simple , root words were preferred to compound words such as
"Adergrabenschneider" CPurfl ing-groove- cutterJ. Am:lng other comp I ications is
the difference in diminutives, e.g. seghetto for small saw Csega). I have
omitted some of the quaint anatomical designations, which seem to defy
standardization. .. For example, the "toes , feet, legs, knees/noses, eyes/kidneys,
ears, and heart, etc." of the bridge and the "chin, throat, etc." of the scroll .
My selection has been largely arbitrary, based on limited reading, nor does
every word have an exact correspondent in the other languages. Not being fluent
in these languages, I hope the reader will be tolerant of any lapses,
 page 34

ENGLISH TO FRENCH, GERMAN, AND ITALIAN

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 page 35

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boll\on tyC/Hf, tero l I
,:ut
brO'ffl
ka(tllitl'll
krO>J
en blanc
speClf\C, •trl tlll
eyelet
In tht '!hl\t
oe,u1"s
ll.lro1r
toOdile ,..
illH.Slll"eotl\ ;S
• lrror, sound pMt
J),ll lt'm/tea:pla.te
~··
Slq)t n
soul e

-·,.
....
WIJIO'ltl

.... =r r ..,.
OO-xwood tnolavcaient MtllflG <Uw Met() IIOCfiilU de YO..t t ucntnc t11ldts s11Jct 0, bos
• c·bau t cntol lo&:C'

!r,!~~:...
grO\lrd

,~r~~
-,ntece

..
nrtalae
fltllrc up
croove, p,rtll,_
•lll•t O.lhel.ll
son f r ~
......,.
l'IJ\, Uncerboard
tep 1on,r:

=~
-..-.
CllltbNfC'
..,,,
eioule

......
sourdlt.e
,
.... .,...
con! ! kl'IH• freble -eple ah:lclle: supirle\lr
c:as,ure port sur cOIIC.he on tne ,Jib

"-
ca.,.sw-c o•Wle pim er.ck fi!{tte
1
~=l Sitt SCn.s ol"I t he (fJ6tltr
™nfrtlft Chtaftr r•tre 1e-a e:pols.sc:unaroduallon tabl e lop/beI IJ

,. ,
che••1ct brldfe ro,rw.i de baltll'll' -ti.hbone tAOq\lCl11
~lHC' peg fe r 8 p Uu W l'dl,C i rol'I "
o,erce- '°'"
o ra~e toll l.-.cht¥ll lea
cleats
peg ft,pn

.,...
fflc!'wll Iler pc.!ct,ox (erl)!Ql)cUC pc.!fl'\Mt,)l,IQO w'fest H f-holu t •lon bu\ton. beck

~··
Chltrole dr ill r11ouYe:1 r-hOIN out I I t•lon 1-Cll Pl•te, fro&
,1,-uu d\he l r11 d'•r~t ,11.,., WINI J)IIIISMl!Ote rose'WIOOd t aineeu
oorrwr ruetat• p,;,rr I Inc pa.tChw-r.l tdl)l , 1e1.n
colle
calo~ ros1ft
&II.le.!
cai·AnC.-t•Uurt
COM back
~ r l •ltnrln
pusa,nt
pt'UJll!cr
r errule
poplar
!{~:benlhtne: turpc11t1nc
hC'od, bow
~=d•~tueur
dtvldu•
tal1per, cr~ttnr.
11.rnltur•
ro--
ea.me laque
111roppl~
,._
plke d•f t

.
ptt('e d'Htot.lOC
,,
,olll'd post
breast polch
,.teh
..... .
t •t•
11_,N
,lt8$'01t a fl leta
head, llUlfuotftl
tcne color

-r
contour MIU lM 5Ml1eo plt:eetdOl\lblun pel<h tl~ertllMlrd
COl'ltf••~IINt ltnlng eo--gulte clllltJoCe httl. neclt p.,.rfllrc c v tt«r
cont repo,rtte plaster cut eorie CN/ltlel pl~s t« t , brlc:tct
Q)l\ltt"pleq.JC P\y\lOOd ColJCe '°"'" plncnu
""'"'
lrOIIPtHe.
YUIOpe
lne trUllptl •r1nt
pl6M, l• rce

=~=..
-
copol copal to~ll l•• p i n, , &IUI~ &Ulde crt:I p lft ver,t11 "Mnhh
coqulllc
coqutlh:

··""
<."Otdt O ·•t.ebe:
coNS1cr
scroll
eerol I
•t tltt
t•tlpl~
,ros~11r
he~
hlll.tJff
t•tlptocc rutt-ner hlluttur
r,outt\lr
, tic
c l up
fro.g, bow
heitht
e lctrane•, .ttrlnt
de t~le
p)C::ktt t
poltnltt-..nc~
polnl e iw
Polrln
t ip. bo"
kll

~ I'd po• I .et l er

pt1tr-OOO
...
vtrt

volute
Yoli\e
,
Vlt: l lo II roue
creen
hurdJ • gurdy
,ICfl(', r
'f'OIV\t, .erol I
archl,c

GERMAN TO ENGLISH
...................................... . ...................... .................... . .............................,-.............
Ctli:IWI TO DQ.JSII ci;R:IU.,t TO !XllSH Cf;RM.\M TO DG.I SII

ai,,bucJutn
•vuloutn
t>etio•rcn
bl,iahli1£, Ptl l'Olt,
rcuehtrc out
r ehnl r
f;lftlat:e/Aoen,
Elhr:t>e:1.n
Ef\tf•rtt.1rc
purfl lf!C
tvorJ
,p11e1na, str1,._ ...,.,.,,
l:olophonh• rosti,

'°"'
htfl(I. bow
SCNwubetmJt hn;

""""
Scl'Ulbldue
e1elet
,11c1e
caltper, vernier

.
ttlkett/tette1 lebtl to,pfpl•Ut tt,i, bo11 Scwart&
blau
t1reut1
btve
tlrOWft
,-~r
ftu l c ene IOrntrleek lhelloc Sl lb,erdr eht """'
,lh•er •lre
,,.,........
adle.t
tt1b
1uUn
l• ll•lH
ft>I\Uenn
noa, dt'II Spl~cl
r1wr,c,c1
Jfl l O'III
crttn
1ft t he <thtte
tllUnt up
on the qwerte:r
lt•l'Mtot!e
Fel le
Flchte
f1.Cf"lbtoltl
FlethbC!Htl
! •h>IH
cototlf'C ..,a,tel#
Ill•
SJ>t\lC•
~ l tto-M
Chi sel
lu1pp/All&ath'I

L~e
lete.rltallltll
lei•
·-·
~

lena'th
r/el t urtn
YO.t Al.:ah

l'llrrdy•C"«IY
•·~
Sperrhol%
Splrltus
Slachd
tterce
Stlhke
Stirk,:v.lrk«I
plyllOOCI
spirit
end pin
atlck
\hlCkJ'IC'H
allper, craduatl,c
rach du Sctwarte oi, tne i,l.i, Fli.ie:e lll..wtn w1rw le:ln31 lll'l#«'d o t l
.....
Sttc:N:1rkel dlvldtu

....
_,
or..-ce or•~ For a IIOld Lvftto:i e lr \ Ot 4 brl~
rot red For cutace INS CIJII, ,iJutier ~:,l Wo.Jtb ~tJc StH t e ptn,. tl ul,- &Ulelo
,,o,c:t, rr-oe. bo• IOllll'ICI po,t
"\l,._tlehl& -or• h:>lu
t.clertr#btMCMe-ldcr purtllng cutter
t.oem1£tnl411e purtltne
f:~e
rinse
Joint
rect/brtdee
\ltnsur
)h?HV~
Mlltel
eeiuurea:ic-nls
a.ldcUe
"""'
St 1-fvllu
StUIICtbel
soui'ICI po,t po t ch
tvalnc fort
AhQrn
All:.orln/Xrapp
~ le
alltetllV~r
Futter
ht l•r
ptlch
petch ,.,.,
Wo(le1 I /$chllb lone teap)a te/pet t otl'I su-,-1u
s tt-,etz:e:r
.SUra:,plqel
sound post eredt
sound post lleltet
alrror. IOllf'ICI poet
An,ch&ftu ,ttH, r.«k Ctltcnbe\lcr wlolln tieket CbtrHttel nut, rlt¥1.•r1»trel
Aus•rt.eltq
Atl!ii'ollrc
w.,
lllson.
arawallon
hOJIO• II'( 011:t
11tdersl lde, rroc
belMII
Cold
Cr abcn
crtrtbrett
Crl rtbrett Ieee
Cold
groo•e, p,,rttltrc
fln&e.rboetd
fl~rbcJ. prof eel Ion
""
a,
Pe I lslltO!.r
PIPP"I
....,_
eyr/ter, ..:-r ol I
OIi

..,..._,,
poplar
Stt.enuna
Stre lChtft:tlTUllent
TaKheT\ltlcc,:
Tu,ienUtw51
Tt\a:Khclt
tuntrc
to'lt'd IM1Ntlttlt

'"
\t,11"J)tfil l ne
tnlll)e t eer I ne
ILesUUun bon bar Crt's:,e sb:e Ptrt__,..t

·-....
Betl.e: t\4lt1 Gnmdlening lrwr.:, Prtl1111lttr pe•rl UWISS outline
lledcklun& 'f'fa;ipl,ig c:um.t.cutu c-=tote
....
P&rn.tiuk pen!Ulbuco untcr
..... lover

.··-
Untenattel sedcll e

..,
Sle&elae-A berdlr;g iron Haare hlltr PIIUc l
Sl1Md<lttM.rz propolh H•U)MJffr r.ilus c ~ . Pf'tbo•
wt I t o,,
8Jes:1tteln p.auee ll•l t: nieclt P IWIC, lera- Weide
,
.....
l lttt>wit. peer -ood
"""
H•lst11,atz ,eul,c Clhe fllt<:kl Rt-gullrnmc

..
«uus1•n\ 'llerkzeuc

........
Mal,fus:s hfd, l'lt'Ck ltelfchren 1tn1rc 'lllederhentellu~ tutor•tton
lcdtr.plattctw-n
ao,~n
button,
bov
~ lblttr11e tt e
Kan:
l•IIPUCC raat,~r
a..- ,
~pC'lt-6tur repolr
hrr11le
WIIQln,
'fhttel
volute, aero! I

Bohrer
lrcl tt
lru.ttf utter
lucN~
C•~
d N.11
width
brca~rt petch
l)onood
c-t,ou·t
~l
"°"'
Kol'llbel\tl
Ncit,Jkthlt
l1Ghlli.th1t
ptaM, ~11
htl&ht
~
CluU n,
~I
Riss
Rlulc l0tc.he:n
$"~e
hlte
Soltefldlcke
..."""'
eiut•
strl,c
&•l.'tf, Jtflfll
'flrticl
'flrtlotlbohnr
'flrticlOUer
'flrtl41kutC1\
Wo1~
......
ru~r
~&shaper
1.n:hlna
Nola: ltood Seltenhelte:r t•ll plece 'llolbuf'IC:sk\lJ"Yc-" erch.111& a;uldt•

,...,
,,.
tor""" tlod1
Se l'dorll()( ,ande.reo "clht on wolf t cne
OMflfer -..le Ctt1t• chelll'cr
Dua a-.1\ hlt wqe setwblo,ie:/lloek:11 pettu-rll't""latc Z.Or1e
llai,;renledre.r ctlp. WW hfW.n notches•, t • holc-• S(hlcht coal, vernlsh Zettel/[tlkett

---·
t>Ki(t be:ll)'ltcp '1nri'la1ter chl11 r ut kM J~ t t tOr'lObe shel I Ud!eklS.f'Ct: ,cr@Cr
ll9lner c:le=p Schnedte !wed lnalruae:nt Z• lckel btick pl•te, rroc

..,..
Oed(e, lOp/l)e II)'
DrecMnblut droeon •, blood nancfetbt tone eolor 1croJI z-.,1~rai.. cleerance. s t rl nc
0UfCh:aUS"-r dl..eler l lopfton t.ap tor.e SChnlt.lllHMr M lft:
tbt-MOlz. tWfl)' llots Clock
[tll,e ,;Gf"lltf J.,-c,pr c,nd button s,nr~pf llut ton, bO'S
 page 36

ITALIAN TO ENGLISH

............................................. . . . ............... .............................. .............................. . ,......... .......................,, ....................o:.•·····

IUL UJf

ebetc
TO
,pn.cc C
ITALIAlf TO 11«:il.UH

C·bout
IT.U.l>Jf TO lltG:l,ISH
...,uc
-. 11"ALLUI

rlpuUIOtl&
TO DIQ.ISM

repeJr
.:C:Orclll\'lt•
acero
•1notore
•ll16"l"llrobble
eHuu
tun..ll'lt
-.pie
rNllll!r
•llletlf\/N!Clkr
c l ttrot1t•. :itrlnt
dl qu•rto/radl•le

dlep.non
dlepuon
ot\ ll'lf (IIMltlH
dl .cor-u/letenzl•l"" the slab
dlcu11elro d1a.tter
stop
lUl\l• Corte
•I sure
OXll,J lo
110ntatun
mnetta
chill rest
•-..Ure:11Cnt,
t~llle/pattern
tlttt,w ~
claqt
rotolll•lSurl,,.
ro,,o
,ac.o-/fcras
.. uc.e
;i•~r.cce
....""
MddtrI'el l:r.atJn

v Jl lo•
slltlder-.:
eltcu. I ~ dl ctraco

-·-·
htltht dlata,,,u ,po,clf\l, tilrl,,. eul l blreto plywood dra,o,o•• b lood
1oMtlo (frrulc ~l'IO ebony M>eltO hHd, oo- acal)MIIO d\l.ael
angolo 61',gle &He/Corl u.:,nJcl C·l'IOlu ne.strlno cha:::fu ~l•\1.1:r• lhlHIIC
wi1Sll'I - nd po,t ellchett• label nero blec:k ,c:•tol• del pl roll
arenclo ontnteo l•n t , pc:11100 are01Hit1ot1 IIOCeU• buHOI\. bad( X:OV6lU.f. t'<lllOWlllC OU\
ll'CO
ll\tfCUO
avor1o
bow
too l
l"or,-
fexh1 1n c:uoto
rucla
ferro del •an.111111
a'rlp. t,o,r
rib
tOUl'ICI pot\ ,.Her
olto d l Uno
ol lo
oro
llnnoct 011
oil
Cold
11ec•
scott>ie
#gf,oj$11hl,.
..... out
,rOl!Cftlrc
MW

•
avY01Cl9Mto wr.-pplf'C r.rro phc.-ruee bel'Cllnt Uol\ pelella wlfll, l · t-olc #l\,11JIC1at\lU
becc:tltt11
"-lMIID
bltcntrotptrolo
.stldc.
be baa
pt.C,
r1.....,tot111itrn.uto CIM!Od
IHettel•torc
ltleuatu-.ra
purflln& CUlteT
pur fllnc
pel b.saadro
perv,,e-1 lo
prr&an,ma
rose"'00d
bN!lh
pe.rchlri,:,nt
11 l\ta
,ordlno
SJ)OC(:hto
.,,.
t ilde

•Jrror. IOliflCI JIO'l\

blu bi._ lllo d'ercr nto ,.11vu • Jn pernard:iuco pemeirtiuc.o speulalro c•l lper, cr~unc
~ t u.r • IH'Ch1,q: Coder• ct,urale bceut pateh l)fttlO ce.ntr•.le eye/Hr ,Croll ,penore thldtnt"
borc.10 ... fOdtra :.opre I 'IWlllllllMNl"d poal J)ltch ptro Pt&C Yood aplralr vo l\lle, ,c:ro) I
bOuo bo)NOOCI foder• J11ld1 pla llclle plane, 1w,l1 ~lrllo I J) l rll
bo\lOM bUUOll. boY totd:I boCk p!al lo plane, large 1tarta t•ilpleea f•ter-er
bQt tone en:I but ton torl araontclletr• I- holes platlO lnicH!ICO belly/top stecco. dl Wll•l'III "oltltlebone
brU!IO brown fOnMl!IIIP)- m ld p!astrlM di avotto Up. bov ,tl"UlletllO Id ltQO bOwtd tnstr11Nt1t
bur:2ello cut Catl&$Ce CNdUI. pe,et)OX plaslt"lna lollldenlldt, froc wono busato tep tone
CNMIC &roo,,•• purlllf'C Chiron ~-11,1rd)' pt.strlM CIHl9 wpertorc uppe-r
capot•1to fl.lt, U~rtx.N Cl•Uo Y•llcw pt~ httl, ,_.i,; t«:Che:llftC;llettl iot.die,, I-hole_,
C-8"& ,,..,.,1.u body 1 1nocchlo beck plete, fro1 pl.ecUnl (ttl, bc'lO,e tqllcttVleectw notchu •
c:us1 cue ctunta Jotnt ploppo poplo.t ta l loqa (roe,, bov
c.&tcna but t,o.r ea- rwtt• ,a1:iore plrololbt.llt:hl:ro P'C l..-CC1\.l:lalc on the tleb
ce.ntrole a!ddlc l(laaD Iecu she 11 ee pod,,ttte kit torlato wora hOlet
chloec:htolo/rlc:do 3Croll aranctena ,tu p01t.lee pumtc.r tartaruc• tcrtOIM shell
chlodlnl plna, lhtll'C tuldlt ITI. blftl'ICO 1tl \ht wtll\c pontlecllo b:-tore tanel lo/~hetlO block
toll• &1'-" tric:Nlro HUI. (lhc: MClt) po,Htone,., tutter"'1'lnct-rticS, proJeetlon ta:it lera llfl:etboard
CO IOl'lltltl colorli,c Mletltls Jncr1n.n re,-Jr prrparazlonie cro\.Wd le.,to lnfe.r lore toddle
co1t1 110 1<11irc tnlulore l"""r propoll prOPol II ta-Yole IIIOJUca toplt>e,11
coc,peuo dlYideu lnnuto an.ft, r«k punt a cornitr ltl!lpCrlno pee Dlheper
c.ontOft'IO ~ t 1 Jne leruitua width puntone e rd phi tu to Mad. IMlrUDent
coMroh,c:te I lnlr.g lt;IIO ¥000 qu l nte an:htrc Cl,lldu tlabro lone oolor
controsllll(l:I,) plutu ce:1t 11- file redlale/dl querto OI\ lht 41artu Unto stain
coppa Ic cos-t llwitelo wlol1n alllkr ragtlo radlut trapono dr ill
cordo 11\rlnt hiif"Cl'lt-&U le.t'f:lA r uler• ,cnp,r t,,-nUM h 1r-pe-nUne
corOJtro tot I pltc. h1po -oH\.Oflcl ucc,lfllllt.nto er.t1u,t1111nt trollba Ntll'la \tlolllf)el Ntlna
c.rtpt, .oprl I •oo,IM I01i1t'ldl po,tl c.r.cle Mdr.,,_r I a pea.rl rct')M l'al vc~ rreen
Cl:CPI c ~ock NCSrtTlle eyelet rtslne ro,tn ve rnke varn l :!ih
crlnl hllr
CwltO
cu,.,0111ro
Wf:dt1'
c-.x,
•rio
"8tl1CO

. ., n ut o/flaaMlO
n«;lC.
COIi , Vlltflhh
tl..O
,e,t1Nro
rlcclo/chloc:thlolo
rlletl I buchl
n1tor•UOt'I
Kroll
bual!Jf'II, Pfl hOte,
Ylte ,ere•
%0Cthelto/tu,ello blod<

~
,.~
STR,\IUVANI .
171G. STl(Al>l\'ARI.
(LF: MF.,'SUt.)
(I.A ''°"
ruc,:u.,~l
!;TNAIH\'AHI.
1(,86.

..
,aus1_,:1•J'Y. GllAHll:'V,kl, W \JSP.Pl' t GUARSf:NI, N 1ccoU1 AP.IATt
liJS, Violon du Dlable.
 page 37
VIOL rNIST 'S "NOTES"
The ul timate
"measurement" of the
violin is in playing
it. The violinist
t hereby identifies its
deficiencies, and the
skilled violin maker
determines whether and
how these may best be
correct ed (neg lecting
any difficulties in
coJIMuunication).
The evaluation
piece reproduced here
may be of interest to
the violinist, whether
or no t he is a maker.
It is · from St.
George's book in the
Bib 1iography.
The violini st
should check for many
qualities, among them
the timber of the
sound, whether the
violin can stand
"digging in" or
quickly "bottoms out",
its pleasantness and
purity in double
stops, its agility and
responsiveness, noting
whether certain spots
are damped or dul l or
ring nicely after the
bow leaves the string,
and whether the wolf
is in evidence.
Violin tone tests
should be brief and
compar ative , the same
passage under the same
condi t ions. Carrying
power can ·only be
tested comparatively
and by a 1istener ·;·
During tests, it is essential for the player to try to distinguish tone
problems f rom p layabi lity ones. For the former an acoustic adjustment, e.g. to
the sound post, may be needed, for the latter a mechanical one, e.g. of string
clearance or bridge curvature . Of course, sometimes tone and playabilit y
problems have a common cause. Every violin has virt ues and vices; the violinist
determines i ts net worth.
 CHAPTER 6

MAKER'S ADDENDUM

INTRODUCTION
The Table of Additional Measurements on pages 40 and 41 was compiled from
and for use in my shop. It includes only the models that I currently make, and
wil I therefore be of less general interest than the foregoing. It is roore from
the maker 'S viewpoint and in greater detai 1. It inc I udes references to my
patterns and molds. These are matters of personal artistic preference and are
not reproduced here. All dimensions are finished, straight line; measurements
taken over the arching using a tape will be greater.
The reader may decide to use the format of this table to record his own
model preferences, which wi ll likely differ from mine.
My violin is a roore highly arched, narrower, model with an even, singing
tone. My viola is a 15 5/8" "Brescian" style that does not look or sound small,
has a full low register and easy response, and requires little adaptation by the
violinist. I have made wider, flatter, violins and large violas, but the~ are
my favorites. I like an elegant, interleaved double purfling.
My cello model is drawn from many sources. I have used one piece backs of
beautiful Oregon maple.
Instruments have many variations in size, style, and voice. The individual
variables in making are not independent, but their ensemble determines the
resu lt. I have found this set to be successful, even though modified to a
degree in each instrument by intuition, inclination, or imponderables.
In some cases where my values differ significantly from the col!IIOOnly
referred to csacconi) ones, these are included in parentheses. This is not done
in all cases, and it should be noted that the classical makers varied their
measurements from instrument to instrument.
The measurements tell only part of the story. The individual patterns,
molds, wood, workmanship, carving style, graduation, varnish, adjustment
and playing . . . tell more .

MEASURING TOOLS .
.
.
Since our subject is measurements, it seemed appropriate to include here a
list of basic measuring tools for the violin shop, along with sample uses. I
have not included electronic apparatus that may be used in plate tuning,
research, or manufacturing control.
STEEL TAPE, 6mm X 2m, in both mm and inches. To measure all major dimensions,
straight or over the arching, and to directly convert English and metric.
VERNIER CALIPER. Reads to O. 1 mm. Side by side English and metric scales
convert directly. Used for:
. Outside Measurement: Pegbox outside width, neck thickness, sound post
diameter, bass bar width, etc.
Inside Measurement : Pegbox inside width, peg hole diameter, string
clearance, rib height on violin, etc. ·
Depth Measurement: Pegbox inside depth, fingerboard projection and surface
 page 39
concavity (used with straight edge), bridge height, bass bar height, etc.
GRADUATING CALIPER. As the name implies, for precise and convenient measurement
of top, back, and rib thickness.
REINERT CALIPER. To measure top thickness through the f -holes.
MICROMETER. To measure bow parts, string diameter, etc.
THREAD GAUGE. To identify bow screw threads.
METAL RULES. 300, 600, and 'q()O mm or 1, 2, and 3 feet. Straight edges to test
fingerboard concavity, and general measurement and layout.
SURFACE PLATE. Plane work base to test or insure flatness.
PROTRACTOR GAUGE. To measure string angle and layout neck angle.
PROFILE GAUGE. Instantly copies arching, fingerboard, bar, bridge and other
curves.
PARALLEL MARKING GAUGE($). To mark edge thick ness, fit the bar, etc.,
SMALL SQUARE. To test and layout 90 degree angles.
DIVIDERS. To find centers, divide distances, transfer dimensions between rule
and work, and to scribe circles. Proportional (double ended) dividers
"automatically" divide or rescale.
SOUND POST LENGTH CALIPER: To measure the approximate required sound post
length through the f-hole.
SOUND POST POSITION GAUGE. A cut business card will serve. See the drawing on
page 23,
FULL SIZE TEMPLATES. String clearance gauges, bridge templates, arching guides,
f-hole patterns ..... whatever. Make f rom thin wood, metal, or clear plastic,
GRAM SCALE. To weigh bows, etc.
BOW HAIR GAUGE. To measure out standard amounts of hair for bows.
INSPECTION LIGHT AND MIRROR. To see inside an instrument.
MAGNIFYING LENS OR VISOR. To see and work wi t h more precision.
GRADUATING DRILL. A w1de capacity drill press to produce guide holes at a
precise thicl<ness.
MULTI-LEAF GAUGE. ; For fast, precise set up of the graduating drill, etc.
TUNING FORK. Basic standard of pitch,
ELECTRONIC TUNER. A "hands free" model automatically identifies a tone on the
chromatic scale and its sharpness or flatness in hundredths (cents) of a
semit one. It can be set to other pitches than A440- It enables precise
identification of tap tones.
 -
TABLE OF ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS, PAGE 1 OF 2
<To be used with the basic table on page 10.)
MEASUREMENT IN MILLIMETERS VIOLIN VIOLA CELLO
***************************************************~****************************'
Body Outline Refer to patterns and melds.
Body Length 358(354) 397(412) 755(759)
Body Width, Upper 165 194 344
Body Width, Middle 109 127 230
Body Width, Lower 204 244 438
Upper Edge of Top to Bridge Center 195 212 400(402)
Neck Length, Upper Edge of Top to Nut 130 141 280
Ratio of These Two Distances 3:2 3:2 10: 7
Neck Length, Nut t o Lower End of Neck 137 150 293
Neck Height at Lower End 41 50 140
Neck Width at Lower End 32 33 45
Neck Angle at Lower End, Degrees 83. 5 83 82
Neck Width at Back Button 21 22(23) 28(30)
Button Length 13(12,5) 16(13. 5) 23
Saddle Length 36 40 60(55)
Saddle Height 7,5 9,5 12.5
Saddle Width 6.0 8.0 10

Block Size, Upper 50x15(60xl4) 50x18(60x15 ) 100x30C120x22)

Block Size, Lower 50x12(48x14) 50x14(55x15) 120x30(120x22)
Blocks, Corner See Melds.
Block Shape See Patterns.
Rib Height at Neck 30 37 115(120)
Rib Height at Lower Block 31.5(32) 40(39) 118(126)
Rib Thickness 1.0 1. 1(1,0) 1,6( 1,3-1,5)
Lining Thickness 2.0 2.2 3.0
Lining Height 6,0(8,0) 7,0(8.0) 14(19)
Bar Width 5, 5 6, 0 11
Bar Height at Bridge, Approximate 11 12 24
(Others place the maximum height of the bar at its center. l
Bar Height at Ends, Approximate 2,0 2.5 5.0
Bar Length (7/9 of the Body Length) 278 309 587-
COthers measure in 40, 45, and 80 mm from each end of the tup plate.)
Scroll and Neck Outline Refer to pattern
Width of Scroll 42 50
Width of Chamfer on Scroll 1. 7 · 1,9
Peg Ends: Cut off flush at pegbox; finish end with 20mm radius.
Pegbox Width, Upper Inside 10 12 16
Pegbox Width, Lower Inside 14 19 28
Pegbox Side Thickness at Opening 5,0 5,5(6,0) 8
Pegbox Side Thickness at Back 7,5 8,5 10.5
Nut, Length 23, 5 29 46
Nut, Width, Underside 6,0 7.0 9.5
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
,
Bridge Blank Width at Feet 41 50 90
Bridge Foot Height 0,9 1, 1 2. 0
Bridge Foot Length 11 13 24
Bridge Foot Extension Past the Bar 1.0 1.5 3.0
Bridge Leg Width 4,5 5,0 8.5
Bridge Thickness, Just over the Arch 4.0 4.7 a.o
 page 41
TABLE OF ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS, PAGE 2 OF 2
(To be used with the basic t'able on page 10. )
MEASUREMENT IN MILLIMETERS VIOLIN VIOLA CELLO
********************************************************************************
Arching Height, Top 17(15.5) 20(18, 5) 27(25 . 5)
Arching Height, Back 15(14.5) 18(16.5) 24(22 , 3)
Arching Shape: Templates, Contour Lines, and Eye.
f- Hole Out! lne Refe r to patterns.
f- Hole Length, Overal I 78 96 145(140)
Distance Between Upper Eyes off- Ho les 41 53 90(92)
Di stance Between f -Holes at Bridge 75 86 150
Ai r Tone, Complete Instrument, Approx. C4 A3 G2
Tap Tone of Top with f - Holes and Bar F4 C#4 C#3
Top Thickness, Upper 2.5 2. 7 4, 1
Top Thickness, Soundpos\ & f - Hol es 3.0 3.2 4.5
Top Thickness, Elsewhere 2. 6 2. 8 4,2
Back Thickness, Upper 2. 5 2. 7 3.8
Back Thickness, Middle 3. 5- 4. 5 3. 7-5. 2 5-7
Back Thickness, Lower 2. 6 2. 8 4,0
Thickness in Channel 2, 4 2,5 4.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6, 0
Edge Thickness at Corners 4.5(5.0) 5.0(5. 5)
Edge Thickness a t C's 4,5 5.0 6,0(5,5)
Edge Thickness Elsewhere 4,0 4.5 5. 5(5)
Edge Overhang at Corners 2.0 2. 1 2.8
Edge Overhang Elsewhere 3,0 3. 2 4, 0(3.5)
Purfling to Edge 3, 8 4.0 5,0( 4,5)
Purfling to Edge (If Double) 7.0 8. 1
Purfling Width 1.2 1.2 1, 8( 1, 2 l
Purfling Groove Depth 2,5 2.5 2,5
Corner Width 6.7(7.0) 7.3 10(9.0)

GRADUATION
Good ins truments have been made with many systems of graduation or with no
apparent system, with diffe rent tap tones and intervals (including backs pitched
below the top). Different channel characteristics, rib thickness, neck
stiffness, varnish, etc. all irodlfy the tone after the instrument is assembled,
Tap tones (irode 5) in the table are representative, but depend on the arching,
graduation, and wood characteristics. The t op without the bar is about a tone
lower. The thicknesses given above are slightly thicker than those given by
Sacconi for stiff wood, With lighter, roore flexible wood i t may be advisable to
leave the plates and ribs 1oi or so thicker than shown.
Sacconi <see the Bibliography) gives the best basis for graduation,
modified by wood characte~istics and intuition, the upper areas slightly
t hinner, the back a tone or semitone higher . Following Sacconi the center of
graduation of the back is about 521 of the way up from the bottom. Millant (see
the Bibliography) and others place it under the bridge. I like to make the back
a very little thicker on the treble side to balance the sound post , the top a
very little t hinneI'on the bass side t o allow the bar to control the vibrating
area. At least that is the rationale. (Please note that I am r eferring to
maki ng instruments, not regraduatlng those of other makers, which should never
be done without a clear and necessary reason. )
The air tone or "Helrmo ltz" resonance reinforces the lower register. It ls
lowered somewhat by larger inside volume, smal ler f- hole area, less stiff plates
and ribs, looser sound post, and vice versa.-
 page 42

VARNISH
An area for the arti st. No recipes, but here are my observations.
1. Oil and spirit varnish are both good. Oil varnish is resin combined with a
drying oil (like linseed) . Spirit varnish is resin <gums) dissolved in alcohol
&tor essential (evaporating) oils. Other things may be added to plasticize,
thin, color, acce lerate or retard drying, etc.
2. A dilute spirit varnish ground before and after final scraping improves the
finish and its apparent depth. Glue is not a good ground and may cause trouble
with cleaning and repair.
3. Swelling the spring wood of the top before varnishing makes the grain more
apparent and interesting.
4. Little, if any, stain should be in the wood. Tanning in the sun is
preferred.
5. A fast drying spirit over a slower oil varnish can create a nice craquele
effect.
6. Less varnish is better than more, within reason.
7. Don't risk color fading; use lightfast colors with spirit varnish or
permanent artist's colors in oil varnish or as a glaze. Color varnish goes over
a yellow varnish over the ground.
8. An air brush is convenient for spirit varnish and for retouching large
repairs.
9. Tripoli with water or oil on a felt pad is good for rubbing the varnish.
10. French polishing is applying a good spirit varnish with a cloth pad and
oil. An overcoat for spirit varnish and for general repairs.

WOOD
Top wood should be light and stiff with low damping, g1v1ng a relatively
high, clear, ring when struck. The ratios of stiffness and of sound velocity to
density are useful figures of merit.
Very deeply curled maple is in effect partially end grain and less stiff,
especially when cut as thin as the depth of the curl . Slab cut maple,
especially if quilted, is also less stiff than quartered. These considerat ions
affect the selection of wood, its graduation, its strength and suitability for
large or small instruments or for the desired tonality.
At first I used only old European spruce and maple, but I now feel that the
wood here in Oregon, if carefully selected and seasoned, is second to none. I
have used local Sitka and Engelmann spruce, Port Orford cedar, Lombardy poplar
(for a good, light viola), and superbly figured Oregon maple with thin, close
arinual rings. My favorites are Engelmann spruce and Oregon maple, both old,
-• s'low growth, high altitude. Of course, this is a personal view.
 page 43
GLUE
I use only traditional hot hide glue on INSTRUMENTS. Hot water is used
with it to thin, clean up, release, reflow, and to swell wood Joints together.
For work on BOWS, these exceptions are made:
Liquid Hide Glue. Sparingly to hold the wedge in the frog.
Aliphatic Glue, To attach wrapping and grip.
Cyanoacrylates, Specialized (toughened and thickened). To repair ebony and
pernambuco,
Cyanoacrylate, Thin. A drop in the end of the hair and on the thread tie
instead of rosin.

GRADUATION CONTROL
After the maker has selected a type
of graduation, he still needs a method
.. '
of "quality control" to
consistency and predictability.
provide

The traditional way of graduating

ls to use depth controlled guide holes,
followed by callper checks, feeling the
stiffness and listening t o the tap
tone(s), and alternately scraping until
satisfactory. In recent years, Chladni
pattern testing has been popu larized.
This adds visual ·feedback during
graduation, and provides precise
determination of the tap tone(s). It is
clearly presented in Plate Tuning for
the Violin Maker, C.M. Hutchins, VSA
Journal. Vol. VIL No. 1. Another
supplementary method, described by K.
Leonhardt, uses the translucency of wood
as a way to assess the evenness of
graduation.
As a former engineer, I have of
course tried Chladni testing, and Con
another subject) experimented with
objective testi~ of finished violins,
I designed and built equipment to put a
standard noise Call frequencies) into
the violin and record i ts "signature"
output sound. I have lost interest in
these technological approaches, The
violin has so many variables and
nuances, so much that is subjective and
artistic. Scientific methods can be
applied to gain new insights, but it is
finally art that matters in violins.
Oregon Maple
 AFTERWORD
(Fiddle Philosophy)

MAKING AND REPAIR

The artistry of the maker and repairer are
different, but are not infrequently found in the same
person. The maker creates an object of art that he
signs and presents as his own. Repair work, however,
is usually anonyoous, the repairman endeavoring to
merge his work inconspicuously, perhaps invisibly,
into that of the original maker.
The maker has control of his complete production
process and is in a better position to predict the
effect of a change. The repairer works on many
instruments of many makers. He has to solve many
different problems and the same problems in many
different contexts. He too has to be uncompromising,
not calling t he work complete until it is rig~t. but
recognizing when it is.
The maker and repairer have this in COllllOOn, that neither is likely to get
rich from his labor, although the maker may receive posthUDXlus credit.
Repair work falls into two major classes, which may overlap. These are
DAMAGE REPAIR. Correction of accidentally or environmentally caused harm
to the structure or finish. <Breakage, cracks, scratches, etc.)
ADJUSTMENT. Correction of anything affecting tone or playability, whether
an original defect, or caused by age, use, neglect, or inept repair,
<Replacement or rodification of bridge, post, bar, fingerboard, etc.
Restoration of arching, neck angle, bow camber, etc . Renewing expendable parts,
pegs, strings, bow hair, etc. Regraduation, etc.)
The repairer must know the construction details and functional principles
of whatever he works on. He should be a violin maker, a player, and a critical
listener before doing certain adjustment work. And he • needs the skill and
experience from having worked on many instruments in the tradition of the craft .
Repairs may also be classified according to artistic etegance or mere
functional correctness. Only work of the highest artistic leve1 and skill is
appropriate on fine instruments, but functionally correct, workmanlike (never
crude) repairs may be acceptable on mass produced school instruments. The
>
student especially needs a good sounding, easy playing, and affordable
instrument.

Some rules of repair: Avoid removing original wood or varnish whenever

possible. On instruments of historical value, do nothing irreversible and
record reversible changes. Market value and musical value are not directly
related. The repairer seeks to maintain the former and optimize the latter, the
dealer vice versa. This 1s oversimplified; the aims and the men may overlap.
~nept repair and erroneous appraisal are both reprehensible, Knowledge of one's
· 'limits is the first rule.
 page 45
NEW ANO OLD
Stringed instruments are functional objects of art. Beautiful to see and
hear, pleasing to possess. The value of a particular violin is based on many
subjective and arti stic factor s and cannot be objective ly measured. Esthetic
and functional design, maker, material, appearance, workmanship, preservation,
history, provenance, associat ions, and certification by respected experts . Not
Just tone, playability, and carrying power.
A real part of the maker's li fe has gone into a fine violin, as we ll as the
efforts of careful restorers and i nspired performers, a l l of whom must have
been, at least in the first sense of the word, amateurs (lover s) of the violin.
Aging and the natural selection process undeniably tend to give old violins
a love ly sound, but a new viol in can sound very well , as we l l as be a very sound
investment. The importance of the violin runs a poor second to that of the
performer, in any case, al though no one would deny the inspirat ional value of a
c lassic instrument to the performer. A great performance demands a good, not
necessarily an o ld, instrument, but certainly one in good repair and adjustment.
Classical musicians and violin makers are naturally conservative, but
perhaps there is an excessive t endency today , promoted by competitions, to
discourage artistic originality whether in performance or in violin making,
Good vio lins need not (and do not) sound or look exactly alike, as long as they
are within the established classical context, as long as they look and sound
like beautiful vio lins .
I apprec iate fine old inst ruments for their beauty and for what I have
learned from working with them. Nevertheless, I am sure that more and better
new violins are being made now than ever before.

ABOlIT THE AlITHOR

Born in Indiana i n 1936, he studied, worked, and t raveled wide ly , always
keeping an interest in the violin. He made his first in 1969 while an engineer
in California. He started a vi olin repair business in 1977, full time since
1983. In 1985 he moved to Oregon where he has a violin shop near Salem. He is
experienced in the repair of all instruments and bows of the violin family and
occasionally makes violins, violas, and cellos. He would like to t hank his wife
and children, his vio l in maker friends and associates, and his customers for
their suppor t. Doubtless t hey are all glad t hat "the book" is done so he can
spend more time in the shop again. And so is he.

STROBEL Henry A. Lutl,;,r •mfr;c,;n nc en 1936, II f.,;, ,on

Henry A. Strobel pr~mier viofon tn 1969 et $'Cta.b1it en 1977 i Novato (Californie).
Petit mode'lc personnel, gtand mode-le i,nspirC de Guarneri tt vernis
Violin Maker sombre i l':t.lcool sur fond clair2 l'huile. Etiquette n• 3665.
Oregon 19 D1ct1onnai rc Un1vereel des Luth1ers , Vol . )
Loe AD.ls de la. l.:Uslquc , Bru&iiel&, 198$
 page 46
NOTES

OCTAVE: 2 3 4 5 6 7

B 61.74 123.47 246. 94 493. 88 987. 77 1975.53 3591. 07

A# <BbJ 58.27 116. 54 233. 08 466. 16 932. 33 1864. 66 3729. 31
A 55.00 110.00 220. 00 ti2.:.QQ. 880. 00 1760.00 3520.00
G# ( AbJ 51. 91 103. 83 207. 65 415.31 830.61 1661.22 3322.44
G 49.00 98.00 196.00 392.00 783. 99 1567.98 3 135. 96
F# (GbJ 46. 25 92.50 185. 00 369. 99 739. 99 1479. 98 2959. 96
F 43.65 67. 3 1 174. 61 349. 23 696. 46 1396. 91 2793. 83
E 41. 20 82.41 164. 81 329. 63 659. 26 1318. 51 2637.02
D# <EbJ 38. 89 77.78 155.56 311. 13 622. 25 1244.51 2489. 02
D 36.71 73.42 146. 83 293. 67 587. 33 1174. 66 2349 . 32
C# <DbJ 34. 65 69.30 138.59 277. l8 554.37 1108. 73 2217.46
C 32.70 65,41 130. 81 261. 63 523. 25 1046. 50 2093.0 1
Ylbtations/Second Cllerz)

This table Inc l udes the fundamental range of the viol In femlly. It Is In equal
temperament , each semitone higher than the precedi ng by z,,, ~. Compared with the
inteivals of Just intonation, for example. the octave ls identical ly 211. the
fifth Is about 2 cents (2 percent of an equally tempered semitone) s1!18ller than
312, the fourth about 2 cents larger than 413, t he maJor third about 14 cents
larger than 514, the minor third about 16 cents smal l er than 6/5.

IIARIIJ'.>NICS: Bowing while I lght ly touching the string at 1/2 I Is l ength sounds an
octave higher , 113 of Its length an octave and a fif th, 1/4 of It a double
octave, 1/5 of it t wo octaves and a t hi rd, end 1/6 of i ts length two octaves and
a fifth.
For exomple, In tuning the bass, t ouch i ng t he 02 <2nd) string at 113 or Its
length sounds A3. Then touching the Al (3rd) string 1/4 of the way also sounds
A3. This Is repeated to tune t he 4th string t o the 3rd a t E3, and the 1st to the
2nd at 04.
BASIC YIBRATIIIC STRING: The s imp l ified relationship ls that f = (2l) - •(T/m) ' " ,
where f is the frequency of vl bration1 L is the stri ng length, m ls the mass per
unit l ength, and T 1s the tensi on. For example, halving L doub les the frequency,
whereas doubling both the mass and tension Keeps the frequen<::y the same Cbut ls
louder> .
USEFUL MEASURE MENTS
FOR VIOLIN MAKERS

A REFERENCE FOR SHOP USE

THIRD EDITION

Henry A. Strobel

7!?. ~_:1/1/t"-kif- 7...1

~P.7
= iJ /1il1-J1::..:--:".:-;.-~-·~:;: ~ ,"':'
r --! IJ '' n .. ,/~~--··· ~ ·.• .
L..-=,;.-..:,....:.1..-..:,J..,'.,J,.. -- --

cer.trem rocr nm~ic:,im:.tn:r:·.:·m~11br,u\·1,•u

,'
 ABOUT THE BOOK
"I hardly know another book where a maker can find all the important
measurements in such a clear order."
KARL ROY, Geigenbaumeister
Direktor der Staatl. Berufsfach-und Fachschule fuer Geigenbau Mittenwald
Membre de L'Entente Intemationale des Maitr-es Luthiers
et Archetiers d' Art

"... the economical but thoughtfully written text is absolutely essential to the
usefulness of the tables. Strobel's comments are both interesting and amusing"
From the review in THE STRAO by JOHN DILWORTH, Jan. 1990

"A commendable work ... should be useful to American uiolin makers."

VAHAKN Y. NIGOGOSIAN, Violin Maker
Member, Entente Internationale des Maitres Luthiers et Archetiers d'Art
Member, American Federation of Violin and Bow ·Makers
A Director of the Violin Society of America
Director of the Oberlin College String Restoration Workshop

"I keep it on my desk as a reference. "

NORMAN PICKERING
A Director and Fast Fresident, Violin Society of America

"should be in the library of euery serious player, teacher, repair person,

and maker of bowed string instruments."
MARLAN CARLSON
Associate Professor of Music, Oregon State University
Resident Director, Oregon
I
Study Center, University of Stuttgart

• THIRD EDITION of this CONVENIENT HANDBOOK.

• A STANDARD REFERENCE, unique and comprehensive.
• For VIOLIN, VIOLA, CELLO, BASS, and bows.
: • SIZE and ADJUSTMENT information . Tables and text.
,
• Concise E~FLANATIONS of key points.
I
• FULL size and SMALL sizes of instruments.
I I
• Bridge TEMPLATES, violin and cello DIAGRAMS.
: • Notes on "EARLY" or unusual instruments.
I • Select BIBLIOGRAFHY. • Illustrated.
'1
• CROSS REFERENCE of 200 violin and bow terms in four languages.
, • Additional measurements and topics for the violin MAKER.
• Of inte~est and use to anyone who makes or repairs violins or is
otherwise professionally involved with BOWED INSTRUMENTS.
11

ISBN 0-9620673-2-6

.'