Discobolul – Physical Education, Sport and Kinetotherapy Journal, Volume 61, Issue 3, 319-331

ROLE OF EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES IN DEVELOPING THE

MOTOR AND MENTAL SKILLS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Maria CĂLINESCU1, Gloria RAȚĂ1*

1
National University of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Bucharest,
Romania
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.35189/dpeskj.2022.61.3.5

Abstract. The study aims to highlight the development of motor and mental skills in primary school children
who perform extracurricular sports activities and those who are not engaged in such activities. The research
included 270 students (boys and girls) aged 6-11 and was conducted between 30 September 2019 and 8 March
2020 at the “Alexandru Costescu” Middle School in Bucharest. The results were recorded and statistically
processed with the help of IBM SPSS Statistics Version 20. In the statistical analysis, the parametric Paired
Samples t Test (for repeated measurements of the same group) and Independent Samples t Test (for two
independent groups) were used. Statistical processing and data analysis based on the Paired Samples t Test
emphasised significant differences in the assessed test indicators (speed run, endurance run, long jump, Raven’s
Test and Attention Test), while the Independent Samples t Test results showed significant progress only in motor
skill tests (with p < 0.001 and < 0.05) except the insignificant difference in the endurance run test for first
graders, and insignificant progress in mental skill tests (except Raven’s Test for the preparatory and first
grades and Attention Test for the preparatory grade). In conclusion, it has been found that the motor skill levels
of primary school children engaged in extracurricular sports activities are better than those of students who do
not play sports, but in terms of attention and intelligence levels, this finding is not generalised for all grades.

Keywords: motor ability, mental ability, improvement, extracurricular activities.

Received: 12 July 2022 / Revised: 16 September 2022 / Accepted: 22 September 2022 /

Published: 30 September 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Călinescu and Rață. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted,
provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited,
in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does
not comply with these terms.

Introduction

Motor ability is a term that refers to the movement performance of any human being,
regardless of age. According to Nicu (2002), it represents the totality of innate and acquired
motor, morphological and functional attributes through which an individual can perform
exercises and efforts that are variable in structure and dosage. Motor ability emphasises the
possibilities of human evolution and progress and differs in the course of life from one person
to another, depending on the effort provided, the characteristics of movements and the
individual specific features. Humans permanently need good motor ability, which grows in
parallel with mental ability. Both are developed and maintained through practical and verbal
activities that diversify and improve over time. The diversification of movements depends on
each person’s effort and pleasure to exercise but especially mental ability, which is defined as
the concurrent effectiveness of informational, interpretative and regulatory actional processes

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(Epuran et al., 2008) that translate into facts, actions and information produced during
activities. Since attention is a mental phenomenon that regulates the improvement of
memory, thinking, imagination and even volition, motor skill levels dependent on each
individual's ability to focus attention. Sports activities are the result of the work performed by
the nervous and musculoskeletal systems, the organs and other systems that ensure proper
functioning of the body. Sports activities require attentional focus in order to observe certain
aspects and perform specific movements in a particular way. Neumann (2019) believes that
an external focus can be beneficial to athletes because it “could draw attention away from
negative cues associated with physical exertion” (p. 11) and positively reinforce outcomes of
the exercise (e.g., completion of a repetition or set). Attention is a complex mental
phenomenon with the help of which the participant perceives and selects stimuli, directs and
maintains mental activity towards a group of objects or phenomena for a certain period of
time (Georgescu, 1999) and ensures the fulfilment of cognitive and practical learning
activities. Exercise-based activities involving different forms of movement promote
children’s cognitive and motor development, and “the impact of aerobic exercise on
children’s executive function needs to be placed within the larger context of the action-
cognition interaction that persists across development” (Best, 2010, p. 348). Executive
function is considered to be higher-order cognition, and this statement indicates that aerobic
exercise not only has a limited effect on lower-level automatic perceptual or cognitive
processes, but also has an impact on the complex cognitive skills that enable people to behave
in an adaptive and goal-oriented manner (McMorris & Graydon, 1996). “The provision of
rigorous information from a scientific point of view can determine the direction of training,
improvement, respectively action of the parents of the 21st century” (Șițoiu & Pânișoară,
2021, p. 29), but especially teachers’ action in the direction of training the young generation.
Along with the sports activities provided in the school curriculum, extracurricular
activities contribute to the improvement of motor and mental skills. Mental ability is
influenced by the ability to focus attention and, in this regard, numerous studies emphasise its
importance in the formation of human behaviour. Aslan et al. (2020) conducted a research on
320 participants (150 girls and 170 boys aged 12-14) using the D2 Attention Test (adapted
from Toker) and found that “the attention levels of primary school students doing sports were
better than those who were not doing sports” (p. 122). The above authors recommend that all
primary school students should be involved in sports activities to raise their attention levels,
given that, while the concentration performance and selective attention levels of children who
did sports increased, their special learning difficulty decreased. Ibis and Aktug (2018)
conducted a study on 920 voluntary participants (506 who played sports and 414 who were
not engaged in sports activities) to examine the difference between their attention deficit
(AD) and academic success through the D2 Attention Test; analysis of the results using the
Independent t Test highlighted a significant difference between the parameters of academic
success and attention deficit levels in children participating in sports activities compared to
those who were not playing sports. These authors also claim that “sport and physical activity
are important factors in the treatment of AD” (Ibis & Aktug, 2018, p. 109) and possibly in
educating children’s attention levels. Chen et al. (2021) believe that “facilitating an eight-
week training program during the semester contributes to optimal performance in focused
attention, sustained attention, and selective attention” (p. 9) in schoolboys and girls. The

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results obtained by Reigal et al. (2019) in a research including 119 children aged 10-12, who
were administered the same D2 Attention Test, showed that “the simple RT [reaction time]
was related in a significant way with physical fitness, while the complex RT was related
significantly to attentional capacity and physical fitness” (p. 1).
All activities, just as the practical sports activity, are based on or determined by three
components that underpin the decision-making process: attention, anticipation and memory,
which have been explored in the context of decision-making in sport. Afonso et al. (2012)
emphasise that the attention-anticipation-memory triad helps to understand the factors
underlying decision-making in sport. Harris et al. (2018) conducted a study on 116
participants assigned to three groups (two intervention groups and one control group), who
were pre- and post-tested using the D2 Attention Test. These authors found that the group of
participants who had performed 6 minutes of daily coordinated bilateral physical activity for
four weeks showed significant increases in processing speed, focused attention, concentration
performance and attention span compared to the control group.

Problem statement

Motor and mental skills ensure proper development and functioning of the body, and
knowing their levels and possibilities of progress is a factor that must be taken into account in
the training process of the young generation, as it represents the pillar of the future society.

Research purpose

The study aims to highlight the development of motor and mental skills in primary school
children and the progress that can be achieved through extracurricular activities.

Hypotheses

The research is based on the following two hypotheses:

H1: School and extracurricular activities lead to improvements in the motor and mental
behaviour of primary education children.
H2: There are significant differences between the improvements achieved in the motor
and mental behaviour of primary school children who perform extracurricular activities and
those who are not engaged in such activities.

Methodology

Participants and Procedure

Participants were 270 primary education children (boys and girls) aged 6-11 from the
“Alexandru Costescu” Middle School in Bucharest. Out of the 270 participants, 135 were in
the five experiment groups with 27 students for each grade: preparatory, first, second, third
and fourth grades, and 135 participants were in the five control groups with 27 students for
each grade: preparatory, first, second, third and fourth grades. Only children enrolled in
extracurricular activities with parental consent were admitted to the experimental classrooms.
To participate in the study, the consent of parents and children was obtained for both the

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experiment and control groups. Students in the experimental classrooms performed

extracurricular sports activities twice a week for 40-60 minutes, besides those provided in the
curriculum. Between 30 September 2019 and 8 March 2020, so over 17 weeks, students in
the experimental groups participated in both practical sports activities that took place outside
the school schedule on the sports ground and cultural activities that were carried out in the
school’s spaces specially designed for this purpose. As part of extracurricular activities,
students performed sports activities that included sports games, dynamic games, application
routes, sports competitions, dancing to music and generally movement activities, while
cultural and relational activities included reading, watching movies, staging short sketches,
etc. Between 30 September 2019 and 8 March 2020, primary school students had two
holidays: one from 28 October to 3 November 2019 and the second from 23 December 2019
to 12 January 2020. During this period, all students in the experimental and control groups
were on holiday (starting with 11 March 2020, schools went online because of the COVID-19
pandemic).
The research methods used were: documentation, observation, experiment, mathematical
statistics.
The assessment was performed in two stages, namely: an initial assessment that took
place from 30 September to 6 October 2019 and a final assessment that was conducted
between 2 and 8 March 2020.
Motor ability was assessed using the following tests: 25 m speed run (which was timed
using an electronic stopwatch with 100 times – each student ran the distance twice and the
best time was recorded), endurance run (measured by recording with a stopwatch how long a
student could run) and standing long jump (each student jumped twice and the best value was
recorded).
As regards mental ability, the Deduction Test (Albu, 2019) was used for attentional skills,
while intelligence levels were assessed by Raven’s Progressive Matrices calibrated for the
Romanian population by Zaharnic et al. (1974) (see Raven - Standard I - Romania). Table 1
shows the results and age categories according to Zaharnic et al. (1974).

Table 1. Raven’s Progressive Matrices - percentile and age categories (Romania)

Percentile Results
6 years old 7 years old 8 years old 9 years old 10 years old
100 23 26 28 28 33
90 20 24 26 27 29
80 18 21 24 24 28
70 17 19 22 23 26
60 16 17 20 22 25
50 15 16 18 21 24
40 15 15 17 19 22
30 14 14 16 17 20
20 12 13 15 16 17
10 11 12 14 15 16

The interpretation took into account the percentile value (starting from the raw scores
obtained by the participants). The results are classified into five levels (according to the
source mentioned above): Level 1 - superior intelligence for children who were in the 95th

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percentile or above; Level 2 - above average intelligence for children whose performance was
between the 75th and the 94th percentiles and which included: Level 2+ (students whose
performance was between the 90th and the 94 percentiles) and Level 2 (students whose
performance was between the 75the and the 89th percentiles); Level 3 - average intelligence
for children whose performance was between the 25th and the 74the percentiles and which
included: Level III+ (students whose performance was between the 50th and the 74th
percentiles) and Level III (students whose performance was between the 25th and the 49th
percentiles). Raven’s Test contains five sets of 12 images each. They are presented as a
matrice and are increasingly difficult. The student identifies the missing elements from the
presented pictures.
The Deduction Test (Albu, 2019) consists in deducing an image which is presented as four
drawings on four cards. Each drawing brings more and more details, with the fourth being
complete. Students have to guess what that drawing represents, using the information
obtained from each drawing. The drawing is changed every 5 seconds, and the time needed
for the deduction is recorded. The application and interpretation of the two tests was
conducted in the Psycho-Pedagogical Counselling Office (in our school), in the presence and
with the help of the school counsellor.

Results

Statistical data processing highlighted values of the analysed indicators for the 10 groups
of students (divided into experimental and control classrooms) that can be found in Table 2
(for the preparatory grade), Table 3 (for first graders), Table 4 (for second graders), Table 5
(for third graders) and Table 6 (for fourth graders). Results were recorded and statistically
processed with the help of IBM SPSS Statistics Version 20.
Depending on the nature of the group and the recorded data, qualitative analysis was based
on the parametric Paired Samples t Test (for repeated measurements of the same group) and
the parametric Independent Samples t Test (for independent groups).

Motor and mental skill results for the experiment and control groups, preparatory grade

Statistical processing results for the two preparatory classrooms, experiment and control,
are shown in Table 2, where the Paired Samples t Test column reveals significant differences
in all measured functional indicators (speed run, endurance run, long jump, Raven, and
attention). The effect size values associated with the differences between the two assessments
were medium to very good for the experiment group (0.75 for Raven, 0.62 for long jump and
0.58 for speed run) and medium to small for the control group (0.36 for Raven, 0.45 for long
jump and 0.25 for speed run).
A larger effect size can be observed in all tests for the experiment group compared to the
effect size obtained by the control group. Regarding the differences between groups, which
are shown in the Independent Samples t Test column, significant differences can be noted
between the final values of the following measured parameters: 25 m speed run (t = -4.44, p <
0.001, r = 0.65), Raven (t = 3.30, p = 0.002, r = 0.54), attention (t = -3.40, p < 0.001, r =
0.55), endurance run (t = 2.23, p = 0.030, r = 0.40) and long jump (t = 2.05, p = 0.045, r =
0.37).

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Table 2. Statistical results obtained by the preparatory classrooms in the five tests

Paired Samples t Test Independent Samples t Test

Test Cl S M Stdev t df Sig (p) R t df Sig (p) R
I 6.37 0.08
E 19.05 26 < 0.001 0.58 IE-IC -0.28 26 0.779 -
F 6.21 0.09
25 m Sr I 6.38 0.09
C F 6.33 0.09 8.71 26 < 0.001 0.25 FE-FC -4.44 26 < 0.001 0.65

I 116.8 19.56
E -7.21 26 < 0.001 0.40 IE-IC 0.91 26 0.366 -
F 134.1 19.79
Er I 112.6 13.61 -
C F 124.1 12.53 26 < 0.001 0.39 FE-FC 2.23 26 0.030 0.40
11.20
I 0.66 0.07 -
E 26 < 0.001 0.62 IE-IC 0.09 26 0.926 -
F 0.77 0.06 11.92
Lj I 0.66 0.07
C F 0.73 0.06 -7.00 26 < 0.001 0.45 FE-FC 2.05 26 0.045 0.37

I 73.77 9.29
E -7.06 26 < 0.001 0.75 IE-IC 1.73 26 0.089 -
F 93.03 7.16
Raven I 69.44 9.08
C F 76.22 7.95 -6.58 26 < 0.001 0.36 FE-FC 3.30 26 0.002 0.54

I 17.22 1.76
E 3.99 26 < 0.001 0.21 IE-IC -3.03 26 0.004 0.51
F 16.44 1.80
Attention
I 18.59 1.55
C 2.96 26 0.006 0.17 FE-FC -3.40 26 < 0.001 0.55
F 18.03 1.62
Legend: Sr = speed run, Er = endurance run, Lj = long jump, Cl = classroom, E = experiment (group), C = control (group), S = stage, I =
initial, F = final, M = mean, Stdev = standard deviation, Sig = statistical significance level, R = effect size, Df = degrees of freedom, IE =
initial experiment (group), FE = final experiment (group), IC = initial control (group), FC = final control (group).

Motor and mental skill results for the experiment and control groups, first grade

Table 3. Statistical results obtained by first-grade students in the five tests

Paired Samples t Test Independent Samples t Test

Test Cl S M Stdev t df Sig (p) R t df Sig (p) R
I 6.32 0.09
E 16.80 26 0.001 0.46 IE-IC 0.59 26 0.552 -
F 6.16 0.10
25 m Sr I 6.31 0.82
C F 6.26 0.96 0.20 26 0.840 - FE-FC -3.74 26 < 0.001 0.59

I 189.0 17.69
E -10.97 26 0.001 0.54 IE-IC -0.75 26 0.451 -
F 213.6 20.44
Er I 192.5 15.56
C F 205.9 14.38 -15.48 26 0.001 0.40 FE-FC 1.60 26 0.114 -

I 1.10 0.59
E -0.09 26 0.927 - IE-IC -0.39 26 0.693 -
F 1.12 0.95
Lj I 1.02 0.05
C F 1.07 0.05 -7.92 26 0.001 0.44 FE-FC 2.09 26 0.041 0.37

I 76.40 9.27
E -7.38 26 0.001 0.33 IE-IC 1.97 26 0.054 -
F 82.74 8.77
Raven I 72.55 4.14
C F 77.7 4.11 -18.66 26 0.001 0.52 FE-FC 2.70 26 0.009 0.46

I 15.66 1.14
E 5.85 26 0.001 0.38 IE-IC -0.12 26 0.898 -
F 14.70 1.17
Attention
I 15.70 0.95
C 4.43 26 0.001 0.31 FE-FC -1.46 26 0.149 -
F 15.11 0.84
Legend: Sr = speed run, Er = endurance run, Lj = long jump, Cl = classroom, E = experiment (group), C = control (group), S = stage, I = initial,
F = final, M = mean, Stdev = standard deviation, Sig = statistical significance level, R = effect size, Df = degrees of freedom, IE = initial
experiment (group), FE = final experiment (group), IC = initial control (group), FC = final control (group).

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Statistical processing results for the two first-grade classrooms, experiment and control,
are shown in Table 3, where the Paired Samples t Test column highlights significant
differences in all measured functional indicators (speed run, endurance run, long jump,
Raven, and attention). The effect size values associated with the differences between the two
assessments were medium or medium to strong for the experiment group (0.46 for 25 m
speed run, 0.54 for endurance run, 0.33 for Raven, and 0.38 for attention). A similar range of
the effect size was revealed for the control group (0.40 for endurance run, 0.44 for stnding
long jump, 0.52 for Raven, and 0.31 for attention). Regarding the differences between the
two groups, which are shown in the Independent Samples t Test column, significant statistical
differences can be noted between the final values of the following measured parameters: 25
m speed run (t = -3.74, p < 0.001, r = 0.59), standing long jump (t = 2.09, p = 0.041, r = 0.37)
and Raven (t = 2.70, p = 0.009, r = 0.46).

Motor and mental skill results for the experiment and control groups, second grade

Statistical processing results for the two second-grade classrooms are shown in Table 4.
The Paired Samples t Test column (for the experiment and control groups) highlights
significant differences (in the expected directions) for most of the measured functional
indicators (speed run, endurance run, long jump and Raven), except for the attention scores
achieved by the control group.

Table 4. Statistical results obtained by second-grade students in the five tests

Paired Samples t Test Independent Samples t Test

Test Cl S M Stdev t df p R t df p R
E I 6.27 0.12 5.38 26 < 0.001 0.55 IE-IC 0.00 26 1.000 -
F 5.86 0.41
25 m Sr I 6.27 0.12 - <
C F 6.11 0.17 6.94 26 < 0.001 0.46 FE-FC 26 0.49
2.87 0.006
I 197.1 15.40 -
E -13.07 26 < 0.001 0.73 IE-IC 26 0.428 -
F 227.7 13.07 0.79
Er I 200.5 15.24 <
C F 211.7 12.70 -8.94 26 < 0.001 0.37 FE-FC 4.59 26 0.69
0.001
I 1.02 0.03
E -2.75 26 0.005 0.85 IE-IC 0.38 26 0.701 -
F 1.13 0.03
Lj I 1.02 0.28 <
C F 1.09 0.25 0.92 26 0.360 - FE-FC 5.89 26 0.75
0.001
I 81.92 8.90
E -3.58 26 < 0.001 0.14 IE-IC 0.20 26 0.836 -
F 84.55 9.10
Raven I 81.44 8.12
C F 84.03 8.22 -5.49 26 < 0.001 0.15 FE-FC 0.22 26 0.827 -

I 15.14 1.16
E 5.00 26 < 0.001 0.23 IE-IC 1.32 26 0.193 -
F 14.59 1.13
Attention
I 14.66 1.49
C 0.70 26 0.490 - FE-FC 0.41 26 0.679 -
F 14.44 1.310
Legend: Sr = speed run, Er = endurance run, Lj = long jump, Cl = classroom, E = experiment (group), C = control (group), S = stage, I = initial, F
= final, M = mean, Stdev = standard deviation, Sig = statistical significance level, R = effect size, Df = degrees of freedom, IE = initial experiment
(group), FE = final experiment (group), IC = initial control (group), FC = final control (group).

The effect size values associated with the differences between the two assessments were
medium to strong for the experiment group (0.55 for speed run, 0.73 for endurance run and
0.85 for standing long jump) and medium to small for the experiment group (0.14 for Raven,

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and 0.23 for attention) and the control group (0.46 for speed run, 0.37 for endurance run, 0.12
for standing long jump, 0.10 for Raven, and 0.07 for attention). A larger effect size can be
observed in three of the five tests for the experiment group compared to the effect size
obtained by the control group. Regarding the differences between the two groups, which are
shown in the Independent Samples t Test column, statistical differences can be noted between
the final values of the following measured parameters: 25 m speed run (t = -2.87, p = 0.006, r
= 0.49), endurance run (t = 4.59, p < 0.001, r = 0.69) and long jump (t = 5.89, p < 0.001, r =
0.75).

Motor and mental skill results for the experiment and control groups, third grade

Statistical processing results for the two third-grade classrooms are shown in Table 5. The
Paired Samples t Test column for the experiment and control groups reveals significant
differences for all variables, except the 25 m speed run test (control group).

Table 5. Statistical results obtained by third-grade students in the five tests

Paired Samples t Test Independent Samples t Test

Test Cl S M Stdev t Df Sig (p) R t Df Sig (p) R
I 5.98 0.421
E 4.20 26 < 0.001 0.25 IE-IC 0.00 26 1.000 -
F 5.75 0.412
25 m Sr I 5.98 0.421
C F 5.94 0.472 0.32 26 0.748 - FE-FC -1.52 26 0.133 -

I 209.7 17.41
E -9.08 26 < 0.001 0.61 IE-IC 0.91 26 0.366 -
F 233.5 13.04
Er I 210.9 16.58
C F 221.9 14.43 -12.68 26 < 0.001 0.33 FE-FC 2.23 26 0.030 0.40

I 1.08 0.036
E -2.92 26 0.005 0.35 IE-IC 0.00 26 1.000 -
F 1.11 0.038
Lj I 1.08 0.036
C F 1.12 0.032 -4.23 26 < 0.001 0.46 FE-FC 4.63 26 < 0.001 0.67

I 82.77 10.13
E -6.72 26 < 0.001 0.18 IE-IC 1.13 26 0.262 -
F 86.59 10.63
Raven I 80.25 5.53
C F 85.33 5.615 -7.47 26 < 0.001 0.41 FE-FC 0.54 26 0.589 -

I 14.37 1.043
E 6.13 26 < 0.001 0.28 IE-IC 0.38 26 0.704 -
F 13.74 1.095
Attention
I 14.25 1.095
C 4.13 26 < 0.001 0.23 FE-FC 0.85 26 0.905 -
F 13.70 1.17
Legend: Sr = speed run, Er = endurance run, Lj = long jump, Cl = classroom, E = experiment (group), C = control (group), S = stage, I =
initial, F = final, M = mean, Stdev = standard deviation, Sig = statistical significance level, R = effect size, Df = degrees of freedom, IE =
initial experiment (group), FE = final experiment (group), IC = initial control (group), FC = final control (group).

The effect size values associated with the differences between the two assessments were:
0.25 for speed run, 0.61 for endurance run, 0.35 for standing long jump, 0.18 for Raven, and
0.28 for attention, and in the case of the control group, 0.33 for endurance run, 0.46 for
standing long jump, 0.41 for Raven, and 0.23 for attention, with greater differences for the
experiment group. Regarding the differences between groups, which are shown in the
Independent Samples t Test column, statistical differences can be noted between the final
values of the following measured parameters: endurance run (t = 2.234, p = 0.030, r = 0.40)
and long jump (t = 4.638, p < 0.001, r = 0.67).

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Motor and mental skill results for the experiment and control groups, fourth grade

Statistical processing results for the two fourth-grade classrooms are shown in Table 6.
The Paired Samples t Test column reveals a significant difference for the experiment group
for 25 m speed run, endurance run, Raven, and attention. The effect size values associated
with the differences between the two assessments were: 0.21 for speed run, 0.68 for
endurance run, 0.29 for Raven, and 0.43 for attention) The Paired Samples t Test column also
reveals a significant difference for the control group for endurance run, long jump, Raven,
and attention. The effect size values associated with the differences between the two
assessments were 0.33 for speed run, 0.72 for long jump, 0.25 for Raven, and 0.26 for
attention. Analysis of the final results highlights a larger effect size in four of the five tests for
the experiment group compared the effect size obtained by the control group. Regarding the
differences between groups, which are shown in the Independent Samples t Test column,
significant statistical differences can be noted between the final values of the following
measured parameters: endurance run (t = 4.048, p < 0.001, r = 0.62) and long jump (t =
3.309, p < 0.002, r = 0.54).

Table 6. Statistical results obtained by fourth-grade students in the five tests

Paired Samples t Test Independent Samples t Test

Test Cl S M Stdev t Df Sig (p) R t Df Sig (p) R
I 5.80 0.40
E 8.13 26 < 0.001 0.21 IE-IC -0.01 26 0.987 -
F 5.62 0.41
25 m Sr I 5.80 0.41
C F 5.72 0.41 0.70 26 0.485 - FE-FC -0.95 26 0.347 -
I 227.7 13.07
E -12.68 26 < 0.001 0.68 IE-IC -0.54 26 0.586 -
F 252.5 13.43
Er I 229.7 13.74
C F 238.8 11.35 -8.87 26 < 0.001 0.33 FE-FC 4.04 26 < 0.001 0.62

I 1.125 0.03
E -0.07 26 0.937 - IE-IC 0.31 26 0.757 -
F 1.126 0.05
Lj I 1.122 0.03
C F 1.174 0.04 -5.30 26 < 0.001 0.72 FE-FC 3.30 26 < 0.002 0.54

I 83.03 7.40
E -7.65 26 < 0.001 0.29 IE-IC -0.74 26 0.461 -
F 87.48 7.01
Raven I 84.51 7.25
C F 87.96 5.93 -7.64 26 < 0.001 0.25 FE-FC -0.27 26 0.786 -

I 13.22 0.80
E 5.03 26 < 0.001 0.43 IE-IC 1.63 26 0.109 -
F 12.48 0.75
Attention I 12.88 0.69
C 3.30 26 < 0.001 0.26 FE-FC 0.16 26 0.870 -
F 12.44 0.89
Legend: Sr = speed run, Er = endurance run, Lj = long jump, Cl = classroom, E = experiment (group), C = control (group), S = stage, I = initial,
F = final, M = mean, Stdev = standard deviation, Sig = statistical significance level, R = effect size, Df = degrees of freedom, IE = initial
experiment (group), FE = final experiment (group), IC = initial control (group), FC = final control (group).

Discussion and Conclusion

The performance progress for the five experimental and five control groups is shown in
Table 7, which includes the statistical results of significance levels [Sig (p)] calculated using
the Paired Samples t Test and Independent Samples t Test.

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Table 7 highlights the values of significance levels [Sig (p)] recorded in the Paired
Samples t Test, indicating the students’ progress from the initial to the final assessment of the
five tests for the 10 classrooms. The p value analysis reveals significant differences with
values between < 0.001 and < 0.006 in all tests for both the experiment and control
classrooms. Only one exception is recorded for second-grade students in the control group,
where the p value is < 0.490 in the Attention Test, meaning that it is not significant.
These improvements are the result of daily compulsory activities performed by children,
but also the result of their optional extracurricular activities, which validates the research
hypothesis that school and extracurricular activities lead to improvements in the motor and
mental behaviour of primary education children. Results in this direction are also presented
by other researchers: for example, Haapala et al. (2017) believe that “promoting a physically
more active lifestyle may benefit the development of reading skills in boys during the first
school years” (p. 588) as well as throughout life. Student guidance and support in practising
extracurricular activities are indicated in order to ensure good physical health obtained
through own efforts (Andrieieva & Sainchuk, 2014), but also work based on individual skills.
According to Dappa et al. (2021), “regularly engaging in structured PA [physical activity]
constitutes a promising way to promote motor skills and support motor development over the
long term” (p. 1), while Sutapa et al. (2021) state that children who perform training three
times a week for 12 weeks benefit from significant improvements in motor skill areas.

Table 7. Statistical results of significance levels [Sig (p)] for the five experimental and five
control groups in the five tests

Paired Samples t Test - statistical significance level Independent Samples t Test - statistical
Grade and
Sig (p) significance level Sig (p)
classroom
Sr Er Lj Raven Attention Sr Er Lj Raven Attention
Prep iE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.779 0.366 0.926 0.089 0.004
1 Prep fE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.006 < 0.001 0.030 0.045 0.002 < 0.001
1st iE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.552 0.451 0.693 0.054 0.898
2 1st fE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.114 0.041 0.009 0.149
2nd iE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 1.000 0.428 0.701 0.836 0.193
3 2nd fE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.491 0.006 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.827 0.679
3rd iE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 1.000 0.366 1.000 0.262 0.704
4 3rd fE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.133 0.030 < 0.001 0.589 0.905
4th iE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.987 0.586 0.757 0.461 0.109
5
4th fE-C < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.347 < 0.001 0.002 0.786 0.870
Legend: Prep = preparatory, iE-C = initial experiment-control, fE-C = final experiment-control, Sr = speed run, Er = endurance run, Lj =
long jump.

The same Table 7 shows the values of significance levels [Sig (p)] recorded in the
Independent Samples t Test, indicating the comparative progress made by the experimental
and control classrooms from the initial to the final assessment of the five tests. The p value
analysis reveals significant differences with values between < 0.001 and < 0.045 only in the
final assessment for speed run (preparatory, first and second grades), endurance run
(preparatory, second, third and fourth grades), long jump (all grades), Raven’s Test
(preparatory and first grades) and Attention Test (preparatory grade). These significant
improvements only for certain grades and certain tests are the result of the optional activities

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performed by children, which only partially validates the research hypothesis that there are
significant differences between the improvements achieved in the motor and mental
behaviour of primary school children who perform extracurricular activities and those who
are not engaged in such activities. Several studies have highlighted the influence of exercise
on motor ability, pointing out that children’s motor skills improve but attention improvement
is only visible in the first two years, without being maintained in the third school year
(Ericsson, 2008), and that there is “limited information regarding school-based programmes,
the effects of structured exercise programmes independently or in combination with
cognitive-based therapies, and the long-term benefits of exercises in alleviating behavioural
problems in these children” (Jeyanthi et al., 2019). The fact that there were no significant
differences in the Attention Test between the experimental and control classrooms (except for
the preparatory grade) makes us think of how the extracurricular activities were conducted, in
the sense that no special emphasis was placed on careful participation in the activities carried
out but rather on participation in very diverse activities. Doyle et al. (1995) even draw
attention to the fact that “intervention should be aimed at assisting children to develop
strategies to promote attention within the various environments where they are required to
participate”, while Libertus and Hauf (2017) emphasise “that motor skills are important for a
child’s healthy development across domains and that early motor delays may be predictive or
elevated risk for developmental disorders or mental health problems later in life” (p. 3).
In our opinion, the extracurricular programme was much too diversified without pursuing
well-defined objectives for the development of cognitive ability, but one should take into
account that the beneficial effects of physical activity on cognitive performance might be
particularly large for children in the course of time (Gapin et al., 2011). The study conducted
by Greeff et al. (2018) shows that physical activity has positive effects on executive
functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children. The above authors
state that “largest effects are expected for interventions that aim for continuous regular
physical activity over several weeks” (Greeff et al., 2018, p. 501). Our research has revealed
that the effect sizes associated with the differences between the two assessments are larger for
experimental classrooms and smaller for control classrooms.
In conclusion, the values calculated using the Paired Samples t Test for the five tests
performed by primary school children indicate that school and extracurricular activities
produce progress, which is materialised in significant differences between the initial and final
assessments of motor and mental skills (with p values ranging from < 0.001 to < 0.006). On
the other hand, the values calculated using the Independent Samples t Test produce
significant progress only in motor skill tests (with p < 0.001 and < 0.045), except the
insignificant difference in endurance run for first graders, and insignificant progress in mental
skill tests, except Raven’s Test for the preparatory and first grades and Attention Test for the
preparatory grade.
It is very important for future research to provide programmes with well-defined activities
focused on the fulfilment of precise goals.

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Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the National University
of Physical Education and Sports in Bucharest, Romania (ID: 999).

Informed Consent Statement: The participants provided their written informed consent to
participate in this study.

Data Availability Statement: Data are available upon request to the contact author.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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