E TUTORIALS

SHOWKAT RASHID WANI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Directorate of distance education
University of Kashmir
Email: [email protected]

B.ED
Teaching of history
All Units
 Unit—I: Nature and Scope of Social Sciences

Social Science and Social Studies

Social Studies is an independent subject. Its subject matter relates directly to the organisation and
development of human society and to man as a member of social group. No matter the subject matter of
Social Studies is Social Sciences, but Social Studies is the synthesized form of all these Social Sciences
explaining the whole environment of the child, past and present. According to Secondary Education
commission, “Social Studies as a term is comparatively new in India. It is meant to cover the ground
traditionally associated with History, Geography, Civics and Economics.
Social studies gives more emphasis to relations rather than individuals. Social activities are given more
prominence in comparison to individual activities.
Difference between Social Studies and Social Sciences
(1) Social studies represent child’s point of view while social sciences are written from the adult point
of view. The detailed and difficult subject matter of social sciences written from the adult point of view is
not intelligible to the students. Therefore functional, easy and integrated subject matter is to be presented
to them according to the level of school.
(2) Social sciences are taught and studied giving more prominence to theoretical point view while
social studies emphasizes practical aspect which may help in inculcating basic values among the students.
(3) Social sciences are taught at the Senior Secondary, College and University level. They discuss the
human nature, activities and institutions minutely. Social studies, on the other hand, is a subject whose
subject matter is social environment.
(4) The subject matter of social sciences is determined on the basis of research, experimentation and
modern techniques of evaluation which can be understood only by adults and are beyond the
comprehension of young children.
(5) Social sciences present comprehensive systematic and logical treatment of the subject matter. They
are written from the scholarly point of view.

Relationship of History with Social Studies

History has a close relationship with social studies. Social studies is often taught as part of history
course in school, and sheltered under the wing of the more traditionally established subject. History plays
an important role in the understanding of man in society and thus in the structuring of social studies
courses. History is concerned primarily either with periods of time in the past or with themes running
through centuries. Many historians claim that the main function of history is not to enable us to
understand society as it is today. This is the main function of social studies and in so doing, it must draw
on history. Similarly, much of the material children study in social studies involves the concept of the
significance of time, which can be used to bring an awareness or the need to see phenomena in terms of
their place on a chronological scale. Here the best aspects of historical method can be used. This is
certainly a good method of teaching children a sense of chronology and a sequence of events.
History provides a basis and perspective to the important topics in social studies such as education,
population, war, trade union movement, towns and cities, customs and social moves etc. History, as a
study of the origins of the present, must be an essential feature of any sound scheme of social studies.
History and social studies are interdependent. It is admitted that a study of contemporary society is
incomplete without an account of its development in previous ages. Recent history, the immediate origin
of the present, is an essential part of the explanation of the present. But by itself this picture is incomplete,
for an account of the present use of this history is necessary for a balanced and true perspective. It would
be extremely dangerous to attempt a study of recent history and the origins of the present without adding
the perspective of social studies that is what is actually happening today.

Relationship of History with Civics (Political Science)

History and Civics are closely related to each other. It is because of this close relationship that Freeman
believed that, “History is past politics and politics is present History.” Political Science is intimately
related to history. Sir John Seeley has expressed the relationship between Political Science and History in
the form of a couplet. He says,
“History with out Political Science has no fruit”
“Political Science without History has no root”
History is a faithful record of all that happened in the past. It can, therefore, be treated like a laboratory
where principles of political life are tried and tested, modified or improvement to suit the requirements of
the present generation. But History too is meaning-less without Politics. It includes survey of political,
economic, religious, intellectual and social developments. It explains the evolution and growth of various
customs, traditions, arts and other human institutions; it is a record of human civilisation in all its fullness.
It points out how human institutions were organized to fulfill a certain need, deteriorated in courses of
time and; later on were improved or modified by succeeding generations. History can therefore, be treated
like a laboratory where principles of political life are tired and tasted; modified or improved to suit the
requirements of the present generations. The knowledge of the past gives an understanding of the present
and guidance for the future. Hence, Lord Acton said, ‘the science of politics is the one science that is
deposited by the stream of history like the grains of gold in the sands of river’.

Relationship of History with Economics

History and Economics are closely related to each other. Economics, as we know, is the study of wealth
which deals primarily with production, distribution, consumption and exchange. All these activities and
processes have to be studied in relation to man; history describes the story of man, economics describes
the activities of production and consumption. History describes the social nature of all economic
activities. It enlightens us as to how man adapted himself to occupations and social situations in different
parts of the world, in different period of history. Analysis of the growth of economic institutions and
establishment of economic theory can be a substantial part of almost any secondary school history course.
The history of past economic events throws an important light on the present economic policies and helps
in the formulation and verification of various economic laws and theories.
The history of past economic events throws an important light on the present economic policies and
helps us in formulation and verification of various economic laws and theories. Every economic problem
of the present can be understood and solved against the historical background. The economic
investigation and historical data collected are of great help. In fact, in the background of past economic
events, our present as well as future economic policies are framed.
History tells us how different nations, adopting different economic policies, achieved the aims of
economic development and that provided guiding lines for economic growth of underdeveloped countries
like India.

Relationship of History with Geography

 History and geography are most intimately related; in fact, they are twins, one stresses time and the
other space. History studies people of different times and geography deals with the people of different
places. Historical facts can serve as a good basis for arousing interest for geographical studies: geography
offers explanation for historical actions of mankind. The geographical phenomena have a profound
influence 'on the course of history'; historical studies devoid of geographical background would be
inaccurate and unscientific. World is a stage on which man plays his part, geography studies the world
and history, the action of man on the world stage. It is obvious that both are allied subjects. No history of
a people or a country could be complete without some reference to space nor can a geographical account
be intelligible without reference to development in time. It is for this reason that it is said history without
geography and geography without history are unthinkable. Since the close of the 11th century, such a
mutual and intimate relationship between these two vital subjects of human knowledge has come to be
emphasised as an important part of the school curriculum.
It is obvious that history cannot be intelligently studied without a constant reference to the geographical
surroundings which have affects on different nations. Both history and geography have common claim on
the equipment and aids of teaching, i.e., maps, pictures and atlases are useful in the teaching of the two
subjects in equal measures. It is necessary that both are taught in relation to each other.

Nature and Scope of History

History is often said to be the ‘queen’ or ‘mother’ of the social sciences. It outdates the other social
sciences, having appeared in schools long before the others with the possible exception of geography. It is
the basis of all subjects of study which fall under the category of Humanities and Social Sciences. It is
also the basis of the study of philosophy, politics, economics and even art and religion. No wonder, it is
considered an indispensable subject in the complete education of man. The following points denote the
nature of history:-
1. Study of Man: It deals with knowledge only when it is associated with man's endeavours and
achievements.
2. History is concerned with man in time: Time factor is the essence of history. It deals with a series of
events and each event occurs at a given point in time.
3. History is concerned with man in space also: Individuals and nations are studies in their physical and
geographical environment. The interaction of man on environment and vice versa is a dynamic one. Out
of this arise the varied trends in the political, social, economic and cultural spheres of man's activities and
achievements.
4. History explains the present: The present has evolved out of the past. The task of history is to study
this evolution. The causal relationships between the selected happenings are to be unearthed which help in
revealing the nature of happenings and framing of general laws.
Scope of History
An account of the history of history has shown how the subject which was once limited to a local saga,
has, during the course of centuries, become the universal history of mankind, depicting man's
achievements in every field of life-political, economic, social, cultural, scientific, technological, religious
and artistic etc., and at various levels-local, regional, national and international. Its scope is vast; it is the
story of man-a study of the totality of his behaviour. Its scope is also wide and long, in fact as wide as the
whole world and as long as the existence of man on this earth. It starts with the past, makes present its
sheet-anchor and points to the future. Events like wars, revolutions, rise and fall of empires, fortunes and
misfortunes of great empire-builders as well as the masses in general are all the subject-matter of history.
History is a comprehensive subject. Today, we hear of ‘History of Civilization,’ ‘History of Geography’,
‘History of Art’, ‘History of Literature’, ‘History of Mathematics’, ‘History of Physics’, ‘History of
Religion’-in fact, history of any and every social, physical and natural science we are interested in. How
can we know the present status of any human endeavour without its history? History today has become an
all-embracing, comprehensive subject with almost limitless extent.

Characteristics of History
To make our concept of history more definite, we may say, that a study to be termed History should
have the following characteristics:
(a) It is a study of the past happenings in the life of a social group, based on objective evidence as far as
possible. Every precaution should be taken to base the data on original sources and make them free from
subjective interpretation.
(b) These happenings should cover aspects of the life of the social group and need not ordinarily give
predominance to anyone aspect of life e.g. political aspect, which had so long dominated history. This is
because all aspects of the life of a social group are closely interrelated.
(c) Every happening in the life of a social group need not be included in the study of history, only those
happenings which are relevant to the understanding of its present life (e.g. those happenings which are
casually related to the present) may be considered as the subject-matter for history.
(d) Necessarily the selected happenings should not merely be narrated; the causal relationships between
them should be properly unearthed. The tracing of these relationships should lead to the development of
general laws which should be able to reveal the real nature of the happenings.
(e) The development of general laws regulating historical happenings may not be considered enough;
attempts have to be made to predict future happenings on the basis of the laws.

Importance of History in day to day life

History, for long, has occupied an important position among the subjects taught at different stages of
education. During the recent years, there have been much discussions on the purpose of teaching this
subject at the school stage and the changes that need to be brought about in the history courses. All these
discussions have crystallised the belief that in the scheme of general education, history needs to be taught
upto the tenth class.
According to the new pattern of education, popularly known as 1+2+3, in primary classes, history will
be a part of social studies. Stories and narratives about personages and events that have contributed to our
national heritage and the heritage of mankind in general will be studied.
In the middle and lower secondary stages, history will be studied as a separate discipline while forming
a part of social sciences. It is recommended that at the middle stage, history should acquaint the pupils
with the growth of India's society from pre-historic times to the present. The emphasis too, is to be
changed from dynastic history and political details to social and economic conditions and the growth of
various aspects of culture in different parts of the country.

Aims and Objectives of History Teaching

The general aims of teaching history may be listed as follows:
1. To promote self-understanding: History needs to be taught to promote self-understanding. To
know who one is, requires historical perspective. The special interests and habits that mark a given person
are an outcome of his past interaction with a particular environment.
 2. To give proper conception of time, space and society: History needs to be taught to reveal to the
child the conception of time, space and society and the relationship that links the present with the past, the
local with the distant and personal and national life with lives and cultures of other men and women,
elsewhere in time and space. History is a link uniting each of us as an individual with a whole greater than
ourselves.
3. To enable the pupils to assess the values and achievements of their own age: History is a unique
subject as it is in the best position for providing twentieth century youth with standards of reference
against which they can measure the values and achievements of their own age. This enables them to have
an enlightened, awareness of the problems of modern communities, political, social and economic.
4. To teach tolerance: History needs to be taught to teach tolerance-tolerance with different faiths,
different loyalties, different cultures, different ideas and ideals.
5. To cultivate valuable intellectual attitudes: History needs to be taught to the children so as to
cultivate valuable intellectual attitudes. The historical method, as a mental discipline is useful far beyond
the field of history. A study of the subject will enable the pupils to know that human affairs can never be
simple and that there are no heroes and villains, no ‘bad’ and ‘good’, no simple cause and effect in human
behaviour.

Role of History in promoting International Understanding

We are living today in a shrinking world. The speed of modern communication and transportation and
the range and destructiveness of modern weapons have erased the margin of distance and time. Conflict,
in any part of the world, has a direct bearing on the life of man in the street. It is common knowledge that
the world is divided into armed camps. A race of armaments is going on. Every minute the world spends
$.3 million for military purposes. The world's stockpile of nuclear weapons represents an explosive force
over 5,000 times greater than all the munitions used in World War II.
Curriculum in general, and history teaching in particular, can help a lot in establishing a new social
order in which every man is a citizen of the world. History is a field of study that easily lends itself for
fostering international understanding but can also ruin it altogether. It depends on how the facts of history
are presented and interpreted. Causes of war, in particular, should be explained with critical analysis.
Economic factors, religious and political fanaticism, fear and distrust should be spotlighted as some of the
major causes that bring about international conflicts and wars.
History should be so presented as to link progress with peace not as a series of intrigues, aggressions
and devastations, pillages and conquests organised by kings and rulers, despots and dictators the deeds
and misdeeds of our emperors and statesmen, the dates of their births and deaths; and their triumphs and
defeats.
While teaching history, the fact which needs to be brought home to the pupils is that races and nations
had never lived in complete isolation but were influenced by each other. These influences have increased
enormously in the present century. The inter-dependence of nations needs to be stressed particularly with
reference to post-war developments and the role of UNO in the progress and development of many
countries of the world.

Role of a history teacher in promoting International Understanding

The history teacher is one of the most important agents for creating and promoting the idea of one
world. It is he who can teach peace and foster in the rising generations an international outlook. It is he
who can become a force for good in the world community. In order to produce world-minded citizens, the
teacher must be world-minded himself. He must extend his background of information if he wants to
develop global perspective among his children. Informed about the contemporary world scene and its
historical background, he can help promote better understanding of the world. He should not believe in
absurd generalisations like ‘British are all children of perfidious Albion.’ ‘The Chinese are cruel and
secretive,’ ‘All Scotchmen are thrifty,’ ‘Frenchmen are excitable,’ ‘Dutchmen are stolid’, ‘Englishmen
miss the points of jokes,’ ‘Muslims were invaders’, etc. To enable the children to grow up free from
prejudice, the history teacher has to break down prejudices within himself. He should teach them to think
objectively. So far, teachers have taught children the history of Americans, Russians, French, English, but
they have not taught the history of humans. To promote international understanding it is essential that the
history teacher emphasises that ‘man remains man’ first and then he can be called a Russian, an
American, an Englishman and so on.
History teachers can develop attitudes favourable to international understanding among their students.
Teachers should have faith and enthusiasm for the value of international understanding and cooperation
and should possess the equipment to infuse this spirit in the minds of their students. While teaching
various subjects the teachers should concentrate in helping students build up proper behaviour pattern and
psychological dispositions impressing upon their minds that barriers of race, colour and distance do not
stand in the way of uniting peoples of different countries.
Teachers of history are in a happy position to influence thousands of young minds. If they succeed in
making every child world minded, peace will take care of itself.

Structure and Scope of Civics

Civics is that branch of knowledge which deals with all the aspects of social life of a citizen. It is that
branch of social life which deals with the science and philosophy of citizenship. It investigates into the
past and present of citizenship in a logical and systematic manner. Civics is the study of social, cultural,
economic, political and intellectual aspects of the life of the citizens. It studies citizenship with respect to
its past, present and future at all levels. In fact civics is the study of the life and role of a citizen as it has
been as it is and as it tends to be or should be.
Definitions of Civics
The term Civics has been defined by different scholars in different ways. Some of the important
definitions of civics are:
1. According to Dr. Beni Prasad, “Civics is mainly concerned with the rights and duties of a man as a
citizen.”
2. According to A. T. Shah, “Civics is that branch of human knowledge which deals with the rights and
duties of man living as a member of a group of people politically organised.”
3. According to Oxford Dictionary of English, “Civics is the theory of rights and duties of citizenship.”
4. According to D. S. Mulley, “Civics is the study of the life and role of a citizen.”

Scope of Civics
In the light of the above discussion the scope of civics as a branch of social science can be summarized
under the following headings:
(1) Study of Citizenship: Civics is basically a study of the life and role of a citizen. It studies the
concept of citizenship as it has grown over the ages. By citizenship it does not mean merely to be
conversant with one's rights and duties, but observing them cooperatively, creatively and enthusiastically
and enjoying them while performing them. This subject studies how citizenship is acquired and lost.
 (2) Study of Rights and Duties: As members of an organised society every member has to perform
certain duties-towards himself, towards his family, towards his society and towards the humanity as a
whole. Correspondingly, every member of society enjoys certain rights. Civics studies these very rights
and duties of a citizen and the relation that exists between the two.
(3) Study of State and Govt: Civics studies the past, present and future of State and governments also
because the quality of State and the type of government have a direct impact upon the life of citizen,
enjoyment of his rights and performance of his duties.
(4) Study of Constitutions: Civics also studies the constitutions both written and unwritten which
govern or have governed different countries of the world. It is the study of constitutions and constitutional
systems which give a clear idea of the life of a citizen and the state of his rights and duties.
(5) Study of Human Behaviour: Besides studying human institutions, civics also studies human
behaviour in all the aspects like political, social, moral and cultural etc, and at all levels.

Aims of teaching Civics

In order to lead a successful life in all its aspects the importance of aims cannot be ignored. Without
having aims one cannot be successful in any aspects of life. Therefore, in every subject including civics, it
is very essential to have aims. Following are some important aims of Civics:-
(1) Ideal Citizenship: The most important aim of teaching of civics is to produce ideal democratic
citizenship. It means that all young persons who come out of the educational institutions should possess
all the qualities of a successful citizen of a democratic country. They should be taught in such a manner
that they develop in them a democratic outlook of life. They should also become fully conscious of all the
qualities of citizenship along with preparing to play their play in the development of a democratic society.
(2) Civic Sense: Teaching of civics should aim at producing citizens who possess ideal civic character.
They should have full knowledge of the administrative set up of the country and should always be
prepared to play their part as citizens of Sovereign Democratic Republic.
(3) Nationalism and Patriotism: No country can make progress unless its citizens are imbibed with
the spirit of nationalism and Patriotism. They should always be ready to sacrifice everything for the sake
of their motherland. They should always be proud of their cultural heritage and uphold the values of the
society.
(4) Development of Consciousness about Rights and Duties: Study of civics makes students
conscious about their duties towards their families, society and humanity at large so that they develop as
useful and responsible citizens who discharge their duties cooperatively, creatively and enthusiastically in
a selfless manner towards the development of the society leading it to higher levels.
(5) Development of Democratic Outlook: One of the important objectives of the teaching of civics in
schools is to develop democratic spirit and democratic outlook among the students so that a healthy
democratic atmosphere is developed and success of democracy is ensured.

Study of Regional History

Regional history is that which concerns a distinct geographical, socio-cultural or political area village
or a few villages, a town or city, a district or a group of districts preferably with characteristics unique to
them. A particular locality comes into existence as the product of definite factors operating in time and
place. Factors of geographic position, climate, land, economy, population, and ideas provide
differentiating elements. In time, a locality acquires a personality of its own and the history of our locality
tells us something about our own past, our roots and antecedents. It involves a number of rather special
considerations that probably would be quite meaningless to others at far-off places.
Significance of Regional History
Regional history in its proper context stimulates the understanding of a nation's history as a whole.
Every locality has its glories, past and present, and the historian should take pride in studying and writing
about what his region has contributed to the larger heritage of which he is a part.
Local history is the most neglected subject in Indian history. Historians, in their concern for kings and
empires, have paid little attention to lesser personalities and smaller areas. They look upon local history
with disdain. It is said how small a constructive role academics play in the regions in which they were
born and brought up, and reside. It is sadder still to realize bow little is being done to collect and preserve
evidence of cultural heritage of localities.

Aims and objectives of teaching History at Secondary Level

The main aims outlined for history teaching at this stage are:
1. To promote an understanding of the processes of change and development through which human
societies have evolved to their present stage of development.
2. To promote an understanding of the common roots of human civilizations and an appreciation of the
basic unity of mankind.
3. To develop an appreciation of the contributions made by various cultures to the total heritage of
mankind.
4. To foster an understanding that the mutual interaction of various cultures has been an important
factor in the progress of mankind.
5. To facilitate the study of the history of specific countries in relation to and as part of the general
history of mankind.

Instructional Objectives of Teaching History at Secondary Level

(a) Knowledge: The pupil should acquire knowledge of terms, concepts, facts, events, symbols, ideas,
conventions, problems, trends, personalities, chronology and generalizations, etc., related to the study of
history.
(b) Understanding: The pupil should develop understanding of terms, facts, principal events, trends,
etc., related to the study of history.
(c) Critical Thinking: The subject should enable the pupils to develop critical thinking. The pupil
should be able to: Identify the problems; Analyse the problems; Collect evidence etc.
(d) Practical Skills: The subject should enable the pupils to develop practical skills helpful in the
study and understanding of historical facts.
(e) Interests: The subject should enable the pupils to develop interest in the study of history. The pupil,
on his own, should be able to: Collect coins and other historical materials; Prepare illustrative material
aids etc.
(f) Attitudes: The subject should enable the pupils to develop healthy social attitudes. The pupil
should: Possess the sense of patriotism; Show respect towards other people's opinions, ideas, beliefs and
ways of life etc.
 Unit—II: Curriculum in History and Civics

Place of History and Civics in Secondary School Curriculum

Curriculum is the pivot and the hub around which all activities in the school revolve. It is the sum-total
of experiences that the child receives in and outside the classroom through the study of different subjects,
through community relationships, through library, workshops, sports and games, etc. It is a means of
enabling the child to adjust himself to his environment. It is the 'warp and woof' of the process of
education.
History curriculum is that part of the school curriculum that is primarily intended to promote self-
understanding; give proper conception of time, space and society; enable the pupils to evaluate the
achievements and values of their own age; teach tolerance; cultivate valuable intellectual attitudes;
broaden the intellect; teach moral principles; cultivate a forward look; impart mental training; help
resolving contemporary social and individual problems; give training in handling controversial issues;
foster national feelings; develop international understanding and develop some useful mechanical skills.
History in the School Curriculum
History as an independent subject or a part of environmental studies or social sciences forms an
important part of the high school curriculum. In classes XI and XII, it is included as a separate subject,
usually an optional subject. The primary purpose of inclusion of history broadly, is to widen the horizons
of the students. All would agree that parochialism is undesirable and that for a proper understanding of
one's immediate present it is very necessary to understand and appreciate it in its wider context of space
as well as time. In terms of space, it implies seeing one's immediate spatial environment in the context of
the wider world. In terms of time it implies seeing the present age among other ages. The present cannot
be understood independently and in isolation what has gone before. History is a continuous process and
the present is a part of it and which is linked to the past. Hence, the present can be understood only as a
part of the process. Thus the context of time is crucial to an understanding of the present. It is not possible
to understand any major problem apart from its historical context. Likewise, the present helps in shaping
the future.

Approaches to Curriculum Organization

History of India from ancient ages to modern times is a very long course. In fact the whole course
cannot be taught in a year or even in a single stage. But all the Indian children are not fortunate enough to
go beyond primary stage. Some of them complete the middle stage and only few reach high school. The
course of history is spread over many years. Two methods, are followed while spreading the course over a
long time. One is the Concentric method and the other the Chronological method. In the case of the
former efforts are made to finish the whole course in a single stage and to repeat it again and again in the
next stage, the process being more detailed in the higher stages. In the Chronological method the course
of history is divided into definite periods and each period is allotted to a particular class or stage. The
process is detailed and uniform throughout. A number of methods can be used for organising the subject
matter of history. Following are some important approaches of curriculum organisation-Chronological
concentric, Topical correlational and Curriculum design.

1. Chronological Method
According to this method the whole course of history is divided into certain marked stages called
periods which have to be taught in chronological order. Indian history, for instance, can be divided into
the Ancient, the Medieval, the Mughal, and the British period. Chronology helps to show how an event, a
movement, a custom or an institution has developed into its present form. The idea behind this approach
is that sections of history conform to the stages of mental development of man.

2. Concentric Method
According to this method, the whole history of a country is taught in ever widening circles, with
increasing details for each standard or stage. In the pre-independence days, there were two cycles of
Indian history for the middle schools and two for the high schools. The first year covered the whole
history in bare outlines while the second and the third year course contained more details. The high school
syllabus gave greater details, increasingly completing the picture.
The concentric approach is nothing but devising a strategy that fosters continuous, unbroken learning
of the subject matter of history through the elementary and secondary stages.

3. Topical Method
In this method, certain topics of study suitable for the age, ability and interest of children make up the
whole syllabus. Each topic, a way, stands by itself and all the topics are, or rather, could be connected
together by the teacher with the help of individual lessons, which may be called link lessons.
This approach is quite worthwhile as for as the students of high and higher secondary classes are
concerned. A careful and detailed study of the topics provides opportunity to the students for an intensive
study of a particular problem. Instead of repeating the content a number of times, we can discuss as the
aspects of a problem, once.
Topic approach implies the revolving of the contents of social studies around a series of topics
connected together. Topics of study suitable for the age, ability and interests of students make up the
entire syllabus. These topics are also called ‘linked’ lessons. Each topic stands by itself. According to the
topical approach particular topics are taken as the central theme of work in social sciences.

4. Correlational Approach
By correlation approach is meant establishing relation of one subject with the other. No subject can be
taught well as isolated subject. Every subject has to be correlated with other subjects. But this correlation
is very essential for History, because the study of History can be made simple, interesting and effective
only when it is correlated with other subjects and sources. According to Raymont, “No subject is well
understood and no art is intelligently practised, if the light which the other studies are able to throw upon
it is deliberately shut out.” History is not merely the collection of political events of the past. It is in fact;
the record of past activities of man in every field of life, such as social, economic, religious and cultural
fields.

Teacher and Curriculum Planning

The teacher occupies a pivotal position in the whole process of history teaching. In spite of the
development of new types of mechanical teaching aids and in spite of an increasing emphasis on pupil
centred education, it is still a fact that it is the teacher who, after all has been said and done, can make
history a living, interesting and useful subject. The raw material of history, as discussed earlier, is
humanity itself. That further explains why the teacher who would interpret it to children, occupies the
central position. The story of man has to be interpreted in as objective and sincere a manner as possible.
This is possible only if the teacher is equipped with some essential qualities.
 (1) Master of the subject: The history teacher should be academically well-epuipped. Even for
teaching primary classes, he should at least be a graduate in the subject with specialisation in certain
period of history. He should also acquire a good background knowledge of the trends in recent history of
international relationships. In the higher classes, in addition to a thorough knowledge of his special
subject, the teacher's studies should include social sciences and humanities. He should be acquainted with
the methods of historical research.
(2) Master of techniques: The history teacher should be an expert in various methods and techniques
of teaching history. He should be able to make his classes enthralled and provide a friendly atmosphere in
the classroom making learning quicker. A sense of humour is valuable in teaching, but to history it is
absolutely essential.
The history teacher should be a good story-teller to be able to create an interest in the subject. He has to
give off sparks, as the Americans say. He has to be dynamic, to make his pupils catch his enthusiasm. He
should be able to ‘act out’ the story of man. To a master teacher, history is a drama and the people in it
are the actors, it is the pageant of mankind, plots, intrigues, personalities, movements, successes and
failures. Such a teacher uses a wide variety of devices to recreate bygone times and peoples and to help
pupils to catch the spirit of these times.
The history teacher should be well conversant with the use and operation of new mechanical aids as
epidiascope, filmstrip projector, film projector. He can later follow up work so that the projection of films
and filmstrips leads to the desired learning in the pupils. The history teacher should have a sound
knowledge of different techniques of evaluation. Ability to frame objective type tests, short answer tests,
and objective rating scales for awarding marks is essential for the history teacher.

‘Hidden Curriculum’
The hidden curriculum is that part of co-curricular activities which is not directly mentioned in the
curriculum, such as excursions and field trips etc. Students get new experiences from those activities,
such co-curricular activities are called hidden curriculum. The various workshops and seminars etc. for
the personality development of the children come under the term hidden curriculum.
Nature of Co-curricular Activities
There was a time when these co-curricular activities were considered extra curricular activities. Now
these activities are considered co-curricular activities instead of extra curricular activities. Today the
school considers these activities as an integral part of educational system. Today, when we take the wider
meaning of curriculum and elucidate the same, in that case, co-curricular activities must find an
appropriate place for meeting the needs of education of the child in the right manner. If actually seen,
curriculum and co-curricular activities are supplementary to each other. Today these activities have a very
close relationship with the schools.
Modern educationists consider the aim of education as the all round development. Therefore, education
should not be limited to mental development, but should also aim at physical moral, social, aesthetic,
emotional and cultural development along with mental development. This is the reason that no difference
is made between curriculum and curricular activities. All the co-curricular activities that are conducted in
the school are considered a part of curriculum.
Types of Co-curricular Activities
(1) Activities for Physical Development. As group parade and combined drill and games, sports,
wrestling, military education, N.C.C. and cycling etc. These activities do not come in the domain of
History.
 (2) Activities for Literary and Academic Development. As debates, declamation contests, library
work, poetical recitation, story writing competition, Arrangements for exhibitions, literary meetings,
dramas and essay competitions. Some of these co-curricular activities are useful in history, some in civics
and some in both.
(3) Activities for Aesthetic and Cultural Development. As music, folk songs, holding exhibitions,
iconism, construction of charts and models, dramatisation. All these co-curricular activities contribute a
lot in the subjects of both History and Civics.
(4) Activities related to Craft. As spinning, weaving, dyeing, book binding, soap making, weaving
baskets and making earthen toys etc. As dignity of labour is developed through these activities, these are
very useful in civics.
(5) Activities for Leisure time. As ticket collection, photography, stone work and collecting other
recreational things.
(6) Excursion Activities. As picnics, mountaineering, visits to religious, historical and geographical
places, visits to zoos and fairs etc. Excursion activities are important both in history and civics.

Evaluation of Curriculum
The concept of evaluation implies a checking or assessment of what goes on. This is done so that actual
facts of a situation may be ascertained and remedial action taken where necessary. Since a detailed
analysis helps to isolate the factors which may contribute to the malfunctioning of the whole system,
evaluation can perform a vital diagnostic role by suggesting corrective action at every stage of
preparation, instead of having the system with all its errors proceed blindly to its final end. Evaluation
used specifically for this purpose of correcting an ongoing process, rather than only for final product
assessment, is one of the most important contributions of systems thinking to programmes in education.
Formative or continuous evaluation, (providing feedback which enables adjustment of the programme to
meet intermediate objectives), results in a better chance for the programme to achieve its final objectives.
Purposes of Evaluation
1. Evaluation appraises the status of and changes in pupil behaviour.
2. Evaluation discloses pupil's needs and possibilities.
3. Evaluation aids pupil-teacher planning.
4. Evaluation expands the concepts of worthwhile goals beyond pure achievement.
5. Evaluation serves as a means of improving school-community relations.
6. Evaluation familiarizes the teacher with the nature of pupil learning, development and progress.
7. Evaluation relates measurement to the goals of the instructional programme.
8. Evaluation facilitates the selection and improvement of measuring instruments.
9. Evaluation appraises the teacher's competence.
10. Evaluation appraises the supervisor's competence.

Techniques of Evaluation
For testing knowledge of facts, understanding, critical thinking, etc, in history the following techniques
may be used:
(i) Oral Tests
These tests can be used for testing knowledge of individual pupils. Oral tests in history offer an
opportunity to test indepth especially a student's independent thinking. Through tactful questions, the
testee can be made to exercise his own thinking and not operate on borrowed argument alone. If the
student gives an incomplete answer, the same can be completed by another question, thus, an on the spot
correction is possible. In addition to the day-to-day classroom testing, oral tests can be used at least twice
a year for testing the ability to recall facts or express ideas coherently on a topic.
(ii) Essay Tests
The pupils are called upon to write in 300-500 words the answers to questions. Attempt is made to test
the student's abilities to interpret data; organize and summarize ideas; apply principles; describe events,
persons and places; think creatively. The examinees have to recall the facts or, principles.
They have to list, outline, describe, compare and contrast, explain, discuss, develop, summarize,
evaluate, arrange, select, define, illustrate, interpret and criticize.
(iii) Short-answer Tests
In this type, short questions are set to which pointed answers have to be given. Answers may vary from
one word to 53 words. The main purpose is to test a large amount of knowledge, abilities and
understandings within a short time.
The short-answer type questions are not as mechanical as the objective type tests. They can be used for
testing understanding of causal relationships and appreciation of contributions of great personalities
within a short time.
(iv) Objective Tests
Teachers use objective tests which enable them to measure the achievement of their pupils. For this
purpose, they employ items of a number of types. Such tests can be administered in a short time; scoring
is easy.

Analysis of Text Books

A textbook is only an aid or tool. To be helpful and useful, it must contain all the qualifications of an
aid or tool. A good history book must satisfy the following criteria.
1. It should help in achieving the purposes of teaching history detailed earlier.
2. It should assume special responsibility towards the promotion of some national goals-like
secularism and national integration.
3. It should enable children to appreciate India's rich cultural heritage as also to recognise and get rid
of what is undesirable and antiquated.
4. A good textbook on history should be suitable to the age, ability and interests of pupils. It should be
primarily addressed to pupils of a particular age group and of particular society.
5. It should have a clear and self-explanatory arrangement.
6. It should have a detailed table of contents; the material should be arranged under headings and sub-
headings to be easily comprehended by the pupils.
7. It should create interest and help to develop that interest by suggestions as what is given in the book
may be followed up and developed.
8. It should give references to other books on the same subject suited to the age of the pupils and thus
help to widen their outlook.

Gender bias in Secondary Social Science Curriculum

General bias in Secondary Social Science Curriculum are as under:
1. New knowledge should be based on the knowledge of local history which is more comprehensible to
the young pupils.
2. Concrete and particular facts should be presented in the early stage and general concepts should be
left for later stages.
 3. Mere isolated facts have no significance in the teaching of history. As for as possible they should be
presented in causal sequence.
4. Illustrated aids should be profusely used to make the lessons vivid and lively.
5. Past should always be linked with the present, otherwise teaching of history would not fulfill the real
aim.
6. Chronological order should always be kept in view. Time sense should be developed from the very
beginning.
7. Dramatization and other activity methods take history interesting and real.
8. Excursions to the sites of historical interest and the use of other sources are very useful to
supplement the history lessons.
9. Facts should be treated fully.
 Unit—III: Methodology & Teaching Aids

Source Method
Of all the methods, the source method is the most effective to make history interesting. The use of the
source method implies teaching of history with reference to sources. This method introduces the students
to the essence of history. It brings the past alive to the students. According to this method, the pupils are
expected to build up history with the help of available source material. For example, the spread of
Buddhism during Ashoka's period may be studied with the help of edicts.
While use of the source method is advocated, it does not mean that the aim is to convert the pupils into
historians. The objectives are quite limited. They are:
(i) To develop critical thinking by using the sources and weigh historical evidence.
(ii) To form their own independent judgment through a critical analysis of sources.
(iii) To develop elementary skills of collecting data, sifting the relevant matter, organising and
interpreting it.
(iv) To create a proper atmosphere to make the people and events of history realistic to students.
(v) To stimulate the imagination of the students for reconstructing the past.
(vi) To develop and promote interest in the study of history in the right perspective.
Different Sources of History
The main sources of history are given below.
1. Literary Sources
Amongst literary sources we include all written records in the form of texts, essays or descriptions. It
has been mainly divided into two parts, religious and secular as follows:
(a) Religious literature. This includes religious texts of Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and other
faiths.
(b) Secular literature. It includes (i) writings by foreigners; (ii) Biographical works of great historical
persons and historical texts; and (iii) literary compositions.
2. Archaeological Sources
Archeology has contributed a lot to the history of ancient India and ancient Kashmir. Under the
heading of archeology, historical information can be obtained. The archaeological sources can be divided
as follows: (i) Inscriptions, (ii) Coins, (iii) Monuments, remnants of cities, art-pieces, pottery, etc.
3. Primary Sources
Primary Sources are those sources which are the accounts prepared by persons who were either directly
connected with an event or were eye-witness to it. Minutes of parliamentary and judicial proceedings,
laws, treatises, official papers of states, autobiographies come in this category.
4. Secondary Sources
Secondary Sources are the sources which were prepared by persons who took help of the eye-witness
accounts in preparing them. The standard historical works of the various periods generally based on
original accounts may be classified as secondary sources.

Advantages of the Source Method

1. It develops a sense of vividness and reality.
2. It can satisfy the curiosity of children on the question ‘How do we know this’?
3. The original sources serve as an effective means for creating an atmosphere for the child to learn the
subject.
 4. The use of sources provides certain useful mental exercises right thinking and imagination,
comparing and analysing, drawing inferences, self-expression and discussion.
5. The original sources can be used to illustrate more important points in support of an oral lesson or to
supplement the one-sided picture of historical events.

Limitations of Source Method

1. It is not always possible for the teachers of schools to have an easy access to the sources-particularly
the original sources.
2. Utilization of sources is not easy for the teachers as they are not trained in historiography.
3. The method is too complex and technical. Hence the use of this method is difficult at the junior
stage.
4. The sources available are in various languages and scripts covering a period of more than three
thousand years.
5. There is also the difficult problem of sifting the suitable evidence from a multiplicity of sources.

Project Method
Project method is a natural, whole-hearted, problem solving and purposeful activity carried to
completion in a social environment. It is the practical outcome of the pragmatic educational philosophy of
John Dewey, a well known American philosopher and educationist. It was developed and perfected by Dr
William Kilpatrick of the University of Columbia. It is a revolt against the traditional, bookish and
passive environment of the school wherein children as obedient masses are carefully drilled and spoon-
fed with unrelated and disconnected facts, watertight compartments and pigeonhole time-tables.

Main Principles of the Project Method

Some basic principles of the method are:-
1. The principle of purpose. Knowledge of purpose is a great stimulus and motivates the child to realize
his goal. The child must have an ideal ‘why is he doing certain things’? Purpose motivates learning.
Interest cannot be aroused by aimless and meaningless activities.
2. The principle of activity. Children are active by nature. They love activity. The instincts of curiosity,
construction, pugnacity and herd make them active by nature and learn things by doing. Physical as well
as mental activities are to be provided to them.
3. The principle of experience. Experience is the best teacher. What is real must be experienced. The
children learn new facts and information through experience.
4. The principle of social experience. The child is a social being and we have to prepare him for social
life. Training for a corporate life must be given to him in his childhood.
5. The principle of freedom. The desire for an activity must be spontaneous and not forced by the
teacher. The child should be free from imposition, restrictions or obstructions so that he may express
himself fully and freely.
6. The principle of utility. Knowledge will be worthwhile only when it is useful and practical. The
traditional system of instruction simply stressed formal and verbal information for its own sake and was
of little utility.

Essentials of a Good Project

1. Timely. Project should be related directly to the lesson and vocational interests.
 2. Usefulness. Practical aim of the project should not be lost sight of. It must fulfill a long-standing
need.
3. Interesting. Projects should be interesting to students. They must make an appeal to the emotional
hungers or drives of the students.
4. Challenging. Projects should neither be too simple and easy nor too long and difficult.
5. Economical. The projects should be economical. They should not, unnecessarily tax the energy and
pocket of the students.
6. Rich in experiences. Many experiences of the sociable nature should be provided in a project. The
project selected should be capable of correlating different subjects and practical activities of life.
7. Cooperativeness. The students should be allowed to think and plan independently and cooperatively.
The project should be executed in such a way as the students are kept active both physically as well as
mentally.

Merits of the Project Method

1. The method is in accordance with the psychological laws of learning and provides natural conditions
for learning. The material learnt through the project is retained longer.
2. The method develops the creative mind. It helps the child to learn to improvise, to invent, and to
experiment.
3. It develops team spirit as separate groups take responsibility for making their own contributions
which are subsequently pooled and become the class effort.
4. The student, stimulated and encouraged in his exploration of many materials, will ultimately
approach other areas of learning in a similar manner.
5. Learning is made more interesting and effective. Pupils get the joy and pride in the finished product
of their labours which provide a spur to further creative work.
Demerits of the Project Method
1. Children's ignorance on the topic of the project is revealed though they may often show astonishing
knowledge of details in other areas.
2. The portion of the syllabus covered through a project, in most cases, is insignificant as compared to
the time spent on it by the class.
3. It is also not possible to ensure any kind of systematic work every topic in the syllabus of history at
different stages may not be dealt with through this method.
Project method can be used as a method of teaching history. It is desirable to undertake one or two
projects in every class to develop the interest of the pupils in the study of history. It should be used as one
of the methods and not as the sole method.

Dalton Plan
The plan is named not after its originator Miss Helen Parkhurst but after the name of the town in which
it was first adopted in a High School. Miss Parkhurst attaches importance to the use of the word
‘Laboratory’. Her aim was to ‘create a new type of educational society’ by putting boys and girls under
entirely different conditions of living from those provided in the ordinary classroom and to re-organise
the community life of the school.

Principles underlying Dalton Plan

 (i) The principle of individual work. John Adams says, “It is the most dramatic and systematic break
away from the class-teaching unit.” It is now generally accepted that the students differ in various
respects and it is a folly to tag them together for keeping pace in studies. The plan aims at providing equal
opportunities to all pupils to work at their own rate and speed. The time taken is not necessarily equal but
a minimum uniform achievement is required.
(ii) The principle of freedom. Children work well when they are allowed freedom to do so. There are
no arbitrary fixed periods. There are no classroom restrictions or rigidity of discipline. In the Dalton Plan
children are free to move about, to consult one another and to work in any particular subject.
(iii) The principle of self-effort. Learning to be effective must be the product of one's own self-efforts.
In the Dalton Plan, the child learns through his own efforts.
(iv) The principle of cooperation. In a subject laboratory pupils of different age groups not only assist
each other when occasions demand but are very much helped in turn, without being distracted; the task of
a companion being similar if not identical.
(v) The principle of setting goals. The child is enabled to survey the whole field, to see the goal at
which he is aiming and thus a stimulate is provided to him and he takes up the work bit by bit thereby
increasing and ensuring better learning.

Merits of the Dalton Plan

The plan has the following advantages:
(1) Individualised teaching. Each pupil is permitted to work at his own rate. The plan approaches
teaching and instruction from the point of view of the pupil. The weak are not hurried along at the speed
of other pupils and the bright are not kept back by their slow class-fellows. The teacher pays individual
attention to each child.
(2) Continuity of work. There is no waste of time as is usually the case in the conduct of various
examinations for promotion or other proposes. There are no failures and the promotions from one grade to
another may take place at any time.
(3) Development of qualities like self-efforts and self-confidence. There is absolutely no spoon-feeding
in the Dalton Plan. Readymade knowledge is not given to the child. He has to depend upon himself in the
solution of his problems. He has to consult suitable books and other reference material.
(4) Purposeful learning. His contract or assignment is like a project in front of him and for its
completion. He tries his best and devotes his heart and soul into the work.
(5) Development of desirable study habits. The students have to make use of a variety of material to
complete their assignment. They have to study reference books, source books, etc., and all this helps to
develop desirable study habits in them.

Narration Method (Story-Telling)

Story-telling method is one of the most important methods of teaching history. Narration, in fact, is an
art in itself which aims at presenting to the pupils, through the medium of speech clear, vivid, interesting,
ordered sequence of events in such a way that their minds are able to reconstruct these happenings and
they live in their imagination through the experiences recounted. The teacher's capacity, as an actor and
speaker, can make the lessons lively and interesting to the pupils; they can almost visualise the events and
the personalities concerned.
 At present, it is generally believed that for the age-group 8 to 10, history should mainly be a carefully
chosen and graded series of stories woven with attractive, descriptive details. This would rouse the
interest of children and provide scope for imaginative understanding and thorough enjoyment.
Selection of Stories
Story telling is one of the most important methods of teaching social studies. It is an art which enables
the teacher to come very close to the heart of the students and thereby he attracts their attention. Some
teachers are born story tellers and they are very fortunate in this respect. In using the story-telling method,
the teacher should pay special attention to the following:
1. Story should be told in a sequential order. Expressions as ‘oh, I forgot to tell you about an important
point’ does not speak good of a story-teller.
2. The teacher may take the stories from any source he thinks suitable, e.g., cave life, hunting life, local
or world history, etc., but he must take the necessary continuity into consideration.
3. The teacher must know the story fully well, full knowledge of the story will help him a lot in
narrating the story methodically and with full confidence.
4. The story should be full of actions and details. It should present vivid pictures and should be full of
descriptions of places, persons and things.
5. Proper intonation and gestures are very important in narration. A natural tone and pleasant manner
make the narration effective.
Advantages of Story-telling
1. Story-telling can make history throb with life and interest. It is the most effective way of bringing
out all the aspects-cultural, social, economic-of pre-historic, ancient and medieval societies.
2. A good story told in a proper manner goes a long way in firing the imagination of listeners. It is sure
to take them away from the matter-of-fact world and, thus offer ample scope for the play of their
imagination.
3. The story-telling can be relied upon by the teacher as the best ally for help in producing in his pupils
the much coveted traits of character such as piety, truthfulness, valour, charity and the like.

Role—Play Method
Role play method is based on the theory of ‘play’. In this method an attempt is made to get the subject
matter enacted with the help of the students. While enacting the same, they acquire knowledge. This
method is based on the psychological laws of learning. It is activity based method. In this method
everybody is given the chance to do something or the other in one form or the other. With the help of this
method many topics in History and Civics can be taught effectively with everlasting impact. For example
organisation of Panchayats can be well defined. Elections for Parliament or any state level agency can
well be depicted through this method. Ashoka's repentance after the Kalinga war can very well be
depicted through role play method. Every student is assigned the role according to his capacity to
reproduce it.

Need and Importance

(1) Psychological Importance. Children love activity. Play is their inborn tendency. They like to
imitate. Through role playing they satisfy their inner age to act and play roles.
(2) Provides education with entertainment. Role playing provides both education and entertainment.
The events of role playing are rarely forgotten.
 (3) Provides make believe acts and situations. Children indulge in make believe play and acts. It
releases their emotions. It develops their creativity and aesthetic sense.
(4) Develops correct speech habits. Role playing provides an opportunity to the students to improve
their intonation, pronunciation, speech and expression.
(5) Provides learning through doing. Children like to do to act. Role playing provides an opportunity
to children to learn history, geography, civics, economics, culture and social behavior through actual
playing roles.

Meaning of Teaching Aids

Teaching aids are devices which present units of knowledge through auditory or visual stimuli or both
with a view to help learning. They concretize the knowledge to be presented and thus help in making a
learning experience appear as real, living and vital. They supplement the work of the teacher and help in
the study of textbooks.

Features of Teaching Aids

There is a Chinese proverb that one seeing is worth a hundred tellings. So it has been widely
recognised that while teaching History and Civics, some teaching aids should be used by the teacher in
the class-room. Following are some features of teaching aids used in social sciences especially History
and Civics.
(1) Help pupils to experience historical knowledge directly.
(2) Make history real, vivid, vital, interesting and life-like.
(3) Help in developing a sense of time and places.
(4) Develop sense of causal relationship.
(5) Help the teacher in developing his subject-matter.
(6) Supplement the material of the textbook.

Types of Teaching Aids

Aids can be classified on the basis of the senses they make use of. Thus aids can be classified in three
parts:-
1. Print Aids
(1) Periodicals (2) Books (3) Newspapers
2. Visual Aids
(4) Chalkboard (5) Pictures (6) Charts (7) Models (8) Filmstrips (9) Maps (10) Globe (11) Slides (12)
Museum (13) Specimen
3. Audio Aids
(14) Tape Recorder (15) Radio (16) Gramophone
4. Audio-visual Aids
(17) Television (18) Motion Pictures (19) Dramatisation (20) Computer

Some Important Teaching Aids

1. Chalk-Board
The chalk-board is one of the most valuable aids for making instruction in history concrete and
understandable. Chalk-board/blackboard is a unique device which in spite of newer and better devices in
vogue, is irreplacable as well as indispensable. It is the oldest and the best friend of a teacher. It is a
mirror through which students visualise all about the teacher's mind, his way of explaining, illustrating
and teaching as a whole. It is the cheapest and the most valuable teaching device universally used. When
it is used properly, it can set standards in neatness, accuracy and speed. An illustration drawn on the
chalk-board during a lesson can restore the attention of the class. The chalk-board, used as the occasion
demands, throughout a lesson, enables children to see what they have heard. This can connect the aural
and the visual sensations. This connection, to a great extent, helps in learning.

2. Objects and Specimens

These are also effective teaching aids in history. They become more potent when used with other
teaching aids such as pictures, maps, charts.
They say ‘A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.’ This saying acquires a new meaning when it is
applied to the use of objects and specimens.
Objects may be defined as real things which have been removed as units from their natural setting.
Coins and stamps, Indian relics, early tools etc., are some of the objects which can be used with effect in
history.
Specimens may be defined as typical objects or parts of objects which have been removed from their
natural setting and environment. These teaching aids are powerful interest-arousing devices which
possess the capacity of bringing into play all the five senses-touch, sight, hearing, smell and taste.

3. Histrionics
Histrionics include dramas, plays, pageants, tableaux, soliloquies etc. History and literature are full of
ready-made histrionics which can throw a flood of light on historical events. They help the child to push
out the boundaries of his life space-enable him to use his imagination, make believe concepts and his
feelings about events and happenings of the days gone by. Transported by the magic of play acting, he
puts himself in the place of other people. He feels the mental agony of Babur craving to save the life of
his son even at the cost of his own life. He speaks like Rana Pratap to save the honour of his country. And
in so doing, he develops at least a glimmer of insight into what it is like to be someone else.

4. Models
Original materials are quite rare in history. Even those which exist are within easy reach of all schools.
Therefore, the models the three dimensional representations of real things can be used with great
advantage in the teaching of history.
A model may be defined as a replica of an object as it is or in a reduced or in an enlarged form. Models
can afford a substitute for most of the historic remains. They give a vivid impression of the real.
Models can invest history with the sense of reality. Things which were mere stories to the pupils, might
appear as true if we have models to support our verbal exposition.
Models can help history teachers to teach according to the source method. Models of sources may be
considered as sources for all practical purposes. The use of models is specially useful in primary and
junior secondary classes.

5. Graphs
Graphs are flat pictures which employ dots, lines or pictures to visualise numerical and statistical data
to show statistics or relationships. They are made according to exact specifications and depict specifically
quantitative data for analysis, interpretation or comparison.
 Graphs are effective tools for making comparisons and contrasts. The use of visual imageries for
abstract ideas helps clarification and remembrance.

6. Charts
A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which presents a clear
visual summary. The most commonly used types of charts include outline charts, tabular charts, flow
charts and organisation charts. Readymade charts are available for use in teaching in almost all areas in all
subjects. But charts prepared by a teacher himself incorporating his own ideas and lines of approach of
the specific topic are more useful.
7. Maps
One of the most valuable documents for the students of history is the map; but could they read it. As
stated earlier place and time are two most important concepts in history; every historical event occurs at a
definite place and at a fixed time; devoid of the sense of place and time, history becomes fiction. Map is
the universally accepted symbol for the presentation of space concept. It indicates relationships in space,
distance and direction.

8. Pictures
Children, by their very nature, are picture-minded. This love of pictures can be capitalised to add zest,
interest and vitality to the teaching of history.
Pictures, they say, concretise history-they help children to understand that history is concerned with
real things; real places and real persons. They are representations of beautiful dreams of reality or at least
beautiful dreams.

9. Slides
Slides are becoming increasingly popular in history teaching. They are relatively inexpensive to
purchase, can be quite easily constructed and stored, and may be used countless times without
deterioration. They possess an attention focusing power which increases class interest and motivation.
They can be projected in a partially darkened room thus facilitating the class discussion and note taking.
They can be enlarged to any desired size repeatedly shown and held on the screen for any period of time.
They are quite flexible in that a variety of printed, typed or drawn materials can be presented in many
different colours or combinations.
The slides can be used to introduce the lesson. They can be used during the development of the lesson
and also for summarising the lesson. They can even be used for evaluation. It is necessary that slides are
worked into the lesson-plan.

10. Films
Broadly speaking, a film is a multiple method of communication. It presents facts in realistic way,
dramatizes human relations, arouses emotions and transmits attitudes. It is quite effective as a technique
of telling a story. It may be used for the communication of ideas, attitudes and experiences to the masses
of people outside the classroom. An educational film has been described as the greatest teacher because it
teaches not only through the brain but through the whole body. It has a very powerful influence on the
minds of children and in shaping their personality. The main aim of educational films is to elevate and
educate them according to the patterns and principles set by the society. A good educational film should
help the students to develop a sense of citizenship.
11. Filmstrips
A filmstrip is a series of related still photographs on a single roll of processed film. Taken together, the
separate pictures present some process or product learning in stages. Most filmstrips are 35 millimetres.
The average number of single pictures on a filmstrip is thirty-five, although the number can vary from ten
to one hundred. They may or may not contain captions or titles. They may be produced in black and white
or colour and are sometimes accompanied by sound recordings which carry narration, music and sound
effects.
The filmstrip possesses many advantages. It allows for student participation either during the actual
showing or switching off at intervals to engage in discussion. Unlike the motion picture, the image can be
retained on the screen as long as desired. It is inexpensive. It is small and compact. The filmstrip projector
is a very simple machine which can be operated by any teacher.

12. Radio
Radio is one of the auditory devices which may be utilized for teaching history. It enables the students
to listen to the expert, the historian, the author and the first-rate teacher. It can transcend distance and
enable the people to hear personalities who are shaping history and thus lend a sense of reality to history.
It enables the pupils to be conversant with current history; he feels himself an important part of current
history.
A radio lesson can prove effective if it contains something the students never knew before. This will
give great satisfaction at the prospect of learning a new fact, getting a new idea or reinforcing an old one.

13. Television
Television, being an improvement on radio, can literally bring the world into the classroom. The ‘eye’
and ‘ear-mindedness’ of students makes the television one of the most promising of the present-day
educational forces.
Television has been said to be ‘the blackboard dramatised, the picture brought to life.’ It offers a
validity and newness which attracts attention, creates interest, and stimulates desire to learn. It, as a matter
of fact, intrigues the viewer by means of every trick of mass communication developed within the last 50
years.
Television has its own psychological and emotional appeal, which can transcend the barriers of space
and time, of disciplines and personalities. History can be seen through the eyes of specialists in many
different fields of learning. The unity and interdependence of many experiences and creations can be
brought out more forcefully on television than in the classroom where the teacher inevitably is limited in
the scope of his personal approach.

14. Projected Aids: Slide and Film Strip Projector

As the name suggests, this type of projective equipment is helpful in projecting slides as well as film
strips on the screen and thus making possible to view the graphics such as pictures, diagrams,
photographs etc. laid down on these slides and film strips in their proper enlarged form.
Construction and Working
The construction of this equipment resembles that of the magic lantern and the projection technique is
also similar. Like magic lantern, it consists of an electric lamp, a reflector, condenser lens, slide carrier
and projection lens for displaying the slides on the screen. However for working also as a film strip
projector it certainly carries something more than those mentioned above.

15. Over Head Projector

The overhead projector although having similar optical elements represents a lot of improvement over
magic lantern, slide and film projectors. Its uniqueness may be summarized as under:
(1) It contains an area of vertical projection besides the straight horizontal path of the light available
with the usual projectors. The path of the light rays is again changed to a horizontal one by a mirror
placed at 45" angle and continues over the shoulder of the teacher to the screen.
(2) It contains large aperture of the size of 25 x 25 cms. or 20 x 20 cms. for placing the slides and other
visual materials.
(3) It provides for the focussing of the image on the screen by vertical movements of the projection
head (containing the objective lens and mirror).
(4) There is a provision of a constant flow of air past the lamp by a cooling fan in the base of the
projector.

16. Epidiascope
Epidiascope has an additional advantage over the magic lantern by projecting opaque objects besides
the transparent slides on the screen. With its help any picture, chart, map, diagram, photograph or printing
material can be projected on the screen without tearing it off from the book. No slide is needed for this
purpose. In this way, the device serves two purposes. When it is used to project an opaque object it works,
as episcope and when it is used to project slides (by operating a lever), then it serves as a diascope that is
why it is named as epidiascope. It employs the principle of horizontal straight line projection with a lamp,
plane mirror and projection lens. A strong light from the lamp falls on the opaque object. A plane mirror
placed at an angle of 45° over the object, reflects the light so that it passes through the projection lens
forming a magnified image on the screen.
 Unit—IV: Towards a New World Order

Causes and Consequences of the First World War

The First World War broke out with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary upon Serbia on July 28,
1914. Many other countries joined the war within the next few days on one side or the other. The war was
fought between the Allied and Associated Powers (Allies) on the one side and the Central Powers on the
other. The principal Allies were France, the British Empire, and Russia. Italy joined them in 1915. The
war ended in November 1918 with the unconditional surrender by Germany. Formal peace treaties were
signed after several months. Now we shall examine the causes of the war.

Causes of the First World War

There are number of factors and incidents which led to the First World War. However, we may
summarise here the major causes that were responsible for the war.
1. Nationalism: Nationalism became an important factor in international relations after the French
Revolution. This proved to be both unifying and a divisive factor. German and Italian reunifications took
place as a result of national aspirations. Britain talked of the ‘white man's burden’, and Germany pressed
upon the ‘superiority of the aryan race.’ Such sentiments created tension and conflicts leading to the race
for supremacy.
2. Economic imperialism: It was another cause of the First World War. Colonialism and imperialism
during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were the direct outcome of Industrial Revolution in Britain
and rapid industrialization all over Western Europe. Each of these countries tried to expand its overseas
empire. Each one of them wanted to buy raw material at cheaper rates, labourers who could be treated
virtually as slaves and markets where finished goods could be sold. This led to race for empire building.
3. Secret Alliances: The system of secret alliances was also a major cause of the war. After the Franco-
Prussian war, Germany tried to consolidate its victory and keep France weak. Bismarck remained
undisputed leader of Germany for twenty years. He dominated European politics also.
4. Militarism: Militarism was a factor connected with the secret treaties. The race for armaments had
begun after the French Revolution. Napoleon constructed such a powerful army that the entire Europe
was, for a time, shaken by his adventures.
5. Lack of International Organisation: The absence of an effective international organisation was
another important cause of the First World War. If there was an international organisation, like the United
Nations, perhaps the First World War could have been avoided.

Consequences of the First World War

The termination of the First World War entailed very significant results both for the defeated powers
and for the world as a whole. Following were the main consequences of the First World War:-
(1) Political Consequences: Though the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had sown the seeds of
democracy in Europe, yet in Germany, Russia and Turkey the old monarchs were ruling and were vastly
interested in preserving the tone of monarchy. But the Great War saw the end of autocracy of the
monarchs. Kaiser Williams II, the emperor of Germany, left the throne and fled away to Holland. Now a
democratic form of government was set up in Germany. In 1925, the Sultan of Turkey had also to tender
resignation. In Russia, the old grandeur and luxury of the crown was still going on, but at the time of the
World War, there took place a revolution. The crown had to surrender to the new forces and the people's
government was established in that country.
 (2) Economic Consequences: After the Great War the prices went up spiralling which led to abject
conditions of the people, Starvation stalked the world. At that time capitalism was evolved and the
government restricted the prices of the commodities. The currency notes came into being because of the
necessity of fabulous amounts required to be spent on war. Huge taxes were imposed on the people. Paper
currency was introduced.
At that time the importance of the laborers was also enhanced. Organizing themselves they started
agitating for their demands.
The most important fact was that the workers established their trade unions which looked after their
rights.
(3) Social Consequences: During the Great War there was not only human loss, but the great
memorials and buildings were also razed to ground. But it led to the development of an international
culture. Many scholars impressed people by the novelty of their thoughts. The rendering of books from
one language to another took place. Concept of art exchanged hands.
(4) Economic Loss: In this war, thirty two kingdoms on the side of allies and four kingdoms on the
side of axis had taken part. Only 14 kingdoms remained neutral in the Great War. Two crore soldiers of
Germany and four crores those of allies took part in the war. The great economists of the world opine that
some 58,50,000,000 rupees were spent in the course of warfare.
(5) The Evolution of League of Nations: The most significant result of the Great War was the
establishment of the League of Nations. It was established with a view to solving the difficulties of the
nations after the war.

Fascism in Italy
Benito Mussolini came forward to offer a strong government committed to Italian nationalism. People
were impressed by him. They saw in him a ray of hope. Mussolini eventually became the destroyer of
democracy. He was born in 1883 in Romagna. His father was a blacksmith and held socialist views. His
mother was a school teacher. Mussolini was initially influenced by his father's socialist leanings. But
under his mother's influence, he became a school teacher. He could not retain that position for long
because of his revolutionary activities. He went to Switzerland and took up work in a socialist newspaper.
He organised strikes and indulged in other subversive activities. He was sent back home by the Swiss
Government. After some time he went to Austria. Once again he was forced to leave that country because
of his radical activities. Thus, it is clear that in the early days, Mussolini was a socialist. It is only during
the First World War that he changed his views, turned anti-communist and pleaded for Italian intervention
in the war.
Mussolini became a strong critic of the peace treaties. He had a dominating personality. He was a
powerful speaker. He showed determination and imagination. Mussolini worked very hard and in 1919
called a meeting of his close friends and ex-servicemen. All of them had in 1914-15 pleaded for Italian
intervention in the war. He now organised them in the Fascist Party and gave a call for securing justice for
Italy and getting rid of socialists, communists and the weak government.
Programme of the Fascist Party
It will be wrong to say that there was any clear ideology of the Fascists. Theirs was a programme of
action. We may briefly mention major points of their programme. The Fascists were strongly nationalist
in their outlook. They wanted to make Italy as powerful as she was in the days of the ancient Roman
Empire. But their nationalism was narrow. They advocated war and imperialistic expansion. Fascism
advocated a very powerful state. Mussolini said: "every thing for the state, nothing against the state;
nothing outside the state." According to Fascism, state and nation are the ultimate moral beings.
Fascism was against parliamentary democracy. It considered democracy as a weak government,
incapable of handling the problems of the country. The Fascists believed in one-party rule. They did not
tolerate any opposition. They wanted total obedience to the party and its leader. Mussolini was declared
their Duce- the leader. Nothing could be done against him or against his wishes. His command was final
and irrevocable.
The Fascists were strongly opposed to socialism of all variety. They hated the communists and wanted
to free the world of 'communist menace.' They advocated free enterprise. Their programme was supported
by capitalists because it favoured free capitalist economy.
The Fascists advocated war. They had no faith in disarmament. It is only through armaments that wars
can be successfully fought. A country that does not wage war is wasting its armed might.

Nazism in Germany
Third Reich was established in Germany in 1933 under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. He took over as
German Chancellor (Prime Minister) on January 30, 1933 and immediately began the process of
destroying democracy. He soon established Nazi dictatorship, although he had initially come to power
through democratic procedure. No other individual influenced the Course of German history and of
international relations as much as Hitler did. His political views were largely similar to those of the
Fascist dictator of Italy. Like Mussolini, the German dictator had no faith either in democracy or in
disarmament. Both were ultra-nationalists and both believed in the might of the sword. Both were anti-
communist and advocates of purity of race. Both of them glorified war and established personal
dictatorship. Thus, German Nazism was another version of Italian Fascism.
Main Principles of Nazism
1. Glorification of the state. Nazism was based upon too much importance of the state. Like the
idealists the Nazists glorified and deified the state. According to the Nazist, the state is a supreme entity
and the individual must sacrifice for the state.
2. Belief in force. Like the Fascists, Anarchists and the Communists, the Nazists also wanted that
everything should be based upon force. They were of the opinion that the German people could be
attracted by the military strength of Germany.
3. Nazism and imperialism. Nazists were like the Fascists because they also believed in the expansion
of the territory by conquest. War was their major activity between 1933 to 1945. Hitler started conquest
and the whole of Europe was brought under the control of German hegemony.
4. Nazism and internationalism. Like the Fascists, the Nazists were patriot to the backbone and they
loved their fatherland. It was their greatest aim to glorify the German state and, therefore, they were
against internationalism. They also believed in the use of force and settling the disputes by force and
glorification of their country. All these principles were against internationalism.
5. Nazism and religion. All the national socialists were anti-Catholic and anti-Protestant because they
considered both these religions to be of international character. Hitler was considered to be like God and
he was considered more powerful than Jesus Christ Nazists held a conventional view about women.

Emergence of USA
Columbus discovered America and with the passage of time courageous people of other countries
settled down there. They flourished industry, Trade and Agriculture in north and south America through
their hard work. American dominions struggled for freedom from 1775-87 and after victory United States
of America came into being. Imperialistic policy of England ended there. America was not yet pacified
fully that Civil War began in 1861-65 in north and south states of America. By his far-sightedness,
Abraham Lincoln organised north and south States in 1865.
Role of America in Second World War
No doubt by entering 1st World War, America had realised that it was much harmful for the country.
So, it decided to be neutral in European affairs. But at that time, there were disputes in many parts of the
world and by realising that Americans thought that it was difficult for it to be neutral and it was prepared
gradually for that. Thus, U.S.A. participated in World War II:
America declared war against Japan on 8th Dec., 1941. On 11th Dec., 1941 Germany according to
treaty with Japan, declared war against America. On the same day, Italy also declared war against
America. After that England and America jointly fought the war.
America sent a powerful army to help England in 1942. America and England started joint efforts in
Nov., 1942 to set French colonies in North America, free from the enemies. Their efforts were Successful
and upto May, 1943, England and America got success in occupying Algeria, Morocco and Tunis. Sicily
and other provinces of South Italy were also captured. Mussolini of Italy was also defeated. The fall of
Mussolini caused a psychological effect on Hitler.
Two Million American soldiers reached France to expell Germans from that country. In Nov., 1944
America and England had set France free absolutely from Germany and independent Govt. of France was
established there.
Russia also joined war against Germany. Germany was invaded from all sides. Germany had not much
power to fight against Allies for long. In 1945, Hitler committed suicide.
In 1945, America invaded Okinawa and occupied it. Upto that time scientists of America and England
had prepared Atom bomb. President of U.S.A warned Japan either to surrender or be ready for destruction
by atom bombs. Japan did not bother about the warning. On 6th Aug., 1945
U.S.A dropped its first bomb over Japanese city, Hiroshima. About one lakh lives were lost. After that
Japan was asked to surrender. But it refused to do so. So, on 9th August, 1945 another atom bomb was
dropped on Nagasaki After that Japan surrendered itself without any condition. Afterwards, on Sept. 2,
1945 a treaty was signed between America and Japan and with that World War came to an end.

Emergence of Soviet Union

The formation of the unified Soviet State was an unprecedented event in mankind's history and a most
important one after the victory of the October Revolution. The formation of the USSR through the
voluntary unification of the people was a great achievement of the Lenin's policy of nationalities. Prior to
the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia was ruled by the Czars and had a monarchical type of Government.
Under the Rule of the Czars she had made treaty with France and England and maintained friendly
relations with them.
Foreign Policy before the Russian Revolution (1917)
Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the Soviet foreign policy was guided by her geographical
and economic factors. She wanted to have trade and business-relations with Asian countries and control
over the entrance into the Mediterranean Sea and the port of Bosphorus. In Far East her policy included
ports in Manchuria. Russia wanted to keep her frontiers safe and secure. For this purpose she wanted to
have smaller states on the west that could serve as buffer state against threat from larger nations.
Impact of Soviet Revolution of 1917
 On June, 28, 1914 Arch Duke Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne was murdered by the Serbian
terrorists. Austria held Serbia responsible for such heinous crime and declared war against Serbia. But
Russia joined hands with Serbia. Therefore, on August 5, Austria declared war on Russia. Germany had
already declared war against Russia on August 1, 1914. In the meanwhile the Bolshevik Revolution of
1917 changed the trend of war. As there were internal troubles in Russia she became crippled in her
military strength. Therefore Lenin did not prefer war but announced to adopt neutral posture to bring
socialism in Russia. This change in outlook impeded Russia who had been fighting with the Allied
Powers. Bolsheviks gradually turned Russia into a communist country. The Russian leaders turned their
attention towards peace. Soviet Russia entered into a ‘No War Pact’ with Germany and her Allies.

Emergence of Japan
Japan consists of a group of islands around four main islands of volcanic origin. She was a backward
country. Her economy and politics was controlled by a handful of feudal lords. She attained
modernisation in 1867-68. With her modernization industrialization was also achieved. Hence Japan was
on the outlook for raw materials as well as markets for her finished goods. In the political sphere, she had
been forced to conclude unequal treaties with a number of western powers. She was keen to abrogate
these treaties of concessions. She was also eager to become a colonial empire like them. Therefore, she
adopted aggressive foreign policy. By the end of nineteenth century Japan emerged as one of the great
Powers. That earned for Japan the title of ‘the Rising Sun of the East’.

Japanese Expansionism
The emergence of Japan as a first grade power was known to the world after she inflicted a crushing
defeat on Russia in the Russia-Japanese War of 1904-05. She occupied Korea within few years of her
victory over Russia. During the First World War she got a golden opportunity to further her imperialistic
designs. As the European powers were involved in conflict in Europe, she established her authority in
Asia and particularly in China. She entered the war on the side of the Allied Powers. She occupied the
German colonies in South Pacific including Marianas, Carolines and Marshal Islands. She was able to
eliminate German interest in China and occupy Shantung.

International role of Japan after 1920

Japan emerged a great power out of World War I. She became the greatest naval power in the East.
Therefore, U.SA., was keen to check the advance of Japan in the Far East. In spite of concluding an
alliance with Japan in 1902, England also felt the need of curtailing Japan in the Far East after the
elimination of Germany from that region. Therefore, a conference of the Western states was convened by
U.S.A in Washington to reconsider the Treaty of Versailles and to discuss the disarmament problem. The
Washington Conference held in November 1921 was attended by Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy,
China, Portugal, Belgium, Holland and U.S.A.
The Washington Conference put a check on the growing naval power of Japan. It also forced her to
surrender the gains of World War I. The western powers recognised China's sovereignty, independence
and her control over her customs. However, the Washington Conference led to a demand for an
aggressive policy which was further strengthened in 1924 when the U.S. government restricted the entry
of Japanese labourers into America. As Japan wanted to exploit the markets of U.S.A. and China, she
followed a policy of co-operation with these two states.
From 1919 to 1930
Thus from 1919 to 1930 Japan made no efforts to conquer fresh territories. She however, did not
abandon her traditional policy of imperialism. She once again embarked on aggressive policy after 1930.
This had its impact on the foreign policy of Japan.
Encouraged by her Manchurian adventure Japan thought of bringing the whole of Eastern Asia under
her control. An undeclared war started between Japan and China following a clash between the Japanese
and Chinese troops at the Marco Polo bridge on July 7, 1937. This aggression ultimately merged into
World War II. Most of the European states were reluctant to intervene. Even U.S.A. refused to make
armed intervention because she was not prepared to start a war with Japan. Therefore, Japan decided to
increase the orbit of her imperialist ambitions in the Far East.

Plunge in World War II

In June 1941, Japan exerted pressure on France to sign a military agreement accepting the dominant
position of Japan in Indo-China. Knowing the Japanese Plans Roosevelt sent an American Military
Mission to China to assess her military needs. As their diplomatic efforts to avert a clash between U.S.A.
and Japan failed Japan attacked pearl Harbour. In return U.S.A. declared war on Japan. Thus the Sino-
Japanese war ultimately led to World War II.

Nationalist Movement in Asia

1. The First World War: The First World War upset the old equilibrium. The western powers in
general and Great Britain in particular began to lose their dominant position on the world stage.
2. National Consciousness: The growing national consciousness of the Asian people.
3. The Russian revolution: It had profound impact on the Asian minds. The Bolsheviks posed as
champions of anti-Imperialism.
4. Japanese slogan: The greatest impact was made by Japan who embarked on invasion of Manchuria
in 1931, and inaugurated a campaign of expansionism on the mainland of Asia. The Japanese slogan of
‘Asia for the Asians’ had explosive effects which lasted long after the sun of Nippon had set in the waters
of the Pacific.

Rise of Asian Nationalism

1. Reaction against Imperialism. The rise of nationalism of the last century is not an indigenous
product of the Asian countries. It was imported from the Western world. Most of the Asian leaders were
convinced that Independence was the first condition for national development as well as solution of
economic and social problems.
2. Revolt against Colonialism. The nationalism in Asia was the direct outcome of the colonial rule of
the Western powers. Colonialism involved the competitive capture of overseas markets for extraction of
raw materials and compulsory dumping of manufactured goods. It led to sustained effort at exploitation. It
created an inferiority complex among the people of Asian countries. It led to the backwardness of the
Asian countries well as their political instability, social unrest and economic imbalances. Therefore, they
were aroused against it.
3. Western Ideas and Technology. The Western ideas and technology exercised profound influence
on the Asian nationalism. Similarly, i.e knowledge of western technology gave to the Asian countries a
new length to throw of the shackles of Western domination.
Nationalist Movement in Africa
Africa was popularly designated as ‘the Dark Continent’. Its resurgence is one of the most important
developments of the post-World War II period. The African continent covers one-fifth of the land area of
the globe. It is inhabited by nearly two hundred million people. It was politically dominated by four major
colonial powers -France, Britain, Belgium and Portugal. Before First World War even Germany and Italy
possessed certain colonies in Africa.
With the decline of imperialism in the post-World War II period and attainment of independence by
large number of Asian states, the Africans felt the urge for liberty and built up pressure to free
themselves. Between 1955 and 1970 most of the African countries attained independence. In the year
1960 alone 13 African states got independence. In 1968 about 39 African states were granted
independence.
After their independence most of the Afro-Asian countries embarked on the path of achieving
democracy and liberation in the economic and social spheres. Through national economic reconstruction
programmes for a speedy development of their economics, a majority of the countries like India, Burma
and Sri Lanka in Asia and Guinea, Mali, Congo, Tanzania and the UA.R. in Africa, have planned their
development on, socialistic lines while some other countries have stood against socialism. Thus the Asian
and African sub-continents are witnessing a contest between socialism and capitalism. Most of the
countries of these two regions are receiving aid from Soviet Union and United States, as well as the
various agencies of the U.N.O.

Causes and Consequences of the Second World War

Second World War broke out with German aggression on Poland on September 1, 1939. Earlier, two
unfriendly Powers namely Germany and Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression pact paving the way
for Polish partition between the two of them. All efforts to reach an understanding between Soviet Union
on the one hand and Britain and France on the other hand proved futile. In fact, secret negotiations were
being simultaneously carried on between Soviet Union and Germany and also between Britain and
Germany. This paved the way for Soviet-German Non Aggression Pact and subsequent German attack on
Poland.
Causes of Second World War
1. Treaty of Versailles: Concluded in 1919 the Treaty of Versailles was based on the spirit of revenge
as Germany was forced to sign the treaty at the point of bayonet. She was deprived of her colonies,
territories and natural resources. She was burdened with reparations which were beyond her capacity to
pay. This element of dictation and humiliation gave rise to the spirit of revenge. Germany started looking
for an opportunity to tear off the Versailles treaty. The Nazi movement in Germany and the rise of Hitler
gave a ray of hope to the German people. After assuming power Hitler started demolishing the structure
raised by the Treaty of Versailles. This became the caused of Second World War.
2. Rise of Fascism in Italy: The rise of Fascism in Italy was also responsible for World War II.
Glorifying war, Mussolini, the Fascist leader said: “War alone brings upto their highest tension all human
energies and puts the stamp of nobility upon people who have the courage to meet it.” In 1939 she
concluded a ten years alliance with Germany by which both the countries agreed to help each other in
war.
3. Failure of Collective Security: Collective security system was devised by the world leaders after
the First World War. The concept was aimed at providing security to the victim of an aggression. Such a
security could best be provided by collective action under the auspices of international organization,
Security was the aim and collective was the means.
4. Failure of disarmament. Another cause of World War II was the failure of disarmament. Article 8
of the Covenant of the League had enjoined on the members to take steps for the reduction of national
armament to the lowest point consistent with national safety. But they entered into a race of re-armament.
This race for armaments had disastrous result for the security of peace loving countries.
5. Ideological Conflict: A basic cause of World War II was the ideological conflict between the
Fascist states Germany, Italy and Japan and democratic States Great Britain, France and U.SA. The
democratic countries stood for maintenance of status quo. On the other hand the Fascist states were keen
to expand. Japan was land hungry. She was determined to establish her supremacy in the Far East.
Germany and Italy wanted to expand their territories.

Consequences of the Second World War

1. It took heavy toll of life. One major consequence of the war was that it took heavy toll of life. In
this devastating war nearly one and a half crores of people were killed on both the sides. One crore of
soldiers were badly wounded in the war and one crore civilians were killed by air and naval operations.
2. It created an economic crisis. The Great War created an economic crisis due to great material loss.
Huge sums of money were spent by Great Britain. One fourth of the entire national wealth of Russia was
spent in the war. The vast destruction of material wealth and loss of human lives during the war could not
be calculated even by the mathematicians, economists and statisticians.
3. Ending of the Colonial possessions of the European Powers. As a result of the war, the colonial
possessions of the European Powers came to an end. At the end of the Second World War, India, Ceylon,
Burma, Malaya and Egypt enjoyed the fruits of independence. British sovereignty came to an end in these
countries. The possessions of France, Holland, and Portugal in Asia came to an end and countries under
them got independence one by one.
4. Shifting of the leadership of the World. As a consequence of the Great War, the leadership of the
world shifted from Great Britain to Russia and America. They became the world powers. Russia became a
dominant power in Eastern Europe. In Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria people's Republics were
established with communist influence.
5. America became a super power. After the war, America became a super power in the world.
Before this, there were seven powers tike Germany, Italy, France, England, Japan, Switzerland and
Russia. But now England and France became the third rate power and Germany, Italy and Japan were
defeated arid America emerged as a great power.

United Nations Organization (UNO)

The UNO is the world organization that replaced the League of Nations. It provides a forum for states
to come together and discuss matters of mutual interest particularly of peace and war. The primary task of
the UNO is to maintain and promote world peace and punish the aggressor and promote economic, social
and cultural cooperation among states. It provides machinery for the pacific settlement of international
disputes. It performs its tasks through various agencies and organs like the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the UNESCO and WHO etc.
Origin: It was the year 1939 that World War II broke out. Millions of people were killed. The loss of
property was incalculable. The use of an atom bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan shook the
world. It brought untold sorrow and suffering to mankind. Saving the coming generations was a major
problem before the leaders of the world. So in the year 1942, many nations of the world decided to form
an organization which could settle their disputes and help them work together.
A conference was held from 25th April to 26th June 1945, in San Francisco, USA. It was attended by the
representatives of fifty countries of the world. This conference drafted the charter of a news organization
called the United Nations. The name United Nations was given at the instance of President Roosevelt of
USA. The charter was signed on 24th October 1945, when the charter was ratified by China, France, the
USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States, and by a majority of other governments of original
member – countries. Today One Hundred and Ninety Three (193) countries have accepted the charter;
they are members of United Nations. All having equal rights. The organization is a family of nations
working together for the good of mankind. October 24, is now celebrated as United Nations Day all over
the world.
Objectives of United Nations
The main objectives of United Nations are:
1. To maintain international peace and security and to settle disputes between the member-states in a
peaceful manner.
2. To discourage use of force for settlement of disputes.
3. To develop friendly relations among nations through meetings and discussions.
4. To cooperate with other nations in solving such world problems as elimination of diseases, proper
working conditions for labourers, promotion of public-health, education, culture etc. It also
promotes respect for human rights and supports the freedom of all people, no matter, what their
race, sex, religion, colour or language.
5. To provide a meeting place where all members can work together to attain common ends stated
above.
Principles of the UNO
The United Nations Organization is based on the following principles and acts in accordance with them:
The organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members.
All member states are supposed to fulfill in good faith the obligations imposed upon them by the
charter.
All international disputes are to be settled through peaceful means.
All member states refrain from the use of force in any international dispute.
The United Nations Organization is to see that the non-members do not prove to be a threat to
international peace and security.
The organization shall not intervene in the domestic affairs of a state.
The member states are supposed to assist the organization in any action taken by it in accordance with
the UN charter.
Purposes of the UN
Chapter I and Article 1, one of the charters of the UN give the following purposes of the UN:
1. To maintain international peace and security and to achieve this end take effective collective
measures for the prevention and removal of threat to peace.
2. To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of economic, social,
cultural and humanitarian character.
3. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights.
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions to achieve the above ends.
Membership of the UNO
Membership of the UNO is open to all peace loving nations of the world, which accept the obligations
of the UNO charter, and in the judgment of the UNO are able and willing to carry out these obligations.
Those members who signed the charter on June 26, 1945, are known as original members. Other states are
admitted by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security Council. Members may be
suspended or expelled by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security Council. The
Security Council can restore the rights of a suspended member.
At present 193 countries are permanent members of United Nations Organization. The United Nations
has its headquarters in New York, USA. The official languages of the United Nations are: Chinese,
English, Russian, Arabic and Spanish.

Principle organs of the UNO

There are six principal organs of the UNO through which it achieves its purpose. These are:
1. The General Assembly.
2. The Security Council.
3. The Economic and Social Council.
4. The Trusteeship Council.
5. The International Court of Justice.
6. The Secretariat.
The General Assembly
The General Assembly is the main or the central organ of the United Nations. All member-nations are
represented in the General Assembly. It is like a parliament of nations. It can discuss any problem
affecting world peace and can take decisions. It makes recommendations for the peaceful settlement of
disputes.
Decisions are taken by vote. Each member of General Assembly, great or small, rich or poor, has one
vote. All important decisions are taken only by a two-third majority of the members present. On other
matters, it is by a simple majority. The General Assembly meets regularly every year in the month of
September. In times of emergency it may hold special session at the behest of the Security Council or
otherwise. The President of the General Assembly is elected once a year. The decisions of the General
Assembly are not legally binding. The General Assembly elects ten non-permanent members of the
economic and social council and certain members of the trusteeship council and also judge so the
international court of justice. It has also powers to discuss the working and functions of other organs of
the United Nations. It passes the UN budget.
The admission of the new members of the UNO and their suspension and dismissal are all done by the
Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. It is world parliament wherein every nation
can have its say. It is deliberative body of the organization.

The Security Council

The Security Council is the executive body of the United Nations. It is composed of 5 permanent
members and 10 non-permanent members. The permanent members are China, France, Russia, the Untied
Kingdom and the United States of America. The non-permanent members are elected by the General
Assembly for two years by a system of rotation. Each members of the Security Council has one vote and
the approval of all the permanent member is essential in every case. Every permanent member of the
Security Council has the power to veto.
The Security Council is the most important boy dint the UNO. Inside the Security Council effective
influence is wielded by the permanent members. The concurrence of permanent members is necessary for
all vital decisions of the Security Council affecting international peace and security.
Economic and Social Council
The aim of the UN is not only to prevent war and maintain peace but also to look to the social and
economic welfare of the states. The economic and social council consists of members who are elected for
three years by the General Assembly. However, one-third of them retire every year. The membership of
the economic council previously was 27, it was increased to 54 to provide greater representation to the
various regions of the world. All decisions of the council are taken by a majority of those present and
voting.

The Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship system is an improvement on the Mandate system provided in the covenant of the
League of Nations. The trusteeship council consists of fourteen member-nations, seven administering and
seven non-administering nations. The council is responsible for the progress and welfare of the
Trusteeship progress and welfare of the Trust territories – the territories which were under foreign rule. It
aims at helping people of these territories to achieve their independence. It also organizes free and fair
elections in these territories. The administering states submit regular information on economic, social and
educational conditions in these territories. The council hears petitions from these territories, holds
inspections of these territories and makes reports and recommendations to the General Assembly of the
UNO with regard to these territories.

The International Court of Justice

The idea of a world court has been a very old idea and people in all the countries have supported this
idea. It was greatly felt by politicians, masses and various national and international organizations that
international disputes should be settled peacefully and amicably.
The international court of justice is an improvement of the permanent court of international justice. It
consists of fifteen judges elected for a nine-year term by the Security Council and the General Assembly;
five judges retire every three years. The court decides disputes among nations. Only countries and not
individuals can bring cases before the court. It also advises nations on matters of international law. Its
decisions are made by a majority vote. All member-states which are parties to dispute have to comply
with its decisions. There is no appeal against the decision of the court. The court also decides the amount
of compensation to be paid to those who are disabled or killed while performing their duties under the
order of the United Nations.

The Secretariat
The Secretariat is one of the chief organs of the UN. It is the headquarters of the UN which administers
and coordinates the policies and programmes which are laid down by other agencies or organizations of
the UN. Secretariat comprises of a Secretary General as the chief administrative offices of the UN. As an
administrative head, the Secretary General is aided by several Dy. Secretary Generals, experts,
administrators and clerks etc.
Being the in-charge of the Secretariat, the main function of the Secretary General is to keep the record
of the UN and to act in cases in which the charter expressly or by implication confers function upon the
United Nations, without specifying the organ called upon to fulfill them. The staff of the Secretariat is
appointed by the Secretary General as per regulations established by the General Assembly.
 The Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council. Generally, the Security Council holds a private session to find out a suitable candidate who is
acceptable to all the five permanent members.

Cold War
Cold war denotes the existence of strained and tense relations between two rival competitors in
international relations. The term ‘Cold War’ came to be used for describing the situation in which war
was not actually fought but a war-like hysteria or as Nehru described ‘a brain war, nerve war and a
propaganda war’, was kept in operation. It is a war of nerves in which no blood was shed, no bullet was
fired but tension was kept up and the world was made to live on the brink of war.
Causes of Cold war
There are many causes of cold war and broadly speaking let me divide it in following headings:
1. Soviet Union’s pressure on western countries: Mutual fear of capitalistic and communist countries
is the main source of cold war. Each side fears that the other side would take the first opportunity to
attack and destroy it. The western countries were dissatisfied with several Soviet decisions during the
course of the Second World War. They were further alarmed by the fast growing power of the USSR.
2. The ideological conflict: There was a conflict between communist ideology and capitalist ideology,
the capitalist countries claim that they are the ‘torch-bearers’ of freedom and they oppose communism
because the latter means dictatorship and the suppression of individual liberty. On the other hand, the
communist countries restored that the so-called democracy in capitalists and the common man does not
enjoy really freedom. The differences between the Soviet Union and the western democracies were the
direct product of contradicting ideologies of communism and capitalism.
3. Soviet refusal to withdraw its forces from Iran: During the world war-II the allied forces had
occupied Iran. Northern Iran was under the Soviet occupation. By an agreement of 1942 it was decided
that allied forces would be withdrawn form Iran within six months after the surrender of Germany. After
the war Britain and USA withdrew their forces from Iran but Russia was not prepared for this.
4. Economic interests: The clash of economic interests is another factor responsible for the origin and
continuation of the cold war. While the western bloc favours capitalist economy promoting individual
initiative and enterprise. The eastern bloc stands for the socialist economy controlled by the state.
5. The Secrecy of Atom Bomb: The American decision to maintain secrecy over her atomic
capability and in respect of the decision to drop atom bombs over Japan without taking the Soviets into
confidence greatly irked the Soviet Union. The atomic factor came to sharply divide the East and the
West.

Chinese Revolution
Chinese revolution is one of the greatest events of post-World II period. It produced profound effects
on the international relations. Though it was hailed as heralding a new era in Asia, it gave rise to
problems which have posed a serious threat to the peace and security of the world. The Chinese
Revolution of 1911 was a very significant event in the history of China. That revolution ended Manchu
rule which lasted for 367 years and it established Republic in China. Actually Manchu rule was very
defective. The Chinese had realised that it was impossible for Manchu Government to solve increasing
problems of the country. Moreover, due to wrong economic policies of the Govt. the economic condition
of the country became very worst. The standard of living of the people was lowered and ancient glory of
China was ended due to weakness of Govt. The whole world came to know military weakness of China.
The people considered the Govt. responsible for their problems and miseries. So due to many causes,
revolution in China took place in 1911.

Causes of Revolution of 1911 in China

(1) Expansion of Population: Hunger, starvation and poverty were the causes of revolution of 1911.
But expansion of population was responsible for it. In the beginning of 20th Century there was a rapid
growth in population. In 1885, the population of China was 37 crores. In 1910 it was 43 crores. The
production had not increased. As a result there is lack of food-stuffs. Manchu Govt. did not pay attention
to these problems. So, there is no other way for the people but to revolt.
(2) Natural Calamities: Natural calamities like floods and rains destroyed the
crops. The floods of 1910-11 destroyed many villages. Lacs of people became homeless.
It is said that in Central China such floods had never occurred during previous 40 years. In seven
provinces, six lacs of families having 30 lacs people were starving and became victims of natural
calamities. The govt. did not solve their problems and sorrows. So, naturally the feelings of revolt were
created among the people. The people were forced to cause revolution.
(3) Influence of Emigrants: Chinese emigrants contributed in revolution of 1911. They brought new
ideas from Japan, America and European countries and propagated these ideas in China. In that way
Chinese emigrants contributed a lot in causing revolution.
(4) Contribution of Western Ideas: Western ideas also inspired revolution in China. Chinese were
deeply influenced by Western ides of equality, liberty and fraternity.
(5) Economic Policy of Manchu Government: Economic policy of Manchu govt. was very defective.
Manchu govt. had given a lot of wealth to the foreign powers as war compensation. The Govt. had to pay
interest of loans as a result, economy was absolutely ruined. The people considered weak Manchu govt.
responsible for all that. So, the patriots decided to bring reforms through revolution.

First War of Independence of 1857

The great event of the First War of Independence was distorted and intentionally called by the British
historians, on prejudicial considerations, as ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ while it was on the other hand admitted by
the British Prime Minister, Disraeli, himself as a War of Independence. Historians have held divergent
views about the nature of the outbreak of 1857. Some regard it as a ‘mutiny’ confined to the army which
did not command the support of the people at large. Others described it as a ‘religious war against the
Christians’ or ‘racial struggle for supremacy between the Black and White’. Still others viewed it ‘a
struggle between Oriental and Occidental civilization and culture’. A few described it the result of
‘Hindu-Muslim conspiracy to overthrow the British rule’. Some Indian Nationalists have called it a well-
planned national struggle and as the first War of Indian Independence.

Causes of the Revolt

The great rising of 1857 was not the result of any one particular cause. One had to screen through the
history of the preceding 100 years to understand them fully. These causes were as old as the British rule
in India. In fact, these causes started piling up since the days of the arrival of the British in India. For the
sake of convenience we can divide these causes into political, social, religious economic and military
causes.
 1. Political Causes: The Indian people and their rulers knew well how the English company had taken
recourse to treachery and intrigue to establish and expand its empire in India. It had, therefore, filled their
hearts with hatred for British. Lord Dalhousie aggressive policies simply added fuel to the fire.
2. Economic Causes: Under the company’s rule India the economic condition of the people had
deteriorated rapidly and it became miserable. All the trade and commerce had gone into the hands of the
English and as a result, the Indian industries suffered a set-beck while the wealth of India was drained to
England. The Indian people regarded the British responsible for their ruin and misery.
3. Social and Religious Causes: The English while expanding their empire in India, also took several
steps to spread Christianity and the western culture. It caused suspicion among the Indian people that the
Government was bent upon converting them to Christianity.
The English interfered with the Hindu religious beliefs by suppressing the sati and the child-marriage
and by encouraging widow remarriage which the orthodox among the Hindus could not tolerate.
4. Military Causes: The above causes had prepared the ground for a rising but it could not erupt so
long as the Indian Sepoys were loyal to the English. But there were several causes that caused
discontentment among the sepoys as well, who started mutiny. The Indian sepoys felt that they had been
the chief instrument for the success of the English in Indian. Therefore, they claimed better treatment and
better wages which were denied to them.
In this way the great Revolt of 1857 was the result of popular discontent which began the day when the
English took in their hands the reins of the country’s government. This discontent was more among the
sepoys, due to the causes already stated above so they were the first to raise their arms against the British
but others were not far behind to follow.

India’s freedom struggle after the First War of Independence

The Indian freedom struggle in its first phase progressed under the influence of moderates who were
loyal to the British throne and did not talk of independence. Leaders like Dada Bhai Naoroji, Gopal
Krishan Gokhale and Surendra Nath Bannerjee advocated the view that the first and the best thing was to
demand reforms from the British Government and to secure these through the use of reason and prayers.
They believed in prayers and petitions to the rulers for getting more and more political rights. During this
period, the moderates aimed at securing piecemeal reforms for the country. The methods adopted by the
Congress during this period were: passing of resolutions, sending of deputations and presentation of
petitions etc.
During 1885-1909 the Congress Leaders and Moderates, used constitutional methods-prayers and
petitions, to get concession from the British rulers. Their efforts, however, failed to produce the desired
results. Within the Congress, their views and methods were opposed by several leaders who favored the
policy of opposing the British rulers for securing the due rights of the people of India. They were called
the Extremists, Tilak, Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chander Pal (Bal, Lal, Pal) were their leaders. In 1905, they
forced the Congress to pass the Swarajya Resolution, and Tilak declared that ‘Swarajya is my birth right
and I will secure it’. From 1905 onwards, the congress entered in to a new phase. The extremists assailed
the methods of moderates as political mendicancy. They pleaded for an open fight to secure what
legitimately belonged to India.
Partition of Bengal (1905): Bengal in those days included Bihar and Orissa also. Lord Curzon, feeling
that the province was too big to be administered efficiently, split it into two provinces, one of which had
Dacca as its capital. This partition greatly angered the people, so the Bengalis started an intensive
agitation. They argued that Lord Curzon's underlying motive was to weaken the Bengali, nation and its
solidarity by dividing it into two parts.
Swadeshi Movement (1905): The agitations spread throughout India and a movement for 'Swadeshi',
i.e., the use of home-made goods and the ‘Boycott of British goods’ especially cotton goods was started
in 1905.
The Surat Split, (1907): In 1907, at the Surat Session of the Congress, there was a row over the
election of the President. The split was now complete and the Congress was divided. The Moderates
being in a majority captured the Congress and carried on the work for about ten years. The Extremists left
the Congress.
Minto-Morley Reforms and the Indian Councils Act, (1909): Lord Minto passed drastic laws to
suppress revolutionary activities of the extremists. But at the same time he wanted to conciliate the
moderate section of Indians. So, in collaboration with Lord Morley, the then Secretary of State of India,
he introduced some political reforms in the country, the Minto-Morley Reforms.
The Ghadr Party (1913): The Ghadar Party was founded in 1913 by some Indian revolutionaries
living in Canada and America. The party also had its branches in other countries. Among its leaders were
also Ras Behari Bose, Raja Mathendra Pratap. L. Hardayal, Abdul Rehman, Madam Cama, etc. Silkh
peasantry and soldiers formed its membership. The party decided to send a shipload of arms to the Punjab
where some regiments were to revolt on the 21st February, 1913. However, the secret leaked out. The
regiments were disbanded. The ship was seized and the leaders were arrested.
Home Rule Movement: Mrs. Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement in 1916 to secure home
rule for the Indians. She was interned. The movement was dissolved when Lord Montague, Secretary of
State for India, made his August Declaration in 1917 promising self-government by stages for India.
Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh: On the 13th April, 1919, the day of Baisakhi, there occurred, at
Amritsar, terrible massacre at Jallianwala Bagh. Here, near sunset, General Dyer fired on an unarmed and
peaceful people assembled in a protest meeting. Hundreds of people were killed and thousands wounded.
After this the Government declared Martial Law in some districts of the Punjab like Lahore, Amritsar and
Gujranwala and many atrocities were perpetrated.
Gandhian Phase (1918-1947): The most important, popular and successful phase of the Indian
National Movement was the Gandhian Phase 1918-47. During this phase, the National Movement
developed into a massive non-violent freedom movement which compelled the British to free precious
India. During the period of the First World War, the Indian nationalism had matured. Lucknow Pact
(1916) leading to cooperation between the Congress and Muslim League, union of Moderates and
Extremists (1916) and launching of Home Rule Movement, all indicated the newly attained maturity if
Indian National Movement. It provided an immediate result when in 1917 Montague Declaration accepted
the establishment of a responsible government in India as the final goal of British policy. Around this
time the rise of Mahatma Gandhi as the revered and undisputed leader of India, brought a big positive
health and direction to the National Movement. With successors in South Africa, Champaran in Bihar and
Ahemdbad and Kaira in Gujarat, Gandhiji came to occupy a central position in Indian National Congress
and the National Movement. The end of the First World War brought for India such inhuman and evil
developments like the enforcement of Rowllat Act, and the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy. The developments
forced Indians, under the leadership of Gandhiji to launch a major movement against the British rule. On
1st August 1920, Non-Violent, non-cooperation was launched by the Indian National Congress as a means
to protest against British repression and misrule.
 Non-Cooperation Movement 1920: It was first major step taken by the Indian National Congress to
oppose the British rule. It involved non-contesting of election which were to be held the Government of
India Act 1919 and boycott of courts, educational institution, foreign cloth and liquor shops. Use of
Swedesh and boycott of foreign goods was resorted to a large number of students left schools and
colleges and many teachers resigned their jobs. National Educational Institutions like the Jamia Millia
Islamia, the Kashi Vihar and Gujarat Vidyapeeths and DAV educational institutions were set up.
Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930: The Civil Disobedience Movement commenced with the Dandi
March on 12th March 1930, when Gandhiji accompanied by 78 selected followers began a 200 mile long
march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi for breaking the inhuman and evil Salt laws, by manufactured
illegally, but openly, salt from the sea waters. The Dandi March electrified the national consciousness.
Gandhiji gave a call for boycott of foreign goods, liquor and government institutions. Indian women were
to join the movement by undertaking spinning. People were to hold peaceful non-Violent demonstrations.
They were to launch no tax campaigns and refuse obedience to all repressive laws. The peasants and
Zamindars were called upon to withhold the payment of revenue. The civil Disobedience Movement
commenced in a big way. Gandhiji was arrested before he could offer Satyagraha and make salt at the
government depot at Dharasana. But his followers broke the salt laws and bravely faced governmental use
of brute force. Demonstrations were organized throughout India against Gandhiji’s arrest and
governmental repression.
Quit India Movement (August, 1942): The All-India Congress Committee passed Quit India
Resolution on the 8th August, 1942 at Bombay and Mahatma Gandhi gave the slogan 'Do or die'. The
Government arrested Mahatma Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee, The
Congress organisation was banned, and the police took possession of its offices. The people reacted
violently and revolted. There was collapse of the machinery of the Government at several places. Jinnah
was taken by surprise by the Quit India involvement and declared that the object of the movement was not
only to turn out the British but also to subjugate the Muslims. He asked the 'Muslims' to keep aloof. The
Muslim League began to raise slogans for the partition of India.
The Independence of India
In September 1946, an Interim Government of India was formed by the Congress with Jawaharlal
Nehru heading the Council of Ministers. The Muslim League joined the Cabinet in October but refrained
from joining the Constituent Assembly, which started functioning in December 1946. It advocated the
demand for the formation of Pakistan as a separate sovereign Muslim state out of India. The net result
came in the form of widespread and gruesome communal riots in various parts of the country. Communal
frenzy came to over shadow the National Movement. On 20th February, 1947, PM Attlee announced that
the British would transfer power to India by June 1947. Independence of India became a reality but it
became a hard reality because of the partition of the country which accompanied it. India became
independent India on 15th August, 1947 but along with it came partition of the country and its pain
diminished the joy of freedom.
 Unit—V: Heritage of India

Main features of Indian Constitution

Every Constitution will reflect the ideas and ideals of the people who framed it. Although it is intended
to be a document of permanent value, it is bound to reflect also the conditions and circumstances of the
period in which it was framed. The Constitution of India is no exception to this, it embodies certain basic
principles. Let us, therefore, begin with a study of these principles which form the foundations of
democratic government of India. The Constitution of India is unique in many respects. Through it has
drawn upon the constitutional experience of many countries, yet it has a lot which makes it unique. The
important major features of the Indian Constitution can be discussed as under:
1. The Most Lengthy Written Constitution of the world: Of all the Constitutions of the world, the
Constitution of India is the most comprehensive written Constitution. The original Constitution contained
395 articles spread over 22 parts with 12 schedules. While as the US Constitution has only seven articles.
2. Partly Rigid and Partly Flexible Constitution: The Constitution of India is party rigid and partly
flexible. It is partly flexible because some of its articles can be amended through a simple majority in
each House of the Indian Parliament. Some other articles contained in article 368 of the Constitution can
be amended through a special majority in each House of the Parliament and the acceptance of one-half of
the States.
3. Parliamentary System: The Indian Constitution provides for a parliamentary system of
government. In parliamentary system, distinction is made between the Constitutional head and the real
executive. In India, the President is the Constitutional head. The real sensitive is the Council of Ministers
headed by the Prime Minister.
4. Secular State: Through the 42nd amendment of 1976, India has been declared a secular state.
Secularism, therefore, is another feature of the Indian Constitution, secularism means:
(a) Equal respect for all religions;
(b) Absence of discrimination on the basis of religion;
(c) Absence of state patronage of any particular religion;
(d) Religious freedom to all;
5. Socialist State: The 42nd amendment declares India to be a socialist state. This means that in India,
the ultimate goal is the establishment of the socialistic pattern of society.

Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution

Fundamental rights constitute an important part of our constitution. Part III refers to the chapter on
fundamental rights between articles 12 to 35. There are six fundamental rights available in our
constitution.
(1) Right to Equality: Right to equality implies (i) equality before the law; (ii) prohibition of
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth; (iii) equality of opportunity in
matters of employment; (iv) abolition of untouchables and its practice of any form; and abolition of the
practice of conferring titles except the military and academic distinction by the government.
(2) Right to Freedom: Right to freedom implies freedoms such as freedom of speech and expression,
of peaceable assembly and with out arms, of associations or unions, of moving freely throughout the
territory of India, of residing and settling in any part of territory of India of acquiring, holding and
despising property and of practicing and profession of carrying on any occupation trade of business. Such
freedoms can be exercised within the interest and security of the state, the sovereignty and integrity of
India, public order. Right to freedom also implies prohibition of excessive punishment, protection of life
and personal liberty and facilities to be given the detunes.
(3) Right Against Exploitation: Right against exploitation implies two things:
(i) Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
(ii) Prohibition of employment of the children below the age of 14 in factories or mines or in any
other hazardous employment
(4) Right to Freedom of Religion: Right to freedom of religion implies: (i) freedom conscience and
free profession, practice and propagation of religion, (ii) freedom to manage religious affairs (iii)
prohibition on paying taxes taken for the promotion of any particular religion, and (iv) freedom as to
attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions. This right can
be exercised within the framework of public order, morality and health.
(5) Cultural and Educational Rights: Culture and educational rights imply (i) protection of the
interests of minorities so that there distinct language script or culture; and (ii) right of minorities to
establish and administration educational institutional prohibiting the state not to discriminate against them
in granting aid.
(6) Right to Constitutional Remedies: Right to Constitutional remedies assure permanent residents
the guarantees of the fundamental right by providing that the Supreme Court has the power to issue writs.
The High court of the state also posses to power to issue writs such as Habeas corpus, Mandamus,
prohibition, Quo warranto and Certiorari.

Fundamental Duties
Fundamental Duties are very essential for the success of democratic set up and for providing economic
and social democracy. Equally important are the duties because rights can not exist in the absence of
duties. If the citizens of a state are not alert or conscious of their duties, nation cannot achieve progress.
Our Constitution didn’t contain the Fundamental Duties when it came into being. Fundamental Duties
were added later through 42nd Amendment Act of 1976. Part IV-A containing Article-51-A was added to
the Constitution and this provides for ten Fundamental Duties of the citizens.
Article 51-A says that “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:
(a) To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Anthem.
(b) To cherish and follow the noble ideas which inspired our National struggle for freedom.
(c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India,
(d) To defend the country and render national Service when called upon to do so;
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) To protect and improve the national environment including forest, lakes, river and wild life, and to
have compassion form living creatures;
(h) To develop the scientific temper, humanism and spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) To safeguard public property and to avoid violence;
(j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly strives to higher levels of endeavors and achievement.
(k) Who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be,
ward between the age of six and fourteen years. (Added by the 86th Amendment, Act, 2002.)
Center-State relations in India
The Constitution of India establishes a dual polity, the union at the centre and states at the periphery
each endowed with sovereign powers to be exercised in the field assigned to these respectively by the
constitution. Our Constitution is one of the very few that has gone into details regarding the relationship
between the Union and the States.
1. Legislative Relations (Articles 245-255)
From point of view of the territory over which the legislation can have effect, the jurisdiction of a State
Legislature is limited to the territory of that State. But in the case of Parliament, it has power to legislate
for the whole or any part of the territory of India i.e. States, Union Territories or any other areas included
for the time being in the territory of India. Parliament has the power of 'extraterritorial legislation' which
means that laws made by the Union Parliament will govern not only persons and property within the
territory of India, but also Indian subjects resident and their property situated anywhere in the world. Only
some provisions for scheduled areas, to some extent, limit the territorial jurisdiction of Parliament.

2. Administrative Relations (Articles 256-263)

The distribution of executive powers between the Union and the States follows, in general, the pattern of
distribution of the legislative powers. The executive power of a State is treated as coextensive with its
legislative powers, which means that the executive power of a State extends only to its territory and with
respect to those subjects over which it has legislative competence. The Constitution has devised
techniques of control over the States by the Union to ensure that the State governments do not interfere
with the legislative and executive of the Union.

3. Financial Relations (Article 264-281)

Both the Union Government and the States have been provided with independent sources of revenue by
the Constitution. Parliament can levy taxes on the subjects included in the Union List. The States can levy
taxes on the subjects in the State List. Ordinarily, there are no taxes on the subjects in the Concurrent List.
In the financial sphere too, the Centre is better equipped. The States are greatly dependent on the Centre
for finances. The Centre is much more powerful than the States and emergency provisions make it too
powerful to be subordinated by the States. Financial Relations Related to the Distribution of Revenues.
All feasible sources of taxation have been listed and allocated either to the Centre or to the States.

Awanti Verman
After the fall of Karkota dynasty in 855 A.D., Kashmir came under the rule of the Utpala Dynasty.
Avantivarman was the founder of Utpala dynasty who acceded to the throne of Kashmir in 855 AD. He
ruled from about 855-883 AD and was the most powerful and energetic ruler of the dynasty. He acceded
to the throne with the help of his step-brother Sura (Sheru). Avantivarman, a peace loving ruler
consolidated his empire. He devoted himself for improving the general condition of his subjects.
Avantivarman made Sheru his Prime Minister Suyya was his public works minister. During
Avantivarman's reign Kashmir was often hit by devastating floods due to overflow of Mahapadma lake
(now called Wular Lake). As such famines were a common phenomenon and prices of rice rose by 5 to 10
times. His able work's minister Suyya in order to check the floods got the rock bound gorge of Vitasta
near Baramullah cleared off and widened. He also constructed high embankments on either side of the
river to check the land slides. River beds were also cleared and deepened. The minister also got the
confluence of River Jhelum and Sindh nallah changed from village Watrigam in Lar Pargna to Shadipur
near Srinagar. The courses of many other rivers were also changed. All these measures helped to reclaim
large areas of fertile land. Avantivarman founded the town of Avantipura on the banks of Jhelum river
about 25 km from Srinagar. He also built many temples, ruins of which still exist. Suyya, the works
minister founded the town of Suyyapur on the banks of Vitasta below Wular lake. At present Suyyapur
is known as Sopur. Prime minister of Avantivarman, Sura (Sheru) rounded the town of Surapur
(modern Harpor) near Shopian. It was an extreme station for reaching Kashmir from Rajouri. The
king was a great patron of art and literature. Pandit Ratnagar a great historian and scholar lived
during his reign. Avantivarman died in June-883 AD near the shrine of Jayashtheswara at Triphar.
Avantivarman was succeeded by his son Shankaravaman. He led many expeditions in the south
and north of his Kingdom. His army consisted of nine lakh foot soldiers, one lakh horsemen and
three hundred elephants, Shankravarman founded the town of Shankar pur a about 25km from
Srinagar. He also built two temples here. The town came to be called as Shankra Pattan or present
day pattan. In the latter days of his rule the king turned to be notorious and started extorting money
from his subjects. For this purpose he organised a special office by the name of ‘Grahkrtya’. It was
during this period that ‘forced labours’ came into existence. Shankaravarman was killed during his
invasion of Hazara near Uri in 904 A.D. After Shankaravarman his queen Sugandha ascended the
throne. However she was soon deposed.

Lalita Datiya
The greatest king of Karkota dynasty was Lalitaditya Muktapid. He was the fifth ruler of the
Karkota dynasty in Kashmir. He ascended the throne in about 724 A.D. and ruled the kingdom for
36 years. He is undoubtedly the Samudra Gupta of Kashmir. He was filled with an unquenchable
thirst of world conquest. He invaded and conquered many countries in Asia. Lalitaditya was a great
conqueror and led many expeditions to expand his empire. His most important expedition was against the
king of Kanuaj. By occupying the Kingdom of Kanuj he became master of Punjab, Jalandhar and Kangra.
In north-east Lalitaditya marched upto Orrisa coast (Kalinga) and Bengal. In south he marched upto river
Kaveri and also conquered some islands. In the west he conquered upto Dwarka. In the north he extended
his influence upto Karakaram and occupied Dardistan as well. Ladakh was also occupied and victory over
it was celebrated every year on 2nd of Chitrao. Thus by his various expeditions Lalitaditya subjugated all
kings from south India upto central Asia or even beyond. Historians are of the view that the king lost his
life in one of his expeditions, some believe that the king perished in the snow in Afghanistan and some
are of the view that he committed suicide in order to escape from being captured by Tibetians. The
commander-in-Chief of Lalitaditya was Chankurya, who was a Buddhist. The extensive expeditions
and conquests by Lalitaditya made the kingdom of Kashmir the most powerful empire of India at that
time.
Besides a capable conqueror, Lalitaditya was a great patron of art and literature as well. Lalitaditya re-
organised and improved central administration by increasing the number of high officers. For the welfare
of his subjects the king got the river Jhelum desalted and bunds and embankmants constructed around low
lying areas, thus making them fit for agriculture. He also got constructed a number of water wheels to lift
the water of the river for irrigation.
Lalitaditya died in 760 AD and was followed by weak successors.

Zain-ul-Abideen (Budshah)
 Of all the sultans who sat on the throne of Kashmir, Zain-ul-Abideen was undoubtedly the greatest. He
was the eighth sultan of Kashmir, who ruled over the kingdom from 1420-1470 A.D. He is still called
Budshah (the great sultan) by the Kashmiris. Zain-ul-Abideen was endowed with many virtues. He lived a
pure and simple life. He had a charming and impressive personality. He was intelligent and possessed
great common sense. He was kind, affectionate, liberal and broad-mined. He abstained from intoxicants
and during the Ramzan he would and tolerant ruler, extending equal respect to all the religious of the
world. He offered prayers five times a day and kept fast in the month of Ramzan. He also venerated holy
saints and Faqirs.
It is a well established fact and reality that Zain-ul-Abideen was one of the most enlightened Muslim
kings of Kashmir. The fame of Zain-ul-Abideen rests mainly on his peaceful activities. His reign was an
era of glory and prosperity for the people of Kashmir. His reforms touched for the aspects of life of the
people – social, economic, political, religious and cultural.
Eradication of Corruption
When Zain-ul-Abideen ascended to the throne, corruption in the country was rampant. Zain-ul-Abideen
severely dealt with the dishonest officials and rooted out corruption. He employed spies to inform him
about the conduct of his officials of all ranks.
Judicial Reforms
During the preceding years, inefficient government and chaotic conditions had made the crimes of
theft, highway robbery, drunkenness and debauchery quite common among all the classes of the people.
The sultan put down every kind of crime ruthlessly. All the criminals were apprehended and put behind
the bars.
Economic Reforms
To check profiteering and arbitrary raising of princes of commodities by the merchants, Zain-ul-
Abideen introduced a system of prince control. He issued orders that the merchants should not hide their
commodities and should sell them at a small profit.
Development of Agriculture
Sultan Zain-ul-Abideen paid special attention to the promotion of agriculture which was the backbone
of the economy of the state.

Youssuf Shahi-Chak
Sultan Yusuf Shah was a romantic person. He was so much bewitched by the natural beauty of
Kashmir that he used to roam about freely in the ‘valley of God’ and flowery meadows before he
ascended the throne. He discovered the charms of Gulmarg and Sonmarg and transformed them into
holiday resorts.
When on the sudden death of his father in 1578, Yusuf Shah was called upon to perform the duties of a
king, he had no experience of running the affairs of the State. He found himself incapable of shouldering
the responsibilities of governing the country. He neglected his duties to his subjects and spent his time in
the company of musicians and dancing girls.
Within two months, after Yusuf Shah’s accession, the ambitious nobles got an opportunity to make a
conspiracy against him. Sayyid Mubarak Baihaqi, supported by Abdul Bhatt, rose in open revolt to
capture the throne. Yusuf Shah had to flee away from the Valley to Naushahr, leaving the throne vacant
for Sayyid Mubaraka Shah.
 Yusuf Shah occupied the throne of Kashmir second time in 1580 A.D. and ruled upto 1586 A.D. He
was succeeded by his son Yaqub Shah in 1586 A.D. It was during his rule that Mughal Emperor Akbar
finally annexed the kingdom of Kashmir in his own dominions.
When Yusuf Shah became the Sultan for the second time, he appointed Muhammad Bhatt as his Chief
Minister. Yusuf Shah, this time, showed some vigour in conducting the affairs of the state. He abolished
some unjust taxes such as Mirbahri (tax on boatsmen), Begar (forced labour) and Jazia. But he was not
destined to rule in peace for long. He was soon engaged in suppressing the internal revolts and fighting
the Mughal invaders.
Yusuf Shah had to fight against the ambitious and unprincipled nobles who rose in revolt against him.
In the beginning of his rule, three disgruntled nobles Haidar Chak, Habib Chak and Yusuf Khan obtained
help from the ruler of Ladakh and invaded Kashmir. But Yusuf Shah defeated the invaders and captured
Yusuf Khan and Habib Khan. But Haidar Chak managed to flee away to Kishtwar. Yusuf Chak's limbs
were cut off, while Habib Chak was blinded.

Mughal Invasion of Kashmir

Yusuf Shah, in his attempt to capture the throne second time, had received military aid from Akbar but
had later detached himself from the Mughal troops. He had raised a small force of Kashmiris and invaded
the kingdom. He had defeated Lohar Chak, captured and blinded him. Thereupon, Yusuf Shah had
regained the throne.
In December 1585, Akbar sent a strong force of 5000 horsemen under the command of Raja Bhagwan
Das against Kashmir from Attock via the Jehlum valley route. The Mughal forces met with partically no
resistance on the way as the Kashmiris had not expected the invaders to come from that direction. When
the news of the Mughal invasion of the Valley reached Srinagar, Sultan Yusuf Shah made only scanty
arrangements for the defence of his country. Prince Yaqub, who had managed to escape from the Mughal
Camp and reached Srinagar, implored Yusuf Shah to organise a stiff resistance to the Mughal invaders.
The ease-loving king, however, had realised the futility of fighting against the mighty forces of the
Mughal Emperor. But his Kashmiri nobles were adamant on resisting the Mughal invaders. When the
Mughal forces reached the entrance to the Valley, nature came to the rescue of the Kashmiris. When the
opposing forces met at the pass of Buliasa, about eighty kilometres away from Baramulla, heavy rains,
snow storms and scarcity of supplies took a heavy toll of the Mughal forces. Raja Bhagwan Das resolved
to open negotiations with the Kashmiris for the cessation of hostilities. He, however, sent a message to
Yusuf Shah that though he was in difficulty due to inclement weather, yet he would soon receive
reinforcements and again launch an invasion which they would find difficult to resist. He advised Yusuf
to safeguard his own interest by proceeding along with him to present himself before Emperor Akbar.
Yusuf Shah expressed his willingness to do so. But fearing the wrath of his own nobles, he kept his
intention secret till February 14, 1586 when he secretly slipped into the Mughal camp.
Yusuf Shah went, along with Bhagwan Das to Attock where the latter was to pay homage to Emperor
Akbar. Raja Bhagwan Das assured Yusuf Shah that the Emperor would bestow his kindest regards on him
and would ratify the treaty. Even though, his son had advised him not to take such a step, Yusuf Shah
went to Attock where he was presented before the Emperor by Bhagwan Das. The Emperor refused to
ratify the treaty and ordered Yusuf Shah to be imprisoned. The treacherous imprisonment of Yusuf Shah
is a dark blot on the character of the chivalrous Akbar. This was a clear violation of the agreement
according to which Yusuf Shah, after paying homage to Emperor Akbar, was to be set free arid sent back
to Kashmir. Raja Bhagwan Das considered it a slight on him and is said to have attempted to commit
suicide.
Yusuf Shah was made over to Raja Todar Mal. After two and a half years, on the intervention of Raja
Man Singh, Yusuf Shah was released and granted a mansab of 500 horses. But he was not allowed to go
back to Kashmir. Raja Man Singh took him along with himself to Bihar. But Yusuf Shah’s life was not
easy. He was greatly distressed by the scorching heat of Bihar. He also pined for his beloved wife, Habba
Khatun. Yusuf Shah died broken hearted in September 1592 and was buried at Biswak in the Patna
district.
Thus ended the life of one of the most cultured Sultans of Kashmir. He was fond of poetry, music and
dance. He liberally patronized scholars, poets and musicians. He was a tolerant ruler and abolished unjust
taxes levied by his predecessors on non-Muslims. In the beginning of his reign, Yusuf had shown vigour
and energy in reoccupying the throne and suppressing internal revolts. But subsequently he became
indolent and lost self-confidence. His nobles prompted him to make adequate preparations to check the
advance of the Mughals but he took no action. His indolence landed him into the Mughal captivity.

Haba Khatoon
The last of the Muslim queens to achieve renown was Haba Khatoon, the sweet-throated spouse
of King Yusuf Shah Chak who ruled Kashmir twice, first in 1578 A.D. for only a few months and,
a second time, from 1579 A.D. to 1587 A.D. Her reputation rests on her cultural attainments.
Unlike her predecessors in the Temple of Fame, Habba evinced no interest in the affairs of state,
raised no material monuments and constructed no public buildings. She was ignorant of politics
even though her homeland was shaken by many political upheavals which ended in enslavement of
the Kashmiris and ruin to herself. She was a poet and singing was her passion; she loved and lived
in a world of her own in which there was little room for riches and power.
Habba's original name was Zoon. Born of a poor peasant family in the village Chandahar, near
Pampore, she had grown into a charming rustic belle and became a cynosure of the eyes of
romantic young men all around. From her childhood she delighted in reciting the musical
compositions of the great poets of the valley. And while in her teens she surprised the peasant
women no less than the village elders by composing lyrics in Kashmiri language which were
faultless in technique as they were sound in imagery. Before long even those whose judgment
carried weight declared her to be a born poet. The complimentary observations encouraged the
parents to put Zoon in a school where she read a few books in Persian like Gulistan and Bostan. She
also studied the holy Quran. The exquisite poetry of Saadi sharpened her wits and generated in her
greater zest for singing and composing rhymes. But while she was making these brilliant
beginnings of a promising career the parents unhappily married her to a typical village bumpkih
who felt ashamed to know that his wife could compose lyrics and was admired by rural folk for
melodious singing. She was imperiously forbidden to indulge in these engagements of the vulgar
and dissolute. Her husband and his parents made no secret of their view that the daughter-in-law
should behave like other gentle and humble girls of respectable families in the countryside. But
Zoon's muse was irrepressible; her intellect illuminating, her personality scintillating and her
beauty sparkling.
The budding poetess needed free atmosphere to unfold her latent gifts but her husband's home
was ill suited for that purpose. While passing through a period of physical torture and acute
mental agony, she was, one day, outwardly collecting flowers in a saffron field but in reality
deeply absorbed in singing a musical note newly composed by herself. At the same time Prince
Yusuf Khan, heir-apparent to the throne of Kashmir, was passing nearby, probably out on a
hunting trip. The intensity of emotion expressed in the song and sweetness of the sound enthralled
the prince who was no mean lover of music and poetry. He insisted on meeting the charming
songstress and her first sight captivated his heart. Yusuf Khan was deep in love with Zoon and he
asseverated to make her his bride. It was not difficult peacefully to secure her divorce and the
poorly appareled peasant woman working in the fields soon adorned the royal palace as the
beloved princess of Yusuf Khan. Habba was hardly twenty years old when fortune smiled on her
in a twinkling of eye.
For the next fourteen years Habba enjoyed the amenities and benefits of royal life. Yusuf was a
kind hearted prince who took great pleasure in allowing his talented spouse to freely exercise the
hidden powers of her spirit. This was the happiest period of Habba's life in which she came into
her own and attained the lofty heights of her cultural ideals. With a husband-King to appreciate
her talent and beauty, and, with fullest freedom to do as she desired, Habba's originality fructified
and gave birth to those literary gems which have shone brighter with the passage of every century
after her days.
Habba Khatun composed scores of songs many of which are extant. She perfected the lol lyric
peculiar to Kashmir poetry. She was a musician who, by inventing the Rast Raga, made a new
addition to the known ragas of that time. The connoisseur of the days readily acknowledged her
gifts. Her fame as poetess and musician travelled far and wide.
But the felicity did not last till the end of Habba's life. Rainy days were in store for the artiste-
queen. After making some unsuccessful attempts, Akbar finally triumphed in 1586 A.D in annexing
Kashmir to the Mughal Empire. Poor Yusuf Khan was treacherously taken prisoner, deposed and
sent to Bihar as a provincial subedar. He implored the emperor for permission to return to his
country of birth but was curtly refused that concession.
Nevertheless, whatever the reason, the everlasting separation from the object of her affections
caused unendurable pain to innocent Habba; she became almost mad with grief. But the intensity of
ruffled emotions lent additional beauty to her poetry and charm to her songs. World and its
pleasures had lost all interest and attraction for her. She left the palace, abandoned her home and
wandered about endlessly through Kashmir, in its hills and dales, in riversides and lakes, in forests
and valleys, in villages and towns, singing of life and beauties of nature with one burden of her
songs.
Poor Habba was not conversant with politics and could hardly comprehend the change that had
come over Kashmir by its annexation to the Mughal Empire. She had only a faint idea of the
misfortune that had overtaken Yusuf Shah. The reasons that prevented her beloved husband to
return and meet her again were beyond the power of her understanding. What harm did it do
anyone, she thought, that two souls loved each other and wanted to be together. The closing days
of her life were full of sorrow and suffering. Some time she is reported to have spent in the valley
of Gurez where the people respected her. A local hill on which she was often seen singing her
melodious lyrics is still called Habbabal (Hill of Habba) in her name. But she was restless and
could not stay at one place. Distraction drove her from one corner to another in search of her lost
sweet-heart who was to be found nowhere. Disillusioned, frustrated and exhausted Habba finally
set up a small cottage on the spur of a mountain near Panta Chhuk. Here she passed her last
moments and here she lies buried in a humble grave, an eternally blooming flower of Kashmir
culture, the last queen of our independent homeland.

Lalla Ded
Lalla Arifa is seen as a blend of Hindu-Muslim amalgamation. The Hindus regard her the reincarnate
whereas the Muslims, a perfect mystic saint. The Hindus say that her name was Lal Ishwari born of the
Hindu parents and remained absorbed in meditation and praise of God. The Muslims hold that she was
averse to the Hindu religion, embraced the Islam at the behest of Syed Hussain Samnani, disliked the
Pundits and the Brahmins.
She is called by several names in Kashmir: Lal Vaid, Lalla-Ji, Lalla Ded or Lalla-Ishwari. In fact she
was the lamp of Kashmir who benefited all the communities, Hindus as well as Muslims. Both love and
respect her.
Lalla Arifa was lost in spiritual wonderment; walked about naked; fought against her self; and
renounced the world. Her teachings gave new lease of life to thousands of people. She was a blessed soul
and could move the hardhearted man. Lalla Arifa was a poetess and sang of spiritual and divine bliss.
Lalla Arifa was born in 1335 AD. To Shri Zaida Pundit or Zindia Bat, the landlord at a village Pander -
then, three miles from away form Srinagar. He was God fearing gentleman.
From the very beginning Lal Arifa was inclined to the matters spiritual in nature and engrossed in deep
thoughts and was not interested in worldly matters. Pundit Shri Kanth, a mystic and Yogi of High order
and the family teacher, realized the spiritual virtues in her and took over the responsibility to educate her
in the matter.
She was married at an early age to the illiterate son of the landlord of Pampore village. Apparently she
performed her household duties, but inwardly she was given to meditation and knowledge. This resulted
in the neglect of the house, which caused her mother-in-law, and husband complains. The mother-in-law
treated her badly; put pebbles in a plate and placed some cooked rice around them. Lalla Arifa ate the few
grains of rice and made no complaints. One day her Father-in-law came to know of it and he rebuked his
wife. This angered her further, said untrue things about her to her husband, and turned him against her.
He too treated her cruelly.
One day Lalla Arifa carried a pitcher full of water on her head. Her Husband arrived, and struck the
pitcher with his stick in anger. The pitcher broke but water remained in body. She came to the house,
filled in all the empty pots with water, and the remaining she threw outside into a forest from where ran a
spring of water. The episode made her famous and people came to see her in large numbers and disturbed
her. She then renounced her house and married life and engaged herself whole heartedly in prayers and
meditation. At all times she recited verses, in Kashmiri language, in low tones in praise of God.
To mention here the practice of Lalla shall not be out of place that in a state of extreme ecstasy and
wonderment that she roamed about the forest and human habitations naked. Once she was going through
a bazaar, she saw a saint, was terrified and exclaimed, “Here is a man, should cover myself.” She ran to a
baker's shop and jumped into the blazing oven. People raised a hue and cry that Lalla had been burnt. The
saint also came and asked her to come out. Lalla Arifa came out, dressed in, a long shirt with a beautiful,
coloured shawl on her shoulder.
It is also said that during the condition Hazrat Makhdoom Jalal-Uddin Jehanian Jehan Gard met her,
pacified her, and told her the good news that soon her teacher and guide, Hazrat Husain Samnani, would
arrive and relieve her of her restlessness and sufferings. Eventually came Hazrat Samnani and Lalla
Arifa, under his benign guidance, attained peace.
 Lalla Arifa said verses in the Kashmiri language on subjects of spiritualism and mysticism reaching the
common people with the message that color; castes, envy, prejudice, narrow-mindedness, and greed are
worthless. Real thing is search for the Truth. In brief, Lalla Arifa gave people of Kashmir the message of
fraternity and equality and served them irrespective of caste and creed.

Suggested Readings

1. Aggrawal, J.C. Teaching of History (A practical Approach), Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Choudhary. K.P.; Effective teaching of History in India, NCERT.
3. Ghate, V.D.; Suggestions for the teaching of History in India.
4. Ghose, K.D.; Creative teaching of History OUP
5. Hill, C.P.: Suggestions on the teaching of History.
6. Kochhar, S.K.: Teaching of History, Sterling Publishers Private Limited,New Delhi.
7. Verjeshwary, R.: Hand Book for History teacher in India.