Chapter 9 The Endocrine System • Typically, one or more of the following

occurs:
• Second controlling system of the body 1. Change plasma membrane
- Nervous system is the fast-control permeability or membrane potential
system by opening or closing ion channels
• Uses chemical messengers (hormones) 2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
that are released into the blood 3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
• Hormones control several major processes 4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a
- Reproduction product
- Growth and development 5. Turn on or turn off transcription of
- Mobilization of body defenses certain genes
- Maintenance of much of • Hormones act by two mechanisms
homeostasis 1. Direct gene activation
- Regulation of metabolism - Used by steroid hormones
• Hormones are produced by specialized and thyroid hormone
cells 2. Second-messenger system
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular - Used by protein and peptide
fluids hormones
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites • Direct gene activation
• These hormones regulate the activity of 1. Steroid hormone diffuses through
other cells the plasma membrane of target cells
• Endocrinology is the scientific study of 2. Once inside the cell, the hormone
hormones and endocrine organs enters the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a
The Chemistry of Hormones specific protein within the nucleus
• Hormones are classified chemically as: 4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to
- Amino acid–based, which includes: specific sites on the cell’s DNA
▪ Proteins 5. Certain genes are activated to
▪ Peptides transcribe messenger RNA
▪ Amines 6. New proteins are synthesized
- Steroids—made from cholesterol • Second-messenger system
- Prostaglandins—made from highly 1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to
active lipids that act as local a receptor protein on the plasma
hormones membrane
Hormone Action 2. Activated receptor sets off a series
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or of reactions that activates an
organs (target cells or target organs) enzyme
• Target cells must have specific protein 3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that
receptors produces a second-messenger
• Hormone binding alters cellular activity molecule (such as cyclic AMP, as
• Hormones arouse cells or alter cellular cAMP)
activity
 4. Second messenger molecule ▪Insulin is produced in
oversees additional intracellular response to changing levels
changes to promote a specific of blood glucose levels
response in the target cell • Neural stimuli
- Nerve fibers stimulate hormone
Stimuli for Control of Hormone release
- Most are under the control of the
Release
sympathetic nervous system
• Hormone levels in the blood are
Examples:
maintained mostly by negative feedback
- Sympathetic stimulation of
mechanisms
the adrenal medulla to
- A stimulus or low hormone levels in
release epinephrine and
the blood trigger the release of more
norepinephrine
hormone
- Hormone release stops once an The Major Endocrine Organs
appropriate level in the blood is ● Hypothalamus
reached ● Pituitary gland
• The stimuli that activate endocrine glands ● Pineal gland
fall into three ● Thyroid gland
major categories ● Parathyroid glands
1. Hormonal ● Thymus
2. Humoral ● Adrenal glands
3. Neura ● Pancreas
• Hormonal stimuli ● Gonads (testes and ovaries)
- Most common category of stimulus • Some hormone-producing glands have
- Endocrine organs are activated by purely endocrine functions
other hormones - Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
Example: parathyroids
- Hormones of the • Other hormone-producing glands are
hypothalamus stimulate the mixed glands, with both endocrine and
anterior pituitary to secrete exocrine functions (pancreas, gonads)
its hormones • Endocrine glands are ductless glands
• Humoral stimuli - Hormones are released directly into
- Changing blood levels of certain ions blood or lymph
and nutrients stimulate hormone Pituitary Gland and
release Hypothalamus
▪ Humoral indicates various • Pituitary gland
body fluids, such as blood - Pea-sized gland that hangs by a
and bile stalk from the hypothalamus in the
Examples: brain
▪ Parathyroid hormone and - Protected by the sella turcica of the
calcitonin are produced in sphenoid bone
response to changing levels - Has two functional lobes
of blood calcium levels
 ▪ Anterior pituitary—glandular - In large amounts, ADH causes
tissue constriction of arterioles, leading to
▪ Posterior pituitary—nervous increased blood pressure (the
tissue reason why ADH is known as
- Often called the “master endocrine vasopressin)
gland” because it controls activities - Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion
of so many other endocrine glands
- • Six anterior pituitary hormones
• Hypothalamus produces releasing - Two hormones affect nonendocrine
hormones and inhibiting hormones targets
- These hormones are released into 1. Growth hormone
portal circulation, which connects 2. 2. Prolactin
hypothalamus to anterior pituitary - Four are tropic hormones (tropic
- These hormones control the release hormone stimulate other endocrine
of anterior pituitary hormones glands to release hormones)
• Hypothalamus also makes two hormones: 1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone 2. Luteinizing hormone
- Carried to posterior pituitary via 3. thyrotropic hormone
neurosecretory cells for storage 4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- released in response to nerve • All anterior pituitary hormones:
impulses from hypothalamus - Are proteins (or peptides)
• Posterior pituitary - Act through second-messenger
- Does not make the hormones it systems
releases - Are regulated by hormonal stimuli
- Stores hormones made by the - Are regulated mostly by negative
hypothalamus feedback
• Two hormones released • Growth hormone (GH)
- Oxytocin - General metabolic hormone
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Major effects are directed to growth
of skeletal muscles and long bones
Oxytocin - Plays a role in determining final body
- Only released in significant amounts size
during childbirth and nursing - Causes amino acids to be built into
- Stimulates contractions of the uterus proteins
during labor, sexual relations, and - Causes fats to be broken down for a
breastfeeding source of energy
- Causes milk ejection (let-down • Prolactin (PRL)
reflex) in a nursing woman - Stimulates and maintains milk
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) production following childbirth
- Inhibits urine production (diuresis) - Function in males is unknown
by promoting water reabsorption by • Gonadotropic hormones
the kidneys - Regulate hormonal activity of the
- Urine volume decreases, blood gonads
volume and pressure increase
▪ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Controls rate of oxidation of glucose
- Stimulates follicle development in to supply body heat and chemical
ovaries energy (ATP)
- Stimulates sperm development in - Needed for tissue growth and
testes development
▪ Luteinizing hormone (LH) - Composed of two active
- triggers ovulation of an egg in iodine-containing hormones
females ▪ Thyroxine (T4) —secreted
- Stimulates testosterone production by thyroid follicles
in males ▪ Triiodothyronine (T3 )
• Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called —formed from the
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) conversion of T4 at target
- Influences growth and activity of the tissues
thyroid gland • Calcitonin
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - Decreases blood calcium levels by
- Regulates endocrine activity of the causing calcium deposition on bone
adrenal cortex - Released in response to rising blood
calcium levels
Pineal Gland - Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
• Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of - Produced by parafollicular cells
the brain found between the follicles
• Secretes melatonin • Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
- Believed to trigger the body’s gland
sleep/wake cycle • Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Believed to coordinate the hormones - Most important regulator of calcium
of fertility in humans and to inhibit ion 2 (Ca ) homeostasis of the blood
the reproductive system until - Hypercalcemic hormone (increases
maturity occurs blood calcium levels)
▪ Stimulates osteoclasts to
remove calcium from bone
Thyroid Gland ▪ Stimulates the kidneys and
• Found at the base of the throat, inferior to intestine to absorb more
the Adam’s apple calcium
• Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
Thymus
• Follicles are hollow structures that store • Located in the upper thorax, posterior to
colloidal material the sternum
- Thyroid hormone is derived from this • Largest in infants and children
colloid • Decreases in size throughout adulthood
• Produces two hormones • Produces a hormone called thymosin
1. Thyroid hormone - Matures some types of white blood
2. Calcitonin cells
• Thyroid hormone - Important in developing the immune
- Major metabolic hormone system
Adrenal Glands blood glucose levels (hyperglycemic
• Sit on top of the kidneys hormones
• Two regions ▪ Anti-inflammatory properties
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular (decrease edema and pain)
region has three layers that produce ▪ Released in response to increased
corticosteroids blood levels of ACTH
▪ Mineralocorticoids are • Hormones of the adrenal cortex
secreted by outermost layer ▪ – Sex hormones
Glucocorticoids are secreted ▪ Produced in the inner layer of the
by middle layer adrenal cortex
▪ Sex hormones are ▪ Small amounts are made
secreted by innermost layer throughout life
2. Adrenal medulla—inner neural ▪ Most of the hormones produced
tissue region are androgens (male sex
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex hormones), but some estrogens
–Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) (female sex hormones) are also
▪ Produced in outer adrenal cortex formed
▪ Regulate mineral (salt) content in • Adrenal medulla
blood, particularly sodium and – Produces two similar hormones
potassium ions (catecholamines)
▪ Regulate water and electrolyte 1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
balance 2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
▪Target organ is the kidney – These hormones prepare the body to deal
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex with short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
– Release of aldosterone is stimulated by: ▪Increasing heart rate, blood
▪Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions pressure, blood glucose levels
or too many potassium ions in the ▪ Dilating small passageways of
blood) lungs
▪ Hormonal stimulation (ACTH) – These events result in more oxygen and
▪ Renin and angiotensin II in glucose in the blood and faster circulation to
response to a drop in blood pressure the organs
– Aldosterone production is inhibited by
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone Pancreatic Islets
produced by the heart when blood pressure • Pancreas
is too high – Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
– Mixed gland, with both endocrine and
• Hormones of the adrenal cortex exocrine functions
– Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and • The pancreatic islets (islets of
cortisol) Langerhans) produce hormones
▪ Produced by middle layer of – Insulin—produced by beta cells
adrenal cortex – Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
▪ Promote normal cell metabolism – These hormones are antagonists that
▪ Help resist long-term stressors by maintain blood sugar homeostasis
increasing
• Insulin • Testes
- Released when blood glucose levels – Produce several androgens
are high – Testosterone is the most important
- Increases the rate of glucose uptake androgen
and metabolism by body cells ▪Responsible for adult male
- Effects are hypoglycemic secondary sex characteristics
• Glucagon ▪ Promotes growth and maturation of
- Released when blood glucose levels male reproductive system
are low ▪ Required for sperm cell production
- Stimulates the liver to release
glucose to blood, thus increasing Other Hormone-Producing
blood glucose levels
- Effects are hyperglycemic
Tissues and Organs
• Other organs that are generally
nonendocrine in function also secrete
Gonads hormones
• Gonads - Stomach
– Produce sex cells (exocrine function) - Small intestine
– Produce sex hormones - Kidneys
• Ovaries - Heart
– Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity • Placenta
– Produce ova, or eggs – Produces hormones that maintain
– Produce two groups of steroid hormones pregnancy
1. Estrogens – Some hormones play a part in the delivery
2. Progesterone of the baby
• Testes – Produces human chorionic gonadotropin
– Male gonads suspended outside the (hCG) in addition to estrogen, progesterone,
pelvic cavity and other hormones
– Produce sperm – Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares
– Produce androgens, such as testosterone the breasts for lactation
• Estrogens – Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and
– Stimulate the development of secondary pubic symphysis for childbirth
female characteristics
– Mature the female reproductive organs
• With progesterone, estrogens also:
Developmental Aspects of the
– Promote breast development Endocrine System
– Regulate menstrual cycle • In the absence of disease, efficiency of the
• Progesterone endocrine system remains high until old age
– Acts with estrogen to bring about the • Decreasing function of female ovaries at
menstrual cycle menopause leads to such symptoms as
– Helps in the implantation of an embryo in osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
the uterus disease, and possible mood changes
– Helps prepare breasts for lactation
• Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually
decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:
- Diabetes mellitus
- immune system depression
- Lower metabolic rate
- Cancer rates in some areas