Vidyanagar, Hubballi-31 Contact: 9 5 9 1 6 0 8 9 0 0

UNIT 12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY- SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES &

TECHNIQUES
The ability of an element to combine with itself forming the long chain molecules is called Catenation.
Example: Carbon.

Every carbon can form 4 bonds. This combining capacity of C is called Valency ie C is Tetravalent.

3 dimensional representation
of organic molecules

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Structural representations of Organic compounds
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 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

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Classification of organic compounds
ACYCLIC or OPEN CHAIN COMPOUNDS
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These are straight or branched chain compounds. These are also called aliphatic compounds.
Example:
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ALICYCLIC or CLOSED CHAIN or RING COMPOUNDS

Alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds contain C atoms joined in the form of ring (homocyclic)
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Eg:
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AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Aromatic compounds are special kind of compounds which contain benzene like (Benzenoid) or non-
benzene like (non-benzenoid) compounds. ”Aroma” means fragrance in Greek.
Eg:

HETEROCYCLICAROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Heterocyclic aromatic compounds are those which
contain other than C in aromatic like compounds.
Eg:

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HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A group or series of compounds containing same functional group and differing by –CH2– group called
Homologous series.
These are represented by General formula. These are prepared by similar method of preparation.
Eg: Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, alcohols, ethers etc

FUNCTIONAL GROUP
The reactive part of an organic molecule is called
Functional group.
Atoms or group of atoms joined in a
specific manner which is responsible for chemical
properties of organic molecules.

NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

There are 2 systems of naming:
1. Common / Trivial naming
2. IUPAC naming

1. Common / Trivial naming system

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It is based on origin or certain properties of compound.
Eg: (1) HCOOH Formic acid comes from Latinword
“Formica”meaning “Red ants”
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(2) Citric acid because it is found in “citrusfruits”
(3) CH3COOH Acetic acid comes from Latinword “Acetum”meaning “Vinegaror sour”
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When the number of organic molecules increased, n (normal), iso& neo-prefixes were used.
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2 . IUPAC naming system - Based on IUPAC rules

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IUPAC= International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

Word root: Denotes the number of Carbon atoms present in the principal chain which is the
longest possible chain of carbon atoms.
According to chain length root word are given below:
Chain Length Word root Chain Length Word Root
C1 Meth C7 Hept(a)
C2 Eth C8 Oct(a)
C3 Prop C9 Non(a)
C4 But(a) C10 Dec(a)
C5 Pent(a) C11 Undec(a)
C6 Hex(a) C12 Dodec(a)

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a) Primary suffix–A primary suffix indicates the type of linkage in the carbon atoms.
ane: primary suffix for C –C bond
ene: primary suffix for C = C bond
yne: primary suffix for C ≡C bond

(b) Secondary suffix it denotes functional group

Functional group Symbol Suffix
Alcohol –OH –ol
Amine –NH2 –amine
Aldehyde ̶ CHO –al
Ketone >C=O –one
Carboxylic acid –COOH –oic acid
Ester R–COOR –oate
Cyanide –C ≡N –nitrile

(a) Primary prefix Ring molecules have Prefix cyclo

(b) Secondary prefix Groups given below does not have any Suffix they have Prefix

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Functional group Symbol Prefix
Ether –OR Alkoxy–
Nitro
Halogen
–NO2
–X
̶F
̶ Cl
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Halo–
Fluoro–
Chloro–
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̶ Br Bromo–
̶I Iodo–
Alkyl –R Alkyl–
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RULES
(1) Longest (carbon) chain rule
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Longest carbon chain in the molecule is identified.

It is considered as Parent or Root chain.
This gives word root.
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(2) Lowest number to side chain or substituent

The numbering is done in such a way that the
branched carbon atoms get the lowest possible
numbers.

(3) Side chain or substituents are listed alphabetically

(4) If same type of side chains or substituents present prefixes like di, tri, tetra, penta etc added

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(5) If side chains or substituents are present at equivalent position number is given alphabetically

(6) Lowest number to functional group

The numbering is done in such a way that the
functional groups get the lowest possible numbers.
3-Methylbutan-1-ol

IUPAC naming system – Polyfunctional naming

Prefixes for Polyfunctionalnaming
-OH Hydroxy-
-CN Cyano-
-CHO Formy-or Oxo-
-COOH Carboxy-
-NH2 Amino-

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-CO -Keto-or Oxo-

Order of Priority in Polyfunctional naming

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Carboxylic acid > ester > acid chloride > amide > nitrile > isocyanide>aldehyde > ketone > alcohol >
amine > = > ≡ > ether > Other substituents ( halogen > nitro > alkyl )
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Examples: BrCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2I
1-Bromo-5-iodopentane
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ISOMERISM
Compounds havingsame molecular formula but different physical and chemical properties called
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Isomers. The phenomenon is called Isomerism.

STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
1. Chain isomerism
When two or more compounds have similar molecular formula but different carbon chains, these are
referred to as chain isomersand the phenomenon is termed as chain isomerism. For example, C5H12.

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2. Position isomerism
When two or more compounds have similar molecular formula but different position of functional group,
these are referred to as position isomers and the phenomenon is termed as position isomerism. For
example, C3H8O.

3. Functional isomerism / Functional group isomerism

When two or more compounds have similar molecular formula but different of functional group, these
are referred to as functional isomersand the phenomenon is termed as functional isomerism. For
example, C3H6O.

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4. Metamerism: It arises due to different alkyl chains on either side of the functional group in the
molecule. For example, C4H10O.
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FISSION of COVALENT BOND

There are 2 types
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1. Heterolytic fission/ breaking 2. Homolytic fission/ breaking

1. Heterolytic fission/ breaking
When a covalent bond breaks unsymmetrically called Heterolytic fission.
In this type of breaking one of the fragment gets both the shared electrons.

Cation Anion
Order of STABILITY of CARBOCATIONS

If C has positive charge called “CARBOCATION” If C has negative charge called “CARBANION”
2. Homolytic fission/ breaking
When a covalent bond breaks symmetrically called
Homolytic fission.
In this type of breaking both the fragments get one
shared electron.

Order of STABILITY of FREE RADICALS

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The substance which is positively charged ion or a molecule which is deficient of electrons is called
Electrophile. Example: all cations (H+, K+ etc), molecules like AlCl3, BCl3 etc.
Electro phile = electron liking (E+)
The substance which is negatively charged ion or a molecule which is rich of electrons is called
Nucleophile. Example: all anions (OH-, CN-, Br- etc), molecules containing lone pair of electrons like
NH3, H2O.
Nucleo phile = nucleus liking (Nu-)

ELECTRON DISPLACEMENT EFFECTS in covalent bonds

1. Inductive effect (I effect) is defined as the permanent displacement of electrons in a covalent
bond towards the more electronegative element or group.
Eg: n-butyl chloride inductive effect may be represented as below.

Negative Inductive effect (-I effect)

Any atom or group, if attracts electrons more strongly than hydrogen, it is said to have a -I effect
(electron-attracting or electron-withdrawing)

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Eg: NO2, Cl, Br, I, F, COOH OCH3, etc.

Positive Inductive effect (+I effect)

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Any atom or group, if attracts electrons less strongly than hydrogen it is said to have +I effect (electron
repelling or electron-releasing)
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Eg: CH3, C2H5, Me2CH and Me3C groups.

2. Mesomeric effect (M effect) or Resonance effect (R effect)is defined as the permanent effect in
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which pi electrons are transferred from a multiple bond to an atom, or from a multiple bond to a
single covalent bond or lone pair(s) of pi-electrons from an atom to the adjacent single covalent
bond.
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This is observed in conjugated pi (𝜋) system. C = C –C = C –C = C

Negative Mesomeric effect (-M effect) or Negative Resonance effect (-R effect)
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This effect is observed when the transfer of electrons is towards the atom or substituent group attached to
the conjugated system. Example: Nitrobenzene.

Other groups with -M or -R effect are -COOH, -CHO, >C=O, -CN, -NO2 etc.

Positive Mesomeric effect (+M effect) or Positive Resonance effect (+R effect)
This effect is observed when the transfer of electrons is away from the atom or substituent group attached
to the conjugated system. Example: Aniline.

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Other groups with +M or +R effect are -OH, -NH2, -CH3, -C2H5, -OCH3 etc.

3. Electromeric Effect:
Electromeric effect (E effect) is defined as the complete transfer of shared pair of π-electrons tone of
the atoms joined by multiple bond on the demand of an attacking reagent.
The effect is annulled as soon as the attacking reagent is removed from the reaction.
It is represented by E.

Positive Electronic effect (+E effect)

In positive electromeric effect (+E effect) the π-electrons of the multiple bond are transferred to that atom
to which the reagent gets attached

For example:

Negative Electronic effect ( ̶ E effect)

In negative electromeric effect ( ̶ Effect ) the π-electrons of the multiple bond are transferred from that
atom to which gets attached.

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For example:

4. Hyperconjugation(No bond resonance)

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Hyperconjugation is delocalisation of σ-electrons of C –H bond of an alkyl group directly attached to an
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atom of unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared p orbital.
Example: Ethyl carbocation CH3 - +CH2
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Differences between Inductive effect and Mesomeric effect

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Inductive effect Mesomeric effect

1) It operates in saturated compound 1) It operates in conjugated double bond System
2) It involves displacement of sigma electrons 2) It involves displacement of pi electrons
3) It lasts only for a short distance 3) It last over long distance
4) Partial charges are developed 4) Complete +ve & -ve charges are developed

Differences between Inductive effect and Electromeric effect

Inductive effect Electromeric effect

1) It Involves partial displacement of sigma electrons 1) Involves complete transfer of pi electrons
2) Permanent effect 2) Temporary effect
3) Presence of attacking reagent is not required 3) Attacking reagent is required
4) Partial charges are developed on atoms 4) Complete charge separation takes place

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TYPES of ORGANIC REACTIONS
1. Substitution reactions 2. Addition reactions
3. Elimination reactions 4. Rearrangement reactions

METHODS of PURIFICATION of ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The common techniques used for the purification are as follows:
i. Substitution
ii. Crystallisation
iii. Distillation
iv. Differential extraction and
v. Chromatograpy

1. SUBLIMATION:
Some solid substances change from solid to vapour state without passing through liquid state.
The purification techniques based on the above principle is known as sublimation and is used to
separate sublimable compounds from non-sublimable impurities.
2. CRYSTALLISATION:
This is one the most commonly used techniques for the purification of solid organic compounds.

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It is based on the difference in the solubilities of the compound and the impurities in a suitable

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solvent. The impure compound is dissolved in a solvent in which it is sparingly soluble at room
temperature but appreciably soluble at higher temperature.
The solution is concentrated to get a nearly saturated solution. On cooling the solution, pure,
compound crystallizes out and is removed by filtration. The filtrate (Mother liquor) contains
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impurities and small quantity of the compound.
3. DISTILLATION
This important method is used to separate (i) volatile liquids from non-volatile impurities and
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(ii) the liquids having sufficient difference in their boiling points.

Liquids having different boiling points vaporise at different temperatures. The vapours are cooled
and the liquids so formed are collected separately.
Chloroform (b.p334 K) and aniline (b.p. 457 K) are easily separated by the technique of distillation.
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SIMPLE DISTILLATION- Used for components which have large difference in their boiling points
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 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION- Used for components which have less difference in their boiling
points

REDUCED PRESSURE DISTILLATION

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STEAM DISTILLATION

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4. DIFFERENTIAL EXTRACTION
When an organic compound is present in an aqueous medium, it is separated by shaking it with an
organic solvent in which it is more soluble than in water.
The organic solvent and the aqueous solution should be immiscible with each other so that they form two
distinct layers which can be separated by separatory funnel.
The organic solvent is later removed by distillation or by evaporation to get back the compound.
5. CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is an important technique extensively used to separate mixtures into their components,
purify compounds and also to test the purity of compounds. The name chromatography is based on the
Greek word “chroma”, for colour since the method was first used for the separation of coloured
substances found in plants.
In this technique, the mixture of substances is applied onto a stationary phase, which may be a solid or a
liquid. A pure solvent, a mixture of solvents, or a gas is allowed to move slowly over the stationary
phase. The components of the mixture get gradually separated from one another. The moving phase is
called the mobile phase.

(a)Adsorption chromatography–based on adsorption between stationary and mobile phases

(b) Partition chromatography –based on continuous differential partitioning of components of a

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mixture between stationary and mobile phases

COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
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Column chromatography involves separation of a mixture over a
column of adsorbent (stationary phase) packed in a glass tube.
An appropriate eluant which is a liquid or a mixture of liquids is
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allowed to flow down the column slowly. Depending upon the
degree to which the compounds are adsorbed, complete separation
takes place.
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TLC CHROMATOGRAPHY
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is another type of adsorption
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chromatography, which involves separation of substances of a

mixture over a thin layer of an adsorbent coated on glass plate. The glass plate is then placed in a closed
jar containing the eluant. As the eluant rises up the plate, the components of the mixture move up along
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with the eluant to different distances depending on their degree of adsorption and separation takes place.
The relative adsorption of each component of the mixture is
expressed in terms of its retardation factor i.e. Rf value.

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper chromatography is a type of partition chromatography.
In paper chromatography, a special quality paper known as
chromatography paper is used. Chromatography paper contains
water trapped in it, which acts as the stationary phase.
A strip of chromatography paper spotted at the base with the
solution of the mixture is suspended in a suitable solvent or a
mixture of solvents. This solvent acts as the mobile phase. The solvent rises up the paper by capillary
action and flows over the spot. The paper selectively retains different components according to their
differing partition in the two phases.

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 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS of ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. Detection of C & H: Compound is heated with CuO it gives CO2& H2O.

CO2is tested using lime water. Lime water turns milky. Confirms presence of C.

H2O is tested using anhy.CuSO4. CuSO4 soln. turns blue. Confirms presence of H.

2. Detectionof other elements by“Lassaigne’stest”

Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus present in an organic compound are detected by
“Lassaigne’stest”. The elements presentin the compound are converted from covalent form into
the ionic form by fusing the compound with sodium metal. Following reactions take place:

C, N, S and X come from organic compound.

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This extract is known as sodium fusion extract.

a. Test for N
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Sodium fusion extract is treated with FeSO4 then by conc. H2SO4. Heat, Prussian blue colour
(Ferriferrocyanide) is obtained. This confirms N.
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b. Test for S
i. Sodium fusion extract is treated with acetic acid followed by lead acetate black ppt. (PbS) is obtained.
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This confirms S.

ii. Sodium fusion extract is treated with sodium nitroprusside violet colour is obtained. This confirms S.
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iii. In case, nitrogen and sulphur both are present in an organic compound, sodium thiocyanate is
formed. It gives blood red colour and no Prussian blue since there are no free cyanide ions. This
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confirms N & S.

c. Test for halogens, X ( X = Cl, Br, I )

The sodium fusion extract is acidified with nitric acid and then treated with silver nitrate.
A white precipitate, soluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of Cl,
A yellowish precipitate, sparingly soluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of Br
A yellow precipitate, insoluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of I.

d. Test for P
The phosphorus present in the compound is oxidised
to phosphate. The solution is boiled with nitric acid and
then treated with ammonium molybdate. A yellow
colouration or precipitate indicates the presence of
phosphorus.

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 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS of ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. Carbon & Hydrogen: Both carbon & hydrogen are estimated in one experiment.
The given sample is weighed (m) and then burnt in air in the presence of CuO. C & H present in the
sample are converted into CO2& H2O respectively.
The mass of CO2 & H2O are weighed as follows:
Water vapours are absorbed in the weighed U-tube containing anhy. CaCl2= m1
CO2are absorbed in the weighed U-tube containing KOH solution = m2

2. Nitrogen ( Duma’s method & Kjeldahl’s method )

Duma’s method
Nitrogen present in the sample (m g) is heated with CuO,
converted into N2 in the CO2 atmosphere. Mixture of gases
formed are collected over aq. KOH solution. CO2 is

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absorbed and N2 is collected in upper graduated tube.

Calculations:
Mass of organic sample = m g
Volume of N2 collected = V1 mL
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Room temperature = T1 K
Pressure of dry N2 = P1 = Pressure of N2 – aqueous tension
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Volume of N2 at STP = (P1V1/T1) x (T0/V0)

= (P1V1/T1) x (273/760) = V mL
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22400 mL of N2 at STP 28 g of N2
V mL of N2 at STP x
x = (28 x V/22400) g = mass of N
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mass of N 28 x V
%N= x 100 = x 100
mass of organic sample 22400 x m

Kjeldahl’s method
Nitrogen present in the sample (m g) is heated with conc. H2SO4 in Kjeldahl’s flask. The reaction gives
ammonium sulphate.
Now ammonium sulphate is heated with NaOH in RBF gives NH3 gas. Kjeldahl’s trap is used so
that only NH3 gas passes into condenser.
NH3 gas is measured by dissolving in measured H2SO4.
The amount of NH3 produced is determined by the amount of H2SO4 consumed in the reaction. It is
done by estimating unreacted H2SO4 left after the absorption of NH3 by titrating it
with standard alkali solution. The difference between the initial amount of acid taken and that left after
the reaction gives the amount of acid reacted with ammonia.

Organic sample + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O

2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

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Calculations:
Mass of organic sample = m g
Molarity for H2SO4, NaOH and NH3 = M
Initial volume of H2SO4 taken = V mL

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Volume of NaOH used (titrated against left over H2SO4) = V1 mL
Volume of left over H2SO4 = V1/2 mL

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Volume of H2SO4 reacted with NH3 = Initial volume of H2SO4 taken – Volume of left over H2SO4
= (V – V1/2) mL
Volume of NH3 reacted = 2(V – V1/2) mL
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1000 mL of NH3 solution 14 g of N
2(V – V1/2) mL of NH3 solution x
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x = [14 x M x 2(V – V1/2)/1000] g = mass of N

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mass of N 14 x M x 2(V − )
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%N= x 100 = x 100
mass of organic sample 1000 x m
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3. Halogen X (Carius method)

A known mass of an organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid in the presence of silver nitrate
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contained in a hard glass tube known as Carius tube, in a furnace. Carbon and hydrogen present in the
compound are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. The halogen present forms the corresponding silver
halide (AgX). It is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.
Mass of organic sample = m g
Mass of AgX formed = m1 g
1 mol AgX 1 mol of X
atomic mass of X x m1
Mass of X =
Molecular mass of AgX

atomic mass of X x m1
%X= x 100
Molecular mass of AgX x m

4. Sulphur (same like Carius method)

A known mass of an organic compound is heated in Carius tube with fuming nitric acid. Sulphur present
in the compound is oxidised to sulphuric acid. It is precipitated as barium sulphate by adding excess of
barium chloride solution in water. The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and weighed. The percentage
of sulphur can be calculated from the mass of barium sulphate.

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 Mass of organic sample = m g
Mass of BaSO4 formed = m1 g
1 mol BaSO4 1 mol of S

atomic mass of S x m1
Mass of S =
Molecular mass of BaSO4
atomic mass of S x m1 Molecular
%S= x 100
mass of BaSO4 x m

5. Phosphorus
A known mass of an organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid. Phosphorus present in the
compound is oxidised to phosphoric acid. It is precipitated as ammonium phosphomolybdate by adding
ammonia & ammonium molybdate.
Let the mass of organic compound taken = m g
Mass of ammonium phosphomolybdate formed = m1 g
Molar mass of ammonium phosphomolybdate formed = 1877g
31 x m1
%P= x 100

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1877 x m

1. Quantitative Analysis
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Assignments

(i) Explain Liebig’s Test. Or Estimate carbon & hydrogen quantitatively in organic sample. 2M or 3M
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(ii) Estimate nitrogen using Duma’s method. 3M or 5M
(iii) Estimate nitrogen using Kjeldahl’s method. 3M or 5M
(iv) Estimate halogen quantitatively using Carius method. 3M
(v) Estimate sulphur quantitatively using Carius like method. 3M
(vi) How is phosphorous estimated quantitatively. 3M
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2. Qualitative Analysis
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(i) How is carbon & hydrogen qualitatively analysed? 2M

(ii) Explain Lassaigne’s test (sodium fusion extract test) for Nitrogen. 2M
(iii) Explain Lassaigne’s test (sodium fusion extract test) for Sulphur. 2M
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(iv) Explain Lassaigne’s test (sodium fusion extract test) for Halogen. 2M
(v) Explain Lassaigne’s test (sodium fusion extract test) for Phosphorous. 2M
3. Define Inductive effect. 1M
4. Define Electromeric effect. 1M
5. Define Mesomeric effect or Resonance effect. 1M
6. Define Hyperconjugation. 1M
7. Differentiate between Inductive effect and Electromeric effect. 2M
8. Differentiate between Inductive effect and Mesomeric effect or Resonance effect. 2M
9. Write a short note on Inductive effect. 2M
10. Write a short note on Electromeric effect. 2M
11. Write a short note on Mesomeric effect or Resonance effect. 2M
12. Explain Hyperconjugation of Ethyl carbocation. 2M
13. What is Isomerism? 1M
14. Define Chain isomerism. 1M or 2M
15. Define Position isomerism. 1M or 2M
16. Define Functional isomerism. 1M or 2M
17. Define Metamerism. 1M or 2M
18. What is Heterolytic fission? Give an example. 2M

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 19. What is Homolytic fission? Give an example. 2M
20. What is Electrophile? Give an example. 2M
21. What is Nucleophile? Give an example. 2M
22. What is Homologous series? Give an example. 2M
23. Write the characteristics of Homologous series. 2M
24. Define Functional group. 1M
25. Write an example of Functional group. 1M
26. Expand IUPAC. 1M
27. Write the IUPAC of acetic acid, acetone, methyl alcohol, CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CHO etc. 1M
28. What was the need to classify Organic Compounds? 2M
29. What are Acyclic or Open Chain compounds? Give an example. 2M
30. What are Alicyclic or Closed or Ring compounds? Give an example. 2M
31. What are Aromatic compounds? Write the types. Give an example for each. 3M
32. What are Benzenoids? Give an example. 2M
33. What are Non-benzenoids? Give an example. 2M
34. What are Heterocyclic compounds? Give an example. 2M
35. Define or Write the principle of Sublimation, Crystallization, Differential Crystallization,
Chromatography, Distillation: Simple, Fractional, Reduced Pressure, Steam. 1M

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Exercise
Questions carrying ONE marks:

b) CH3CN c) CH2=CHCl Si
1. What is the type of hybridization of each carbon in the following.
a) CH3CHO d) CH3C≡CN
2. Give the bond line format of the compound 2-methyl-1-pentene
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3. What is a functional group?
4. Write the IUPAC name of the compound CH3CH2CH2CH2CHO.
5. Write the structural formula of 4-chloro-2-hexene.
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6. What is Inductive effect?

7. What is +I effect?
8. What is –I effect?
9. Given an example of a groups which exerts –I effect.
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10.Give an example of a groups which exerts +I effect.

11. Define mesomeric (Resonance) effect.
12. What is +R effect?
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13. What is –R (-M) effect?

14. Give an example of a groups which exerts +R (+M) effect.
15. Give an example of a group which exerts –R (-M) effect.
16. What is electromeric effect?
17. What is +E effect ? Give example.
18. What is – E effect? Give example.
19. What is homologous series?
20. During estimation of nitrogen by kjeldahl’s method, copper sulphate is added to sulphuric acid. Why?
21. Name two classes of compounds in which kjeldahl’s method cannot be used for estimation of
nitrogen.
22. Which type of ‘E’ effect operates during the attack of proton on ethene molecule?
23. What is the formula of Ferric ferrocyanide?
24. Which is the suitable absorbent in the process of Column chromathography?
25. Write the resonance structure of Benzene.
26. Why is fusion of organic compound with sodium required?
27. What is steam distillation?
28. What is hyperconjugation?
29. Which gas is liberated in kjeldahl’s method?

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30. Which gas is liberated in Dumas method?
31. What type of solids are separated by fractional crystallization?
32. Name the compound which is formed during carius method for the estimation of phosphorous.
33. Name the process used to separate sugar & salt.
34. Which effect involves the displacement of electron pair under the influence of an attacking reagent.
Questions carrying TWO marks:
1. How nitrogen is detected by lassaigne’s filterate?
2. How sulphur is detected by lassaigne’s filterate?
3. How can carbon & hydrogen detected by copper oxide method?
4. Give the preparation of Lanaigne’s filterate.
5. Explain the test for detection of halogen’s by sodium fusion extract.
6. What is Resonance energy? Mention the resonance energy of Benzene.
7. Explain the test for the detection of phosphorous in an organic compound.
8. Give the difference between Inductive effect & Mesomeric effect.
9. Give the difference between Inductive effect & Electromeric effect.
10. What are the characteristics of Homologous series?
11. What is Electrophile? Give example.
12. What are nucleophiles? Give example.
13. What is Homolytic fission? Give example.

r
14. What is Heterolytic fission? Give example.
15. What are free radical? Give example.
16. What are Carbocations? Give example.
17. What are Carbanions? Give example.
18. What are Alicyclic compounds? Give example.
Si
m
19. What are aromatic compounds? Give example.
20. What are Heterocyclic compounds? Give example.
21. Why is nitric acid added to sodium extraction before adding silver nitrate for testing halogens?
22. Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds
ra
ik

23. Write the structural formulae of the following

a) 2, 2, 3-trimethylpentane b) 4-chloro-3-methyl-but-2-en-1-ol
V

24. What is a Functional group? Give example.

25. What is position isomerism? Give an example.
26. What is Functional isomerism? Give example.
27. What is substitution reaction? Give example.
28. What is addition reaction? Give example.
29. What are hybridization states of each carbon atom in the following compounds?
a) CH2=C=O b) CH3CH=CH2

Questions carrying THREE or FIVE marks:

1. How can carbon and hydrogen be estimated in the organic compound by Liebig’s process?
2. How is the percentage of nitrogen determined in an organic compound by kjeldahl’s process?
3. How is the estimation of Nitrogen in organic compound by Dumas method.
4. How is the estimation of halogens by Carius method?

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Prof. Vikram Navalgund mob: 9902354563

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