Classification of Living Organisms

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S
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Classification is the process of placing animals and plants into groups according to their similarities
in structure, physiological processes and behavioral.
This involves collecting organisms, observing their structural characteristics and sorting them into
groups known as taxa.
The branch of biology concerned with classification is called taxonomy.
The word taxonomy is derived from a Greek word taxis- meaning arrangement and nomia-meaning
distribution.
LEVEL OF CLASSIFICATION
The level of classification is called taxon. Plural –taxa. A taxon is a unit of classification made of
similar organisms. The largest taxon is the kingdom and the smallest taxon is the species. All
organisms have been put in seven major taxa and these include:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum (phyla)
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus (genera)
7. Species
Easy formula for seven taxa from highest to lowest
Kings Play Cards On Fat Green Stools

K P C O F G S
(Kingdom) (Phylum) (Class) (Order) (Family) (Genus) (Species)
Kingdom
A kingdom is the largest taxon, and all the other taxa (groups of living organisms) are placed in one
the kingdoms. In modern classification system, there are 5 kingdoms:
1. Monera (bacteria)
2. Protoctista
3. Fungi (Mycota)
4. Plantae
5. Animalia
Note:
Viruses are not classified in any of the five kingdoms because they do not have all the characteristics
of all living things. For example;
 They do not have cellular structures like cytoplasm, organelles.
 They use nuclear material and organelles of other living organisms to carry out their metabolic
processes.
 They can survive out their host’s cell as inert organic crystals.
Complied by Mwebesa Derrick 0773 267 253 1

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Species
A species is the smallest taxon which is made up of individuals that have almost the same
characteristic features and can interbreed freely to produce viable off springs i.e. reproductively
fertile off springs
Examples of hierarchy system of classification
Human Honeybee Maize Meadow mushroom
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi
Phylum Chordata Arthropoda Angiospermophyta Basidiomycota
Class Mammalia Insect Monocotyledoneae Basidiomcetes
Order primates Hymenoptera Commelinales Agaricales
Family Hominidae Apidae Poaceae Agaricaceae
Genus Homo Apis Zea Agaricus
Species sapiens mellifera mays campestris
Binomial system of nomenclature:

Binomial nomenclature is the system of giving a scientific name to an organism.
The word binomial comes from two words bi- meaning two and nomial meaning name.
The first accepted classification and nomenclature was introduced by a Swedish scientist called Carl
Linnaeus (1707 - 1778).
Rules of binomial system of nomenclature

 Each organism should be given two Latin or Greek names which include generic (genus) name
followed by specific (species) name.
 The generic name should start with a capital letter and a specific name starts with the small letter
 When written both names should be underlined separately or printed in italics
Examples of some scientific name for common organisms

Human – scientific name is Homo sapiens
Maize – scientific name is Zea mays
Assignment: write the scientific names of the following; honey bee, meadow mushroom and house
fly.
Importance of classification
 It is easy to study organism in a group since the members of a specific group resemble.
 It helps new organisms to be easily classified since they share certain characteristics with those in
existence.
 It helps the scientist to easily identify organisms belonging to the same group.
 The use of scientific names enables to prevent confusion that would arise if the organism had
different names used in different places.

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KINGDOM: MONERA
This basically comprises of bacteria which are prokaryotes
General characteristics
 They are unicellular with cells occurring either alone or in colonies.
 The cells lack membrane bound organelles.
 The free living bacteria have flagella
 Some are parasitic and others are saprophytic
 The cell wall is covered with mucin
 They reproduce asexually by means of spores or binary fission.
General structure of bacterium
Bacteria are grouped according to their shapes. There are four groups of bacteria
Shape Type Structure
Coccus Diplococcus:
Single spherical These occur as a pair of spherical cells.
cells
Staphylococcus:
Spherical shaped occurring in a bunch or
group
Streptococcus:
Spherical cells in a chain
Bacilli: Bacillus:
These are rod Single rod shaped bacterium.
shaped. Diplobacilli:
A pair of rod shaped bacteria.
Streptobacilli:
Rod shaped bacteria existing in a chain.
Spherical spore bacilli:
These have spherical spore at the head e.g.
clostridium tetani which causes tetanus
Vibrio: Vibrio cholera which causes cholera
Coma shaped

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Spirillus These are spiral shaped bacteria
Economic importance of bacteria

i) Bacteria causes decay of dead plants and animals thus releasing nutrients for use by green plants
ii) Rhizobium converts the nitrogen into nitrates in the soils
iii) Bacteria manufacture vitamin B12 and k
iv) Used in curing tea and tobacco, making silage /retting flax. Curing is process of treating and
preserving tea / tobacco
v) Bacteria destroys harmful organisms in sewage in the sewage treatment
vi) Used in industrial processing of food like vinegar, cheese, and yoghurt
vii) Symbiotic bacteria in ruminants help in digesting cellulose by secreting enzymes cellulose
viii) Bacteria cause decay and food spoilage
ix) Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates in to free nitrogen in the soil.
x) Some bacteria cause harmful diseases to man like anthrax.
KINGDOM: PROTOCTISTA
Examples of protoctists are:
Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Trypanosomes, Chlamydomonas, etc.
Main features of Protoctista

i) They are unicellular organisms. i.e. single celled organisms.
ii) They have a true nucleus with a nuclear membrane.
iii) They have double membrane organelles.
iv) Some members locomote freely using either pseudopodia (false legs) in amoeba, cilia in
paramecium or flagella in euglena and trypanosomes.
v) They have varied forms of nutrition e.g. euglena and Chlamydomonas make their own food by
photosynthesis, amoeba and paramecium by phagocytosis and simple absorption of digested food
by trypanosomes.
vi) They live mostly in water or watery environments like wet lands.
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
This is the main phylum of kingdom Protoctista. It has several classes but the most important are:
1. Rhizopoda e.g. Amoeba
These are free living organisms by means of pseudopodia or false legs
2. Ciliophora (ciliata) e.g. paramecium
These possess cilia all over the body for locomotion or movement.
3. Mastigophora e.g. trypanosomes.
These have a flagellum for locomotion.

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General characteristics of protozoans:
 They are unicellular.
 They are mainly found in fresh or marine water and in the soil.
 They are mostly free-living but some are parasites.
 They carry out locomotion by means of flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
 Euglena have autotrophs and others protozoa-such as amoeba.
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission or multiple fission.
Examples of protozoa include Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Trypanosome and plasmodium.
1. Amoeba
Amoeba is a free-living protozoa found at the bottom of ponds. It has temporary extensions called
pseudopodia used for locomotion. The pseudopodia are also used for enclosing food particles which
form food vacuoles. The food in vacuole is digested by phagocytosis.
The extra amount of water can be regulated by contractile vacuole.
Structure of amoeba
Pseudopodi
um
Nucleu
Cytoplas
Food m
Contractile
vacuole vacuole
Locomotion in amoeba:
Amoeba moves by means of pseudopodia (false legs) that are formed by the flow of cytoplasm
(plasmosol and plasmogel) in the direction of movement but this is followed by the flow of other
protoplasm in the same direction, as shown below:
1 2 3
4
Direction of
The movement of amoeba is mainly determined by factors e.g. water, food, poison, acidity, alkalinity,
etc. and it will make amoeba move towards or away from such factors.
Excretion in amoeba
Excess water is eliminated from its body by contractile vacuole. This collects the water and moves to
the cell membrane where it discharges its contents. The process is repeated and hence it is the means

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of osmoregulation by amoeba. Other by-products diffuse out of the cytoplasm through the cell
membrane e.g. CO2.
Feeding
Amoeba feeds on microscopic algae and bacteria. It captures the food by developing pseudopodia
around the food and it engulfs it. The cytoplasm flows around the food. This one now forms the food
vacuole.
Digestive enzymes are produced which break the food particles into soluble food substances. The
products are utilized and amoeba moves away from undigested food remains. This is called egestion.
Reproduction in amoeba
Amoeba reproduces by binary fission.
Binary fission in amoeba;
i) An amoeba ready to reproduce stops moving and rounds off.
ii) The nucleus then constricts and divides into two identical parts. This will be followed by nucleus
complete separation as the cytoplasm begins to constrict so that the separation of the remaining
parts into 2 can occur.
iii) Two identical daughter amoebae forms and move apart to feed and grow into mature amoebae
before they divide again.
Illustration

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2. Paramecium
 Paramecium belongs to the phylum Cilliophora. Paramecia are found in fresh water ponds
throughout the world with one species living in marine waters. Paramecium lives in stagnant
water or slow moving fresh water containing decaying organic matter.
 Paramecia feed mostly on bacteria, which are driven into the gullet by cilia.
 Paramecium uses cilia for movement (locomotion) and collection of food. It has special row
of cilia that waft food particles into the hollow gullet. The food vacuoles move in a very
definite path through it and egestion occurs at only one point near the region of ingestion.
 They possess two contractile vacuoles at a time to regulate osmotic pressure and also serve as
excretory structures.
 A paramecium has a large nucleus called a macronucleus which controls body activities for
survival, and one or two small nuclei called micronuclei which controls reproduction
 Reproduction is usually asexual by transverse binary fission, occassionary sexual by
conjugation and rarely by endomixis (a process involving total nuclear reorganization of
individual organisms).
Structure of paramecium
Macronucleus
Unlike amoeba, paramecium has a distinct and permanent shape and certain areas of cytoplasm, (cell
organelles), are specialized to carry out specific functions.
Characteristics of Class Cilliophora (ciliata) e.g paramecium and vorticella

 They are mainly parasitic.
 Possess cilia all over the body for locomotion.
 Have branched contractile vacuole.
 Have two nuclei i.e micronucleus and macronucleus.
 Possess an oral groove.

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Characteristics of Class Mastigophora e.g Trypanosomes
 Have a slender, long undulating body.
 Have flagella for locomotion.
 Have a tapering end at the anterior part.
 They may live as single cells, in colony, or as parasites.
3. Euglena
This is commonly found in water and in soil. It is photosynthetic and moves by means of flagellum.
Structure of euglena
Flagellum
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Economic and ecological importance of protozoans:

 Protozoans are an important link in the food chain as they are a food source for larger
organisms.
 Limestone, chalk and flint are a result of the encystment shells formed by protozoans. The
shells dry and harden forming these deposits.
 Protozoans assist with digestion in animals like cattle.
 Some protozoans cause diseases in man and his livestock e.g
Plasmodium causes malaria which kills approximately two million people each year
worldwide.
Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery- a disease associated with poor hygiene and
sanitation.
ALGAE
Algae are a group of structurally simple plant-like protoctists.
Traditionally motile forms of algae were classified as animals while the non-motile forms as plants.
Although algae are closely related to plants, they are not plants.

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Note:
 They differ from plants in that their reproductive cells are produced in unicellular structures
rather than multicellular structures.
 They also lack simple or complex tissues as those found in plants.
The study of algae is called phycology or algology.
The most common forms of algae include;
1. Green algae (chlorophyta) e.g. spirogyra and chlamydomonas
2. Brown algae (phycophyta) e.g fucus and laminaria
3. Red algae (rhodophyta) e.g chondrus and Coralline.
4. Diatoms.
Green Algae, is believed to have given rise to the plant kingdom because its chlorophylls, cell walls
and other details of cellular structure are similar to those of the plants.
They use carbon dioxide and release oxygen as a waste in photosynthesis.
Characteristics of algae
 Commonly found in fresh and marine water.
 They are single-celled, colonial or filamentous.
 They are autotrophs (can make their own food).
 They have wide range of pigments, liked brown, green, blue, red and yellow.
 They have a thallus body which is not differentiated into leaves, item or roots
 They are non-vascular organisms.
 They reproduce asexually by fragmentation and binary fission. Few algae reproduce sexually by
conjugation.
 They do not bear flowers.
Diagram of Spirogyra (a filamentous alga)
Characteristics of spirogyra
 It is filamentous green algae found in fresh water of slow flowing water in ponds, streams, and
lakes
 It grows in length and its always one cell thick.
 Each cell is capable of living an independent life
 Each cell has one spiral chloroplast from one end to another
 Small protein bodies called pyrenoids are present on each ribbon like chloroplast and are used to
store starch
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 The nucleus is in the center to control the activities of the cell
 There is a gelatinous sheath(mucilage) around the cells that gives them slimy nature that is useful
for protection
Reproduction in Spirogyra
1. Asexual reproduction
The vegetative reproduction is common and consists of part of the filament breaking off and
continuing to live as a separate plant. It can also be called fragmentation.
2. Sexual reproduction
Spirogyra reproduces by conjugation between filaments lying side by side as follows;
i) The opposite cells of the two different filaments lying side by side develop a swelling or an
out-growth which begins to grow towards each other.
ii) On touching they dissolve to form a conjugation tube and at the same time the contents
change into gametes.
iii) The gametes from one cell (male gamete) migrate through the conjugation tube to another cell
(female) gamete.
iv) The two gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops a thick resistant wall and becomes a
zygospore.
v) When the conditions are favorable, the zygospore germinates and grows into another filament.
Illustration

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Economic importance
 Algae are used in the manufacture of agar which is used as culture medium in laboratories.
 They provide food for humans and fish.
 When they die, they sink at the bottom of the sea bed on which they can turn into oil.
 During photosynthesis, they release oxygen that is necessary for the respiration of animals that
live in water.
 They are used in the manufacture ice cream, cosmetics, and plants.
 They pollute water, i.e. producing foul smell.
 They clog water pipes in hindering the flow of water
 Algae cause eutrophication of water bodies which may be harmful to aquatic life. (Eutrophication
is the enrichment of water body with nutrients)
KINGDOM: FUNGI
Kingdom fungi mostly have multicellular eukaryotic organisms such as mushroom and mould. Some
are unicellular like yeast.
Other examples include toad stool, smuts, pencilium ,mucor (grows on soil and dead plants),
Rhizopus (common bread mould).
Rhizopus is saprophytic fungus which grows on decaying food like bread and fruits.
 Are multicellular except a few e.g. yeast.
 Fungi inhabit damp or aquatic plants
 They reproduce by means of spores. They have saprophytic or parasitic mode of nutrition.
 Have vegetative body called mycelium which consists of a network of hyphae.
 They have cell walls which consist of a material called chitin.
 They lack chlorophyll though majorities are plant-like.
Diagram of common bread mould (Rhizopus)
Sporangium containing spore

Spores being released.
Sporangiophore
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Structure of a mush room
Sexual reproduction
i) Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote.
ii) During sexual reproduction, the two different hyphae face each other and become swollen. The
nuclei from each tip develop.
iii) The tips meet and form a cross wall.
iv) The cross wall breaks and nuclei from different tips pair and fuse.
v) A zygote is formed which develops a thick wall to form a zygospore.
vi) The zygospore remains dormant under unfavorable conditions and germinates into a new
mycelium in favorable conditions.

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Illustrations:
The hyphae fuse and
- + their contents mix to
form a zygote
Two hyphae of
different mating
type come together
A thick wall develops

around the zygote to
form a zygospore
Under favorable conditions

the zygospore germinates
to produce new mycelia
Economic importance of fungi

 Fungi decay dead organic materials to release materials needed by green plants
 Yeast respiring anaerobically, provides alcohol for brewers and wine makers.
 Yeast cells are a source for vitamin B extract
 Fungi produce antibiotics e.g. penicillum.
 Fungi provide food e.g. mushroom also used in making cheese.
 Fungi can spoil food e.g. Rhizopus and penicillum on the bread, cakes, fruits and jam.
 Fungi causes plant disease e.g. rust, white bright and smut.
 Dry rot fungus attacks the timber of houses.
 Fungi causes diseases to man e.g. ringworm, athlete’s foot.
 Fungi can be used by military to prepare biological weapons to be used in the war fare.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Kingdom Animalia has several phyla each of which consists of a variety of organisms.
The phyla include
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1. Porifera e.g. sponges
2. Coelenterata e.g. hydra
3. Platyhelminthes e.g. flat worms
4. Nematoda e.g. round worms
5. Annelida e.g. ringed worms
6. Mollusca e.g. snails
7. Echinodermata e.g. star fish
8. Arthropoda e.g. cockroach
9. Chordata e.g. man
i) Animals carry out locomotion
ii) They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition
iii) They are multicellular organisms.
iv) Their body has a definite shape.
v) They have cells without cellulose but contain true nucleus.
1. Phylum: Porifera – the sponges

The phylum is made of many types of sponges. They have the following characteristics:
i) Possess simple bodies which are hollow and sac-like.
ii) They are marine dwellers
iii) They are sedimentary or sessile organisms found attached to the rocks or coral reefs
iv) Some can live in colonies or individually.
v) They lack a nervous system.
vi) They have only one opening in their bodies.
vii) They have a body made up of two layers of cells i.e. ectoderm and endoderm.
2. Phylum: Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

They include the following; the jelly fish, sea anemones, hydra and corals.
They have the following characteristics:
i) They are multicellular organisms.
ii) They are aquatic or marine organisms.
iii) They have soft bodies which are sac-like with body cavity called enteron
iv) They have radial body symmetry.
v) They have a single body opening.
vi) They have tentacles.
vii) They possess specialized cells such the stinging cells used for defense or paralyzing their prey.
viii) They have a ring of tentacles for capturing prey.
Hydra structure

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3. Phylum: Platyhelminthes (flat worms)

The phylum consists of organisms like flukes and tape worms. They have the following
characteristics:
 They have dorso-ventrally flattened body
 They have bilateral body symmetry.
 They are damp, moist or aquatic dwellers.
 They are parasitic organisms.
 They have alimentary canal without mouth.
 The body wall has three body layers of cells (triploblastic) i.e. ectoderm (outer), mesoderm
(middle) and endoderm (inner).
 The gut is branched to increase surface area over which digested food is absorbed.
 They are hermaphrodites; have both male and female organs in the same organism.
 They lack blood circulatory system and because of that, the gaseous exchange occurs by simple
diffusion all over the body surface.
The phylum has 3 main classes;
i) Turbellaria e.g. Planarians

 They are free living flat worms that live in wet soils, fresh water and seas.
 They have many simple eyes and cilia on the under surface of the body used for movement over
stones and weeds.
ii) Trematoda e.g. Liver fluke
 They live as endo parasites in cattle, goats and man.

 They have no cilia on their body and lack simple eyes
 They have suckers used for attachment on to the host.
 They suck digested food from the host.
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iii) Cestoda e.g Tape worm
 They live as endo-parasites ni the gut of man, muscles of goats, cows and pigs.
 They have suckers and hooks for feeding and attachment on to the host.
 They have elongated bodies consisting of segments called proglotids.
 They absorb digested food directly from the host.
4. Phylum: Nematoda ( round worms)

The phylum has the examples like hookworms, pin worms, guinea worms, whip worms and ascaris
lumbricoides. They have the following characteristics:
 They have segmented bodies.
 They have elongated and cylindrical bodies pointed at both ends.
 They have closed circulatory system.
 They have gaseous exchange occurs all over the body surface.
 They have a complete digestive system with both mouth and anus.
 Some are parasitic and others are free living.
5. Phylum: Annelida (ringed worm)

These are the ringed or segmented worms e.g. earthworms, leeches, rag worms, lugworms, etc. They
have the following characteristics:
 They have true coelom.
 They have a closed circulatory system.
 They have gaseous exchange all over body surface.
 They have complete digestive system with both anterior (oral) and posterior
(Anal) openings.
 They are hermaphrodites and reproduce sexually but they often promote cross fertilization.
 They are carnivorous and some live as external parasites.
 They have bodies divided into section called septae.
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 Externally the body shows ring- like segments.
i) Earthworm
ii) leech
6. phylum: Mollusca
The organisms are generally aquatic and live both on fresh water and marine. Examples include
snails, slugs, octopus, squids, mussels and oysters. They have the following characteristics:
 They have soft and unsegmented bodies.
 Nearly all have shells with exception of octopus and squids.
 The foot is used for locomotion and attachment to the substratum.
Garden snail
7. Phylum: Echinodermata
The organisms are sea dwellers. Examples are bristles star, sea urchin, sea lilies, sea star, star fish, sea
cucumber. They have the following characteristics:
 They have unsegmented bodies.
 They have radial body symmetry.
 The bodies have five arms.
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 They have feet for locomotion and capturing the food (feeding).
 They have spiny skin which is a hard plate.
 They have water vascular system instead of blood circulatory system.
Structure of star fish
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
Arthropoda has a wide variety of animals. These animals occupy a wide variety of habitats on land,
sea and fresh water.
Main characteristics
i) They have a segmented body.
ii) Presence of an exoskeleton that is shed periodically.
iii) They have jointed limbs and appendages for feeding, locomotion, and irritability.
Note: The exoskeleton is made up of chitin which is a fairly firm but flexible carbohydrate. The
exoskeleton provides support to terrestrial arthropods. It also provides points of attachment for the
muscles.
The exoskeleton prevents the desiccation of the body by secreting wax. The exoskeleton also protects
the organism from mechanical injury.
The phylum comprises of classes Crustacea, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Insecta and Arachnida.
1. Class: Crustacea
Crustacea are organisms whose body is covered by a carapace. A carapace is a hard shell. Examples
of members of the class Crustacea include crabs, crayfish, lobsters, prawns, woodlice and shrimps.
Distinguishing characteristics
 Crustacea are mainly found in marine and fresh water. Thus, they occupy aquatic habitats.
 They breathe by means of gills through the body membrane.

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 Their body is divided into two parts. Their head and thorax are fused to form a cephalothorax.
The second division is the abdomen.
 They have a pair of compound eyes each on a raised stalk.
 They have two antennae and small short pair called atenules.
 They have four pairs of mouthparts namely: maxilla, mandible, labium and labrum.
 They have five pair of limbs that are modified for swimming.
2. Class: chilopoda
Chilopoda is made up of centipedes. The centipedes are mainly found on land.
 Centipedes have a clearly defined head while the rest of the segments are similar.
 They have a pair of antenna
 They have one pair of mouthparts known as mandibles.
 They have simple and compound eyes, although some lack compound eyes.
 They have one pair of legs in each body segment.
 They carry out gaseous exchange by means of a trachea
 They feed on insects and worms.
 They occupy terrestrial habitats.
 Their body is flattened dorso-ventrally.
 They have one pair of poison claws.
3. Class: Diplopoda
Class Diplopoda is made up of millipedes. Millipedes are common on damp places.

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 Millipedes have a clearly defined head. All the other body segments are basically similar.
 They have one pair of antenna
 They have one pair of mouthparts, namely the mandibles.
 They have simple and compound eyes. In some cases, the millipedes may not have compound
eyes.
 They have two pairs of legs in each segment.
 They carry out gaseous exchange through the trachea.
 They feed on plants.
 They inhabit terrestrial habitats.
 They have a cylindrical body
 They have the ability to coil when disturbed or not active.
Note: class Chilopoda and Diplopoda used to be classified as class Myriapoda but now are
classified into different classes.
4. Class: Arachnida
Arachnida are terrestrial arthropods. Members of this class all have 8 legs. Examples of arachnids
include spiders, ticks, scorpions and mites
 Arachnids have two body parts. The head and thorax are fused to form the cephalothorax or
prosoma (cephalothorax). The abdomen is referred to as opisthosoma.
 They do not have antenna but have a pair of pedipalp which they use for sensory and defense
purposes.
 They do not have mouthparts. However, they have one pair of appendages for sensing prey. This
pair of appendages is known as chelicerae. Thus, they have a carnivorous mode of feeding.
 They have simple eyes.
 They have four pairs of walking legs.
 They carry out gaseous exchange by the lung book or trachea. A lung book consists of folds of
ectoderm with slit-like openings on the surface of the abdomen
 Arachnids do not have wings.
 They inhabit terrestrial habitats.
5. Class: Insecta
Insects are the most successful animals on earth since they possess an exoskeleton which reduces
water loss from the body.
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Insects are the largest group of arthropods.
They occupy every habitat on earth in such places as air, soil and water. However, they mainly
inhabit terrestrial habitats. Examples of insects include grasshoppers, houseflies, butterflies, bees, and
termites.
The main characteristics of class Insecta

i) Insects have three body parts, namely: the head, thorax, and abdomen.
ii) They have three pairs of walking legs on the thorax. One pair of walking legs per segment of the
thorax.
iii) They have a thorax divided into three segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.
Other distinguishing characteristics

i) They have one pair of antenna.
ii) They have a pair of compound eyes. In some case, simple eyes are also present.
iii) Most insects have one or two pairs of wings on the second and/ or the third segment of the
thorax. Some insects have no wings.
iv) They breathe by means of spiracles and carry out gaseous exchange in the tracheal system.
v) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis with a larval stage.
They exhibit the longest level of organization in animals, i.e. social organization especially in bees,
wasps and ants. They are the only invertebrates which can fly.
Their success on land is attributed to:

i) Evolution of special organs for flight. The wings which enable them to diverse and colonize new
areas.
ii) Impervious exoskeleton made of chitin which has protected them from drying up in the terrestrial
environment.
iii) The small size has enabled them to tackle every place.
iv) Excretion of toxic products as uric acid has enabled them to conserve water
v) Tracheal system has enabled them to carry efficient gaseous exchange.
vi) Disposition of legs enables them to maintain swift locomotion.
vii) The compound eyes that provide wide field of view for food and enemies.
viii) The modified mouth parts that suit a variety of food materials.
ix) The high reproductive rate that ensures enormous number of offsprings is produced.
Some insects are directly beneficial to man these include pollinators like butterfly, moth and bees
others are beneficial indirectly such as parasitic pest species.
Harmful insects include those that directly live on man as parasite like lice, flies, mosquitoes, tsetse
flies.
Some common orders of insects
Order Characteristic feather of the order Examples

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(the word ptera means wing).
Dictyoptera Has hard outer wings Cockroach, beetles, weevils.
Hymenoptera Has membranous wings Wasps, bees
Isoptera Has similar wings Termites
Lepidoptera Has scale wings Moths, butterflies
Diptera Have two pairs of wings. The second pair is Mosquitoes, houseflies
reduced into halteres for balancing.
Orthoptera Has long straight wings Grasshopper, locusts, Preying
mantis
INSECT METAMORPHOSIS
Metamorphosis is the gradual developmental change from the eggs to the adult stage.
It occurs in insects and amphibians. Insect metamorphosis is divided into two types.
1. Complete metamorphosis (holometabolous);

This is a gradual development change where the eggs hatch into larvae and the larvae change into
pupa and finally the pupa change into an adult. It involves four stages.
Illustration of compete metamorphosis.
Insects, which undergo complete metamorphosis, include butterflies, mosquitoes, houseflies, tsetse
flies, bees, wasps, and beetles.
2. Incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous);

This is the gradual developmental change where an insect undergoes only 3 stages, when eggs hatch,
they give rise to adult-like nymphs which latter change into adults. Insects showing this include
locusts, grasshoppers, bedbugs, cockroaches, and termites.
Illustration of incomplete metamorphosis

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CITRUS BUTTERFLY
(Papilio demodocus)
The citrus butterfly is also referred to as lime butterfly because it feeds on lime and citrus.
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Lepidoptera
Family : Papilionidae
Genus : Papilio
Species : demodocus.
Characteristics of order Lepidoptera

 They are small to large insects with entire covering of powdery scales on their wings. (lepis-scale
and ptera- wing)
 Wings are fastened together.
 No anal cerci.
 metamorphosis is complete.
 Sucking proboscis straightened when feeding but coils underneath the head when not actively
feeding.
Habitat
Butterflies live in gardens and forests and where they can feed on nectar from flowers. They are
active during day.
External features
The butterfly has three body divisions the head, thorax, and abdomen.
The head
 The head bears two large, bulging brown compound eyes.
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 There are two simple eyes (ocelli) behind the compound eyes.
 Above eyes is pair of antenna. These are long jointed and lobbed at the ends. They are sense
organs for touch and smell.
 The head also bears the mouth part specially adapted for sucking nectar. The sucking part is long,
hollow and flexible tube called proboscis. This has a modified pair of maxillae which coils up
when not in use.
 The mandibles, the labium and labrum are poorly developed and hardly used.
The thorax
The thorax consists of prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. These segments are covered by hairs
and divisions are not clearly seen.
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed walking legs.
The mesothorax and Metathorax in addition bear a pair of wings each which are large and
membranous.
They are veined and covered by colored scales.
When the butterfly is flying, the wings are spread out but when at rest, the wings are raised and held
vertically above the body.
The abdomen
The abdomen has ten segments and each bears a pair of spiracles.
It is hairy and obscures the segmentation.
Butterflies and moths

Butterflies and moths are both members of the Lepidoptera. Although they appear very similar, there
are differences in their bodies and behaviour.
Differences between a butterfly and a moth

Butterfly Moth
For K.H.S
It is diurnal i.e. active during day time Nocturnal i.e. active during night
Wings are held upright at rest. Wings are held horizontally at rest.
Small body Fatter body
Body brightly colored The body is dull
Antennae are clubbed or knobbed at the tip Antennae are pointed at the tip and feathery
Pupate above the ground Pupate in cocoons or in the soil
The life cycle of a butterfly

A butterfly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
A female butterfly ready for reproduction produces a peculiar scent that attracts the male for mating.
During mating, the male butterfly deposits the sperms in the genital opening of the female. The eggs
are then fertilized internally.
The eggs are laid singly or small batches on the under surface of young leaves of citrus plant. This
protects them from damage by heat of sun or rain. The eggs are tinny, spherical, white or greenish-
white in colour.
The eggs hatch into larvae (caterpillars) after about 3 days.
The newly hatched caterpillars are small and black. They have powerful mandibles for feeding, first,
the egg shell and later young leaves. The young caterpillar has horn- like body with head, thorax, and
abdomen. The thoracic segments bear each a pair of true walking legs and abdomen bearing a pair of
claspers on the last segment.
The caterpillar moults four times in three weeks before changing to a fully mature caterpillar which
majorly feed on leaves.
The caterpillar then pupates into pupa.
The fully developed caterpillar stops feeding and finds a suitable place usually a vertical twig to
pupate. It spins a silk pad on the twig and attaches its claspers to it. It then spins its thorax and
suspends itself in a slanting position with anterior end pointing upwards. The caterpillar then moults
for its last time and changes into pupa (chrysalis). The pupa is inactive i.e. it does not feed nor move.
During pupa stage- there is internal reorganization of tissues involving the formation of wing,
compound eyes, proboscis and reproductive organs. This lasts for about 7-10 days after which the
pupa case split along the dorsal region.
After about 1 hour while the wings expand and dry, the adult butterfly emerges ready to fly away,
feed, mate and lay more eggs.

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Economic importance of citrus butterfly

i) From the cocoons of butterfly, silk threads are obtained for making silk clothes.
ii) The larvae spoil the leafy vegetable with fecal drops such as dodo.
iii) The scales may be respiratory hazards when inhaled.
iv) The caterpillar stage of a butterfly is significantly destructive on vegetables including crops such
as cabbages, maize, millet sorghum etc. . . .
v) Some caterpillars feed on insects thus help in destroying insect pests.
vi) Butterflies can also be used as decorations because of their beautiful colour patterns (ornamental
purpose) used in art industry.
vii) The butterflies also are of much importance to the farmers in pollinating flowers of the crops.
Control measures against butterflies

i) Apply environmental friendly insecticides
ii) Use of biological control methods

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iii) By hand picking of the infected leaves and burning or burying them. This destroys the eggs and
some leaves.
COCKROACH
(Periplaneta americana)
The common species of cockroach in the tropics is Periplaneta americana. This is most active at
night, during day it hides in dark places and crevices of walls.
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Dictyoptera
Family : Blattidae
Genus : Periplaneta
Species : americana
Characteristics of order: Dictyoptera

 The mouth parts are of the biting type
 presence of broad membranous outer wings
 long and thread- like antennae
 possession of the anal cerci
 presence of long and tough tegmina
 Metamorphosis is incomplete.
Habitat
Cockroaches live in dark, dirty and dump warm places e.g. pipes that carry sewage. During day they
live in crevices of walls, cupboards, underneath drawers and in boxes.
They are active at night thus referred to as nocturnal.
Adaptation of a cockroach to its environment

i) Cockroaches have dorso-ventrally flattened bodies to fit in narrow places.
ii) Its body is dark brown to camouflage well against a dark background.
iii) They are smooth and greasy to escape easily from predators.
iv) It has one pair of long antennae for feeling and smelling the area around their body.
v) The shape and disposition of the legs enables swift running in confined spaces where flight is
impossible.
vi) Since they are omnivorous, they survive on a wide variety of food materials.
vii) Their nocturnal emergence renders them less liable to capture.
viii) Sensitivity of anal cerci to air, movements in crevices ensures a considerable measure of
safety for the eggs, with this further protection of the tough oothecal coat.
ix) They have spines on their legs for defense.

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NB:
Other insects belonging to the order Dictyoptera include locusts, crickets, praying mantis and grass
hoppers etc.
External features:
The adult cockroach is about 4cm long.
It is dorsal- ventrally flattened body with brown colour.
It has a hard thick exoskeleton made of chitin.
The body is made up of three main divisions, each segment of thorax and abdomen consists of dorsal
plate tegmen (plu:-terga) a ventral plate, sternum (plu-sterna) and two internal plates, pleura.
Dorsal view
The head
 The head is small and pear-shaped.
 It bears a large kidney- shaped pair of compound eyes.
 In front of each compound eye lies a long thread- like segmented antennae (feelers). These are
sensitive to touch, smell and vibrations.
 The head has biting and chewing mouth parts – mandibles for cutting and crushing food,
maxillary palps for holding food, a labrum (upper lip) and labium (lower lip).
 The head is connected to the thorax by short neck.
Mouth parts of a cockroach

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The thorax
 The thorax consists of three segments: the prothorax, the mesothorax and the metathorax.
 Each of the segments bears a pair of jointed legs on its ventral surface. They end in a pair of sharp
claws with a soft hairy pad, the arolium (plural: arolia) between them
 The prothorax is the largest of the thoracic segment
 The paired wings are attached to dorsal surface of mesothorax and metathorax.
 The anterior (fore) wings are narrow, brown leathery and still and are called elytra or tegmina.
They are not used for flight but for covering and protection of broad, membranous posterior
(hind) wings when at rest.
The fore wing
The hind wing

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The hind leg

Structure of the hind leg
The abdomen
This is made up of 10 segments. Only seven are easily seen because tergum of seventh segment
lovers 8th and 9th segment
The flat, broad tergum of the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed sensory structures, the cerci in
males, another additional pair of short structures styles.
There are 10 pairs of oval openings called spiracles at the side of the body, 2 on thorax and 8 in
abdominal segment
Identification of a cockroach’s sex

In males, there is a pair of slender styles that are used to hold and manipulate the female during
copulation.
In females, there is a pair of boat shaped structures called the podical plates used for holding eggs.
Differences between a male and female cockroach:

Male Female
1. Has a narrow abdomen Has a broader abdomen
2. Lack ootheca Has ootheca which develops after fertilization.
3. Has rod-shaped structures called styles on No styles on the 9th abdominal segment.
the 9th abdominal segments.
4. No podical plates. Has podical plate for carrying eggs.
Drawing: Drawing:
The life cycle of a cockroach

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A cock roach undergoes incomplete metamorphosis.
After mating, the fertilized eggs are stored in an egg-case called ootheca.
This is hard, chitinous structure 1cm long containing eggs in rows of eight
The female carries ootheca for a number of days before depositing them in dark obscure places.
Within a week, it turns dark brown.
After six weeks, the eggs hatch out into young, wingless and colorless cockroaches called nymphs.
After 2 weeks they turn brown like adult but wingless.
The nymph grows and undergoes ecdysis, about 7 times and every two ecdysis, the nymphs are called
instars. After the last ecdysis, the nymph becomes adult cockroach which has a life span of about 2
months.
Economic importance of cockroaches

i) They destroy clothes, books, shoes, furniture and spoil food.
ii) They spread disease causing germs such as cholera, dysentery etc. especially those in latrines
iii) They contaminate food if not properly covered.
iv) They dirten places with their faeces as they move around especially when many.
v) They are food to some organisms like birds.
vi) They are used in biological studies as specimens.
Control of cockroaches
i) Improve personal and public hygiene.
ii) Use of environmentally friendly insecticides like doom, etc.
iii) Use of biological control methods.
iv) Polish the walls of the house to close the small crevices.
THE GRASSHOPPER
Classification:
Kingdom; Animalia
Phylum; Arthropoda
Class; Insecta
Order; Orthoptera
Characteristics
1. They have well developed mandibles for feeding on solid food.
2. They have a pair of long antennae.
3. They have two pairs of straight wings.
4. They have a pair of compound eyes.
5. Females have an ovipositor for depositing eggs in the soil.

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Life cycle of a grasshopper
The grasshopper undergoes incomplete metamorphosis.
After mating, the females lay eggs in a worm moist sand following rain. It pushes its ovipositor and
part of the abdomen down into the sand and makes a burrow where it deposits its eggs. In 10-20 days
depending on temperature and moisture the eggs hatch into adult-like nymphs, which make their way
to the surface. As the nymphs grow, they shade their cuticle 5 times. The stage between each moult is
called an instar. Each instar lasts for 4-5 days except for the 5 th instar, which lasts for 8 days. The
nymphs feed on leaves and stems of vegetation. After the 5 th instar, the nymphs change into adults.
The adults become mature after five weeks and start laying eggs and the cycle repeats.
Economic importance of grasshoppers

1. They are eaten as food.
2. They are a delicacy to many cultures.
3. They feed on vegetation and act as pests.
4. They are used for study purposes.
THE HOUSE FLY

(Musca domestica)
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Diptera
Family : Muscidae
Genus : Musca
Species : domestica
Scientific name is Musca domestica.
Characteristics of order Diptera

 They have a pair of wings
 the second pair of wings (hind wings) form halters or balancers
 Antennae are short
 mouth parts are after suctorial and sometimes piercing too
 the cerci are too reduced or absent
 metamorphosis is complete
 many are important vectors
Examples of members in the order include mosquitoes, housefly, tsetse fly etc

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Habitat
House flies live in filthy or dirty places such as toilets, dust bins, manure heaps, e.t.c.
External features
The body of the housefly is divided into three main parts, head, thorax and abdomen.
General structure
The head
 The head bears three simple eyes (ocelli) arranged in triangle and on each side is a large or
prominent compound eye.
 The antennae are short with three joints with last having spine hair.
 The labium (upper lip) is modified into proboscis for sucking, which is expanded at the distal end
to form a funnel shape.
Structure

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Life cycle of a housefly

The housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
After mating, the female housefly lays eggs in batches. The eggs are laid on rotting matter such as
meat or faeces, where it is warm and moist. This provides the conditions for the eggs to develop.
After about 8-24 hours, the eggs hatch into larvae. The larvae (maggots) are white and conical
shaped. The maggot has a small head which is not easily visible. The head bears a mouth with two
hook-like teeth. These are used for feeding on decaying matter in which the larva finds itself. The
hook-like teeth also helps the larva move through the decaying matter. The larva has no legs but has
pads with short spines that help in movement. Spiracles are present only on the 2 nd and the last
segment. They are used for breathing. The larva has no eyes but sensitive to light. It prefers dark,
moist, and warmer regions of the decaying matter. It grows by shading its outer layer (cuticle).
After 5 days and shading its cuticle twice, the larva is about 1cm long. It then moves to a drier region
of the meat or faeces and pupates.
The pupa is cigar shaped. The cuticle hardens, darkens and becomes brown to form the puparium or
pupa case. This forms a protective covering as internal reorganization of tissues takes place inside.
After the puparium bursts open, the adult fly emerges.
The wings expand and harden and after a few hours, the fly flies away.
Economic importance of house flies

i) They feed on faeces and manure heaps, hence help in garbage disposal.
ii) They are vectors of diseases i.e. spread or transmit diseases such as dysentery, cholera, red
eyes, trachoma, etc.
iii) It is a source of food for some organisms such as chameleons.
iv) They are specimens for study purposes.
Control of house flies and prevention of diseases they spread

i) Spraying with an insecticide such as pyrethrum to kill the adult.
ii) Proper disposal of faeces in latrines with covers, so that flies cannot get to the waste to lay
eggs.

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iii) Washing hands with soap and clean water after visiting the latrine and before eating or
preparing food.
iv) Disposing of wastes in such a way that flies cannot reach them. E.g. burning or burying them.
v) Covering or storing food properly so that flies cannot settle on it.
THE MOSQUITO
The mosquitoes are majorly found in the tropics and are best known for carrying disease germs
They belong to the order Diptera and the important three genera are:
1. Anopheles that are vectors of malaria
2. Culex which are vectors of dengue fever and
3. Aedes, the vector of elephantiasis and yellow fever.
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Diptera
Family : Culicidae
Genus : Anopheles
Species : Anopheles, Aedes and Culex
Structure of mosquito
Mosquitoes are slender, long-legged insects and like all other Dipterans, they have proboscis, a pair
of wings and a pair of halteres.
Male mouth parts are for sucking but the female mouth parts are for piercing and sucking.
When the female mosquito bites someone, she pierces the skin with the stylets and inserts the sucking
and salivary tubes. Saliva is secreted into the wound and prevents the blood from clotting and
blocking the tubes mean while the labium bends back.

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Features on the thorax

 The thorax is large and easily visible.
 It has the usual three segments bearing a pair of long slender legs.
 The mesothorax bears a pair of membranous, transparent wings while the metathorax bears a pair
of halteres used in balancing and also sensory in function.
 Has a pair of spiracles on each segment.
Features on the abdomen

 The abdomen is long and slender.
 It has 10 segments but only 8 are seen.
 It has a pair of spiracles on each segment.
 The last segment bears the external genitalia
Mode of life of a mosquito

 Hates light and like resting in dark places during day and comes out to feed at night
 They feed mainly within late evening and early morning (day and dawn)
 Male mosquitoes feed on plant juices and nectar while the female feed on blood.
Life cycle of a Mosquito

It begins with mating and internal fertilization and is a complete metamorphosis. The difference
however are observed for both Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes
Mosquitoes eggs are laid in still water (swampy pools, water collected in old pots/ tins, in axils of
leaves, blocked drains or gutters), and the earliest stages of life take place in water.
The eggs are boat shaped and those of Culex species stick together to form raft. Those of anopheles
are laid singly each with air float.

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The larva consists of a head, thorax and abdomen. It swims through water, tail first by wriggling its
abdomen. Culex larva uses Siphons for obtaining oxygen whereas an anopheles uses spiracles,
located on the eighth abdominal segment on both types of lava.
The pupa differs from the larva in being fairly active. It is comma-shaped with two tail fins at the end
of the abdomen. It breathes atmospheric oxygen through a pair of trumpets on the thorax.
After few days the pupa skin splits and adult emerges. It rests on pupa case while the wings unfold
and harden and then flies a way.
The life cycle of mosquito
Economic importance of mosquitoes

They carry malarial parasites which cause malaria. These germs are carried by a female anopheles.
The disease causing parasite is referred to as plasmodium. The four types of plasmodia are;
1. Plasmodium malariae 2. Plasmodium vivax
3. Plasmodium ovale 4. Plasmodium falciparum
Symptoms of malaria
 A Person with malaria has very high fever.
 Headaches.
 Sometimes vomiting.
 Pain in the joints and sometimes the general body.
 There is alternate cold and shivering spells as well as hot sweating.
 Loss of appetite.
 Anemia.
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 Enlarged liver and spleen.
Malaria may cause convulsions and sometimes death in children and abortions in pregnant women
due to destruction of red blood cells by the parasites.
Control of spread of malaria

Of these diseases malaria is probably becoming the most serious and is increasingly becoming a killer
of such great as AIDS. This is mainly because the parasites causing it are becoming resistant to drugs
like chloroquine which in the past have been very effective at old malaria.
As things stand now, effective control of the mosquito is as much prerequisite to control malaria as it
is to combat the disease.
Appropriate measures include;
 Destroying the breeding places where larvae develop from by draining or applying a film of oil
over the water surface to prevent oxygen reaching the mosquito larva.
 Burning or burying all empty containers to prevent water from collecting during the rainy season.
 Clearing bushes around homestead. Mosquitoes like to rest and breed on them during the rainy
season.
 Biological control which involves the introduction of fish into water bodies which feed on the
larvae and pupa.
 Mosquitoes can be killed by spraying with insecticides using special sprayers.
 Removal of small water containers such as old tins, bottles, and drainage channels, so as to reduce
on breeding sites.
 protecting our bodies from mosquito bites by using mosquito nets at night as well as wearing
clothes which cover both legs and arms in the evening
 Parasites development in the human body can be controlled by taking modern prophylactic drugs
regularly.
 Applying mosquito repellant cream to the body.
Aedes species carry a virus which causes Dengue. It also carries germs which cause yellow fever.
The Culex species carry filarial worms which cause elephantiasis. It is not a killing disease but
causes discomfort due to large swelling of the legs and/ arm.
Differences between
Anopheles Culex
i) Eggs are laid singly Eggs are in rafts
ii) Eggs have air floats to keep buoyant Eggs have air float
iii) Eggs are boat shaped Eggs are cigar shapes
iv) Larva lies parallel to the water surface Lies at an angle to the water surface
v) Larva has a pair of spiracles for breathing Larva has siphon for breathing
vi) Adult at rest lies at an angle to the object At rest lies parallel to the object
THE HONEY BEE

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(Apis mellifera)
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Family : Hymenoptera
Order : Hymenoptera
Genus : Apis
Species : Apis mellifera
Characteristics of order hymenoptera

 Insects are social in behaviour.
 Parthenogenesis is complete
 After castes present are queens, drones, workers and soldiers
 Mouth parts modified for biting and sucking
 Metamorphosis is complete
 Antennae are short
Examples include bee swamps, ants, gull wasps
Generally, bees are social insects and live in colonies (large numbers) in bee hives. They show
division of labor among the castes for instance;
The queen produces other bees.
The drone fertilizes the queen.
The workers have a number of duties among which include collecting food and cleaning the
hive.
External features on the honey bee especially worker include:

 The head is not fixed on the thorax and therefore it is free to move (mobile).
 The compound eyes are prominent. In addition to these are simple eyes which are three in
number.
 The antennae are short and segmented.
 The mouth parts are a modified proboscis which is curved at the distal end. It is used for lapping
during feeding and also used for construction, the glossa also modified for sucking.
The features on the thorax include pairs of legs which differ in various aspects as shown below.
The fore leg

The fore leg has a pollen comb located at the end of the tibia. This is used for cleaning pollen off the
head.

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The middle leg

These legs possess a hair like structure, prong at the distal end of the tibia. The prong is used for
scooping pollen grains out of the pollen basket on the hind leg.
Hind leg
The leg is hairy with pollen baskets, which are responsible for carrying pollen grains.
These have pollen baskets on their tibia which are used for carrying the collected pollen grain to the
hive. They also possess tufts of hairs on the tarsus called pollen brush which are used for cleaning
pollen off the body into the basket on the other leg.
Wings:
There are two pairs of membranous and transparent wings. The hind wings are smaller than the fore
wings and are interlocked with the latter by means of hooks.
Abdomen:
Features on the abdomen include the first abdominal segment usually being fused with the
metathoracic segments. The last segment of abdomen has the stinging device. They have flexible
segments which allow the bee to bend, stretch, and expand during breathing and stinging.
The abdomen has six segments four of which contain wax glands.
1. The Worker bees:

These are sterile females. They occur in large numbers within the colony. They perform most of the work in
the hive and that is why they are called workers.

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The roles of workers include;
 They collect food for other bees in the hive.
 They guard the hive and protect other bees.
 They protect the hive.
2. The drone bees:

These are male bees. They are larger than workers and are usually very few in the hive. Their role is to fertilize
the queen after which they are stung to death by workers.
3. The queen.
This is the fertile female bee. It is usually one in the hive. Its work is to produce all the other bees in the hive.
Life cycle of a bee

Like a butterfly, a bee undergoes complete metamorphosis and differs in length after the larva stage
depending on what the larva is fed on. Therefore food will determine the caste to be developed. This
is summarized below
Workers take 21 days
Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult
3 days 6 days 12 days
The larva here is fed on bees’ milk (royal jelly) for 3 days followed by a mixture of honey and pollen.
Queen takes 16 days

Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult
3 days 6 days 7 days
Here the larva is fed on royal jelly for 3 days and after on a mixture of pollen grain.
Generally the queen bee is the only female in the bee hive and therefore the only capable one to lay
eggs.
Also it is the largest caste, each bee hive has only one queen. She mates only once in her life time
with only one drone. The eggs produced are of two types, both fertilized and unfertilized.
The fertilized one develops into queens and workers while unfertilized ones develop into drones.
Note that in fertilized eggs, the type of food fed to the larva determines whether the caste will be
queen or worker.
The queen does not do any work in the bee hive. It is fed and nursed by the workers. It has a sting
she uses to kill other developing queens so as to remain the only queen in the hive.
The old queen leaves the hive just before the new queen hatches from the pupa and goes away from
the hive with a few drones in a swarm.
The drones are the only male bees in a hive. They result from unfertilized eggs of the queen. Only
one of the drones and queen go out on a nuptial flight, like the queen, the drone does not do any work
in the hive. They are fed by the workers. But in case of food shortage, some of them are killed by
workers i.e. stung to death.
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The workers on their side do not lay eggs because they are infertile females. They are the smallest in
size among the bees but are the most humorous in the hive. They perform the following duties among
others.
i) Cleaning the bee hive by eating away dirt and rubbish.
ii) Feeding the old grubs (larva) on honey and pollen.
iii) Packing and storing honey and pollen in the cells of the honey comb.
iv) Feeding the young grubs on their milk produced by their own salivary glands.
v) Producing wax from their wax glands.
vi) Field work to collect food and pollen.
vii) Guarding the bee hive against any enemies.
NB
The wax produced is used for building the honey combs in which the honey is stored and eggs are
laid.
The wax is usually formed of sweat after they have eaten too much honey.
Economic importance of bees

 Source of honey which is a rich food (carbohydrate)
 Pollinate plants most of which provide food for man.
 Provide wax used in industry to make candles, varnish, shoe polish etc.
 Their honey is a drug for many diseases like cough.
 They are useful specimen for biological studies.
 The worker bees stings inflict irritation on our bodies.
WHY INSECTS ARE BIOLOGICALLY SUCCESSFUL

Insects are mainly terrestrial arthropods that have specialized features and behaviours. These features
have enabled the insects to live almost in any part of the world. There are approximately 70,000
different species of insects.
1. Insects have a high rate of fertility and reproduction. They lay many eggs at once such that when
some are destroyed, many survive and develop into adults. They increase in number very rapidly
because their life cycles are short. i.e. they take few months or days.
2. Their bodies are covered with waxy cuticle made of chitin which does not allow water to pass
through hence reducing dehydration of insects in different environments.
3. Insects have a wide range of modification in their mouth parts that are adapted to feeding on
different foods. E.g. the adult butterflies feed on nectar while the caterpillars feed on plant leaves.
This reduces competition for food.
4. Some insects have developed wings for flying and all have legs for walking, thus enables the
insects to disperse successfully, easily escape from enemies (predators) and as a means of looking
for food.
5. Possession of exoskeleton and some have fore wings hardened to provide mechanical support.

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6. Majority are small in size. Hence they take in little food, occupy small space and escape easily
from enemies. Others have variable shapes to fit their mode of life in the locality they live in e.g.
cock roaches’ body is dorsal-ventrally flattened for easy passage in narrow path ways (crevices).
7. Some insects have a variety of colours for camouflage and some spots that have false aggressive
and warning appearance to predators e.g. false eyes on the wings of butterflies.
PHYLUM: CHORDATA
Chordate refers to animals which possess a notochord.
 The presence of a notochord during the early stages of development.
 They have bilateral symmetry.
 The body is composed of head, trunk and usually a tail at some stage of development.
 Possess a hollow dorsal nerve cord.
 They have pharyngeal clefts.
 They limbs originate from different body segments.
This phylum mainly consists of the vertebrates and they are divided into 5 classes. The 5 classes
include the following;
1. Pisces (fishes) e.g. tilapia and the Nile perch,
2. Amphibia, e.g. frogs and toads
3. Reptilia e.g. snakes, lizards, crocodiles
4. Aves - birds
5. Mammalia e.g. man and whale
CLASS: PISCES
This class contains fish.
Characteristics of organisms in class Pisces

 They live in water
 They have a streamlined body
 They scales on their skin
 They breathe using gills
 They have fins for swimming.
 They have eggs that are fertilized outside the body (externally)
 They are ectothermic – they rely on external conditions to maintain their body temperature.
The fish is further sub divided into two sub classes, namely chondrichthyes and osteichthyes.
Sub class: chondrichthyes

Chondrichthyes are also referred to as Elasmobranches. These are cartilaginous fish. They include
sharks, rays, dogfish and skates.
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Subclass: Osteichthyes
Osteichthyes are also known as teleosts. Teleosts are bony fish.
Examples of bony fishes include tilapia and herring.
The figure below shows a tilapia fish
Differences between bony and cartilaginous fish

Bony fish Cartilaginous fish
Have a bony skeleton Have a cartilaginous skeleton
Have smooth, overlapping, round-shaped Have scales that are not round shaped-rough
scales skin.
Have opercula (gill covers) covering their gills. Have no opercula, but have gill slits.
Have homocercal tails ( in 2 equal parts) Have heterocercal tails (in 2 parts of unequal
size)
Swim forwards and back wards Can only swim forwards
Have a gas-filled swim bladder that controls Have no swim bladder
buoyancy.
CLASS: AMPHIBIA
This class includes the newt, salamander, toad and frog. The word amphibian comes from two greek
words: amphi- (both) and bios (life). This means that amphibians spend part of their life (as larvae or
tadpoles) in water, and part of their life as adults on land. Amphibians live on land but require water
for breeding.

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 Amphibians have a soft moist skin without scales.
 They have a bony skeleton.
 They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs. A pentadactyl is one which has five digits
 They have visceral clefts at the larval stages which are used as gills for gaseous exchange. Adult
amphibians use lungs for gaseous exchange.
 Amphibians have middle and an inner ear but no external ear. However, they have a tympanic
membrane also called the ear drum
 The egg of amphibians are laid in water and fertilized externally.
 An amphibian has a three-chambered heart with two auricles and a ventricle.
 They are poikilothermic / ectothermic.
CLASS: REPTILIA
Reptiles are mainly terrestrial with the exception of the turtle which lives in water.
Examples of reptiles include the lizard, snake, crocodile, tortoise and turtle.
 Reptiles have dry skin with horny scales
 Their skeleton is made up of bones
 Most reptiles have pentadactyl limbs
 Some reptiles have a middle and inner ear. Snakes have no middle ear.
 Reptiles do not have an external ear.
 They use lungs for carrying out gaseous exchange
 Their eggs are fertilized internally and laid on land. Some snakes give birth to live young ones
 Some reptiles have a three-chambered heart; two auricles and one ventricle. Others have four
chambered heart for example crocodile.
 Reptiles are poikilothermic.
CLASS: AVES
Aves refer to birds. There exists a wide variety of birds. Examples of birds include eagle, ducks,
flamingo, heron, dove etc.

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 The skin of birds is covered by feathers, except the legs which are covered by horny scales. The
feathers keep the bird warm and also used for flight.
 They have skeleton is made of hollow bones. The hollow and light bones reduce weight and
enable flight.
 They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs. The fore limbs modified into wings for flight while the
hind are feet for walking or swimming.
 They have middle and inner ear but no external one. However, the have tympanic membrane.
 They use lungs for gaseous exchange.
 They have beak for feeding.
 They have internal fertilization. They lay eggs in calcareous shells.
 Their hearts have four chambers.
 They are ectothermic.
 They show parental care.
CLASS: MAMMALIA
Mammals comprise a wide variety of animals. They mostly occupy terrestrial habitats except few
which occupy aquatic habitats. Examples of terrestrial mammals are cows pigs, goats, monkeys, rats,
lions etc. and the aquatic mammals are seals, dolphins and whales.
 The skins of mammals are covered by hairs or fur.
 The skin has sweat glands called sebaceous glands.
 They have an endoskeleton made up of bones.
 They use lungs for breathing or gaseous exchange.

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 They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
 They have an external, middle and inner ear.
 They have four types of teeth for feeding.
 They have four chambered heart.
 They have muscular diaphragm which separates the thoracic organs from the abdominal organs.
 Their brains are well developed thus intelligent.
 They are homoeothermic.
 They have internal fertilization.
 They have mammary glands.
 Give birth to live young ones except the platypus.
Class Mammalia is divided into 3 sub classes;

1. Monotrema
These are the egg laying mammals. They include the spiny anti eaters, and the duck billed
platypus.
2. Metatheria
These are the marsupials which keep their immature young ones in the pouch where they
continue to grow. They include the Kangaroos, Wallaby, Koala bear, etc.
3. Eutheria
They have placenta. They give birth to fully developed young ones and suckle the mammary
glands. They include man, rats, cows, goats, etc.
KINGDOM: PLANTAE
The kingdom Plantae comprises a variety of plants.
 They are mostly green in colour thus carry out photosynthesis
 They are multicellular.
 They exhibit; limited movements such as opening and closing of petals etc.
 Their cells are surrounded by cellulose cell wall.
 They respond slowly to external stimuli and do not move from one place to another.
The kingdom is sub divided into three divisions, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, spermatophyta and the
algae.
DIVISION: BRYOPHYTA
The division is comprised of liverworts and moss plants.
 They have simple leaves and rhizoids that are root-like structures. They are used mainly for
anchorage.
 Plants lack vascular bundles thus depend on diffusion for movement of materials.
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 They are photosynthetic.
 They are found in sheltered and wet areas.
 Their life cycle consists of the two generations which alternate a gametophyte and sporophyte
generation
Examples are mosses and liverworts which belong to 2 classes; musci and hepatica respectively.
DIVISION: TRACHEOPHYTA
These show alternation of generations. The sporophytes differentiate into roots, stems and leaves with
lignified vascular tissues that are used for conducting water and food.
This division is divided into 2 sub-phyla:
1. Pteridophyta
2. Spermatophyta
Pteridophyta
This is made up of ferns. Ferns are commonly found in shaded places which are damp with cool
temperature. Some ferns grow on trees as epiphytes.
The body of a sporophyte fern is divided into leaves, stems and roots. The leaves are called fronds
while the stems are rhizomes. The spore forming structures are called sporophyta which occur on the
underneath (side) of a frond in clusters called sori.
 The sporophyte is the dominant generation while gametophyte generation is short lived.
 The rhizomes grow horizontally below the soil surface.
 Ferns have well-delivered conducting tissues i.e. vascular bundles. The xylem also supports the
plants.
 They have the adventitious roots which anchor the plants into the soil and absorb materials.
DIVISION: SPERMATOPHYTA
The spermatophyta comprises of well-developed plants which are adapted to a variety of habitats.
The habitats include terrestrial and aquatic. The seed are either contained inside the ovary wall or
exposed.
 The body is divided into leaves, stem and root system
 Plants have complex and well developed vascular tissues.
 The supporting tissues like xylem, sclerenchyma and collenchyma, are found in leaves, stem and
roots. Turgid parenchyma cells also provide support.
 Reproduce sexually.
 Sporophyte generation is greatly reduced and short-lived( flower)
The division is subdivided into two sub divisions:
Gymnospermae (cone bearing plants)

For K.H.S
These are commonly found in high lands/ altitudes areas. They show xerophytic characteristics such
as sunken stomata, needle-like leaves, thick waxy cuticle to prevent or reduce rate of transpiration.
Examples include pines, cypress, cedar tree, cycads, jacaranda, and bougainvillea.
Gymnospermae refers to plants whose seeds are not enclosed.
 They are non-flowering plants.
 Their seeds are found in the cone scale.
 Have needle like leaves which reduce the rate of transpiration.
 Found in high altitudes and can carry out photosynthesis at low temperatures.
Angiospermae (flowering plants)

These are flowering plants where seeds are enclosed in the ovary of the fruits.
 They are flowering plants
 Their seeds are enclosed in the ovary from where the fruits develop
 The reproductive organs are found within the flower
These are sub divided into two classes. Monocotyledonae and dicotyledonae.
Monocotyledonae
These are mainly grass family. Examples include wheat, rice, barley, star grass, sorghum, maize,
millet sugarcane etc.
 Seeds have one cotyledon
 Have fibrous root system
 Have parallel veins in their leaves
 Leaves are generally narrow and long.
 Vascular bundles are scattered in the stem cross section
 Lack vascular cambium, i.e. no secondary thickening of the stem.
 Flowers are held on an inflorescence.
 The floral parts are in threes or multiples of threes.
Dicotyledonae
These include herbs, shrubs and trees. Herbs are non woody plants so turgidity of cells supports them.
Shrubs and trees have stems with supporting tissues such as xylem.
Examples include beans, jacaranda, hibiscus, etc.
 Have seeds with two cotyledons
 They have tap root system.
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 Have network (reticulate) venation.
 Leaves are generally broad and short.
 Vascular bundles are radially arranged in the stem cross section.
 Have vascular cambium for secondary thickening.
 The floral parts are in fours or fives or in their multiples.
Question
State the differences between monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants.

Classification of Living Organisms

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Classification of Living Organisms

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Kings Play Cards On Fat Green Stools

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Binomial system of nomenclature:

Rules of binomial system of nomenclature

Examples of some scientific name for common organisms

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General structure of bacterium

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Economic importance of bacteria

Main features of Protoctista

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Examples of protozoa include Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Trypanosome and plasmodium.

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Characteristics of Class Cilliophora (ciliata) e.g paramecium and vorticella

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Economic and ecological importance of protozoans:

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Diagram of Spirogyra (a filamentous alga)

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Sporangium containing spore

Structure of a mush room

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A thick wall develops

Under favorable conditions

Economic importance of fungi

1. Phylum: Porifera – the sponges

2. Phylum: Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

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3. Phylum: Platyhelminthes (flat worms)

The phylum has 3 main classes;

i) Turbellaria e.g. Planarians

ii) Trematoda e.g. Liver fluke

 They live as endo parasites in cattle, goats and man.

iii) Cestoda e.g Tape worm

4. Phylum: Nematoda ( round worms)

5. Phylum: Annelida (ringed worm)

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The main characteristics of class Insecta

Other distinguishing characteristics

Their success on land is attributed to:

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Isoptera Has similar wings Termites

Lepidoptera Has scale wings Moths, butterflies

1. Complete metamorphosis (holometabolous);

2. Incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous);

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Characteristics of order Lepidoptera

Butterflies and moths

Differences between a butterfly and a moth

The life cycle of a butterfly

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Economic importance of citrus butterfly

Control measures against butterflies

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Characteristics of order: Dictyoptera

Adaptation of a cockroach to its environment

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