2|4 1 reverse order Data Storage Techniques

2|2 0
1 0
So, (75)10 = (1001011)2
The method to convert the fraction decimal number to its binary
equivalent, is repeatedly multiply the fraction part by 2 until it becomes
zero and count the most significant bits (MSB) in the order they appear.
In a binary number, the extreme left bit is called a most significant bit
and the extreme right bit is called least significant bit (LSB). In some
cases the fractional part may not becomes zero, and the process will
continue. For such a case an approximation is made.
Example : Convert decimal fraction (12.75)10 to its equivalent
binary fraction.
2|12 Remainder .75 MSB
2|6 0 2
2|3 0 1.50 1
1 1 .50
2
1.00 1
Here, the fractional part becomes zero
So, (12)10 = (1100)2 and (.75)10 = (.11)2
Now, (12.75)10 = (1100.11)2
Check Your Progress – 1 :
1. Converts the following :
(a) 32 bytes = ......... bits
(b) 128 bits = ......... bytes
(c) 64 bits = ......... nibbles
(d) 16 KB = ......... bytes = ......... bits
(e) 64 MB = ......... KB = ......... bytes
(f) 4 GB = ......... MB = ......... KB
2. Convert the following decimal number into binary :
(a) 120, (b) 32.25
3. Convert the following binary number into decimal number :
(a) 1001101, (b) 11.1010

2.4 Computer Memory :

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 Management & and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, today
Information System the term storage more commonly refers to mass storage such as optical
discs, forms of magnetic storage like hard disks and other types. All these
are slower than memory, but of a more permanent nature. Generally, the
computer memory is divided into two category : primary memory and
secondary memory. The term primary memory is used to represent the
memory and the term secondary memory is used to represent the storage.
Primary memory is directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU
continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them. Any data
actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. It is a form
of semiconductor storage known as random access memory (RAM) and
sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. It is small-sized,
light, but quite expensive. This type of memory is divided into the
following two types :
(a) RAM (Random Accress Memory)
(b) ROM (Read Only Memory)
2.4.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) :
A machine's main memory is often referred to as RAM - an area
in the computer system unit that temporarily holds user data, operating
system instructions and program instructions. Every time we turn on our
computer, a set of operating system instructions is copied from hard disk
into RAM. These instructions, which help control basic computer functions,
remain in RAM until we turn the computer off.
RAM features :
(a) Data that needs to be processed and the instructions which are used
for processing are held in the RAM.
(b) RAM is a cluster of semi-conductor devices. The elements of RAM
change with the proper application (changes) of the electric current.
(c) Each element of RAM is a memory location in which data can
be stored. Each location has a unique address. Using this address
data can be directly retrieved and stored.
(d) Since RAM must hold both the data to be processed and the
instructions for processing, its size or capacity is one of the measure
of power of the computer.
(e) The contents of RAM need to be stored periodically onto a secondary
memory since power failure will erase the contents of RAM because
of which this memory is also called volatile memory.
There are generally two broad categories of random access memory :
(i) DRAM memories (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
(ii) SRAM memories (Static Random Access Memory)
2.4.2 Read Only Memory :
One major type of memory that is used in PCs is called read-only
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memory, or ROM for short. ROM is a type of memory that normally Data Storage Techniques
can only be read, as opposed to RAM which can be both read and write.
The instructions in ROM are permanent whether the power is on or off.
We have no way to change them, unless we remove the ROM chips
from the main board and replace them with another set.
Read-only memory is most commonly used to store system- level
programs that we want to have available to the PC at all times. The
most common example is the ROM-BIOS (ROM basic input and output
services) program, which is use to boot up the system. The term boot
is used to describe the initial loading of an operating system or of some
other program into a computer. The word "boot" comes from the term
"bootstrap".
The following are the different types of ROMs with a description
of their relative modifiability :
• Programmable ROM (PROM) : This is a type of ROM that can
be programmed using special equipment; it can be written to, but
only once.
• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) : An EPROM is a
ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed. Ultraviolet light of
a specific frequency is used for erasing the EPROM and allow it
to be reprogrammed again.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) : The
next level of erasability is the EEPROM, which can be erased under
software control. This is the most flexible type of ROM, and is
now commonly used for holding BIOS programs.
2.4.3 Cache Memory and Virtual Memory :
Another two types of memory used in a computers are - cache
memory and virtual memory.
• Cache Memory : Cache memory is a special type of RAM which
is the faster memory used in a computer system in between the
CPU and main memory. It means that the accessing speed from
the cache memory is faster than the main memory used in computer.
So, the use of the cache memory reduces the average access time
and helps the processor for fast processing. The Cache memory
stores the instructions and data that are frequently needed by the
processor for execution. Cache memory chip is a static memory
chip It is much expensive than the main memory. Cache size varies
from 32 MB to 128MB or 512MB etc.
• Virtual Memory : An operating system technique that uses swapping
techniques to increase the apparent size of actual memory. Virtual
Memory is the ability of a computer to use disk storage to simulate
RAM. Virtual Memory allows computers without enough RAM to
run large programs, manipulate large data files, and run more than
one program at a time. One disadvantage of virtual memory is
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 Management & reduced performance. With most of today's operating systems the
Information System computer uses space on our computer's hard disk drive as an
extension of RAM. It takes longer to retrieve data from virtual
memory than from RAM because the disk is a mechanical device
so access time is slower.
2.4.4 Secondary Memory :
Secondary memory or storage provides the facility of storing
information and programs permanently. It differs from primary memory
in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually
uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers
desired data using intermediate area in primary memory. Secondary storage
does not lose the data when the device is powered down; it is non-volatile.
It is less expensive than primary memory.
In modern computers, hard disks are usually used as secondary
storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on
a hard disk is order of few milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to
access a given byte of information stored in random access memory is
measured in nanoseconds. Some other examples of secondary storage
devices are :
optical disk, floppy disks, magnetic tape, Paper tape, Punch
Cards, standalone RAM disks, flash memory ( e.g. USB sticks or
keys), and Zip drives.
The characteristics that are used for the classification of various
types of storage are :
• Storage Capacity : It is a representative of the size of the memory.
The capacity of internal memory and main memory can be expressed
in terms of number of words or bytes. The storage capacity of
external memory is normally measured in terms of bytes.
• Access Modes : A memory is considered to consists of various
memory locations. The information from these memory locations
can be accessed in the following ways :
• Random Access : It is the mode in which memory locations can
be accessed in any order in the same amount of time.
• Sequential Access : Sequential access also known as serial access
where the device must read or move through all information up
to the point it is attempting to read or write. A tape drive is an
example of a sequential access drive, where the drive must move
the tape forward or backwards until it reaches its destination.
• Direct Access : A direct access storage device is one in which any
location in the device may be selected at random, access to the
information stored is direct i.e. no need of scanning a series of
records and approximately equal access time is required for each
location. Hard disk, optical disk are the examples of direct access

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