Engineering Economics Arexcin Ray C.

Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Engineering Economics

Concept Formula Notes

P = present worth
Simple F = future worth
F = P(1 + in) i = interest rate
Interest
n = number of years
r
i=
m
Compound
F = P(1 + i)n n = tm
Interest r = compounding rate
m = compounding period
Continuous
F = Pert
Compounding
Effective Rate r m
ER = (1 + ) −1 ER = er − 1
of Interest m
(1 + i)n
F=P
(1 + f)n
Inflation Inflation Adjustment of Nominal Interest Rate: R = equivalent rate
(1 + i) i = interest rate
= (1 + R) f = inflation rate
(1 + f)
Equivalent
ER1 = ER 2
Nominal Rates
A[(1 + i)n − 1]
Annuity F=
i
A
Perpetuity P=
i
OM RC − SV
Capitalized Cost K = FC + +
i (1 + i)n − 1
(RC − SV)i
Annual Cost AC = Ki = FCi + OM +
(1 + i)n − 1
Straight Line Depreciation:
FC − SV
d=
n
Dm = d × m
BVm = FC − Dm d = depreciation charge per year
Dm = running total of depcreciation
Sinking Fund Method: charge up to year m
(FC − SV)i BVm = book value at year m
d=
(1 + i)n − 1
d[(1 + i)m − 1]
Dm =
i
Depreciation
BVm = FC − Dm
Methods
Sum of the Years Digit Method:
n
S = (1 + n)
2 S = sum of the years up to n
n−m+1 dm = depreciation charge for year m
dm = (FC − SV)
S Dm = running total of depcreciation
m
(2n − m + 1) charge up to year m
Dm = (FC − SV) 2
S
BVm = FC − Dm
Declining Balance Method:
SV = FC(1 − K)n

Page 1 of 2
Engineering Economics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

BVm = FC(1 − K)m

Double Declining Balance Method:
2 m
BVm = FC (1 − )
n
2
dm = BVm
n
A bond is a written contract to pay a certain
redemption value (C) on a specified date and to pay
equal dividends (D) periodically.
F = face or par value
Bonds r = bond or dividend rate
C D[(1 + i)n − 1] D = periodic dividend = F × r
P= +
(1 + i)n i(1 + i)n C = redemption value
i = interest rate of return
P = bond price given interest

Page 2 of 2
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Traverse Surveying

Concept Formula Notes

Acute angle measured from north or south
Bearing
to east or west
Angle measured from north or south
Azimuth
clockwise
Departure DEP = Lsinθ
and Latitude LAT = Lcosθ
Closed
∑ DEP = 0 ∑ LAT = 0
Traverse
∑ DEP = eDEP ∑ LAT = eLAT
Linear Error of Closure:
Open
LEC = √eDEP 2 + eLAT 2
Traverse
Bearing of Linear Error of Closure:
eDEP
tan θ =
eLAT
Relative LEC
Relative Error =
Error Total Distance
Compass Rule:
DistanceAB DistanceAB
Corrected LATAB = LATAB − ∙e Corrected DEPAB = DEPAB − ∙e
Total Distance LAT Total Distance DEP
Balancing a
Traverse Transit Rule:
|LATAB | |DEPAB |
Corrected LATAB = LATAB − ∙e Corrected DEPAB = DEPAB − ∙e
Total |LAT| LAT Total |DEP| DEP

Double Meridian Distance (DMD) Method:

1. The DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of the course.
2. The DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the preceding course, plus the departure of the
preceding course, plus the departure of the course itself.
3. The DMD of the last course is numerically equal to the departure of that course, but with the opposite
sign.

Double Area (DA) = DMD × Corrected Latitude

1
Area = ∑|DA|
2
Example:
Course Departure Latitude DMD DA
A 75 120 75 75 × 120 = 9000
Area of a B -25 -80 75 + 75 + -25 = 125 125 × -80 = -10000
Traverse C -50 -40 125 + -25 + -50 = 50 50 × -40 = -2000
∑DA = -3000

1 1
Area = ∑|DA| = |−3000| = 1500
2 2
Double Parallel Distance (DPD) Method:
(Same procedure for DMD but use the latitudes instead of the departures for DPD.)

1
Double Area (DA) = DPD × Corrected Departure → Area = ∑|DA|
2
Complex Method: (ONDEReal i/2 Method)
(Express the sides as complex numbers)

i
[(A)Conjg(B) + (A + B)Conjg(C)] → Area = absolute value of the real part
2

Page 1 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Theory of Errors

Concept Formula Notes

Error Error = Observed Value − True Value
Mean:
x1 + x2 + ⋯ + xn
x̅ =
n

Residual:
v = x − x̅

Statistical Population Sample

Formulas Variance: Variance:
∑ v2 ∑ v2
σ2 = S2 =
n n−1
Population Sample
Standard Deviation: Standard Deviation:
∑ v2 ∑ v2
σ=√ S=√
n n−1

Observations
Single Observations Weighted Observations
Most Probable Value: Most Probable Value:
∑x ∑(wx)
mpv = mpv =
n ∑w
Standard Deviation/Error: Standard Deviation/Error of Unit Weight:
∑ v2 ∑(wv 2 )
E = ±√ E = ±√
n−1 n−1

Standard Eror of the Mean: Standard Error of the Mean:

E E
Em = ± Em = ±
√n √∑ w(n − 1)

Most Probable Error: Most Probable Error:

PE = ±0.6745E PE = ±0.6745E

Most Probable Error of the Mean: Most Probable Error of the Mean:
PEm = ±0.6745Em PEm = ±0.6745Em

Page 2 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Relative PEm
RP =
Precision mpv

The weights are directly proportional to the

number of observations:
w = kn
The weights are inversely proportional to the
Adjustments of
distance and set-ups:
weighted
k k
observations w= w=
d s
The weights are inversely proportional to the
square of its probable errors:
k
w= 2
PE
Total Error of Sum:

Et = ±√EA 2 + EB 2
Propagation of
Errors From:
Total Error of Product:
2 2
∂A ∂B
Et = ±√(AEB )2 + (BEA )2 Et = ±√( × EB ) + ( × EA )
∂B ∂A

Page 3 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Distance Measurement

Concept Formula Notes

1 pace ≈ 76.2 cm
1 stride = 2 paces
Pacing Pace Factor:
distance
PF =
average number of paces
LT = true length
True Distance LT = Lm + CT Lm = measured length
CT = total correction

e = error in measurement
Correction due to Tape: (+) too long
Lm (−) too short
Ca = e Lm = measured length
L
L = tape length

α = coefficient of linear expansion

Lm = measured length
Tm = T during measurement
Correction due to Temperature: TS = T standard
Ct = αLm (Tm − Ts )
For Steel Tape:
α = 11.6 × 10−6 /°C or 6.45 × 10−6 / °F
Ts = 20°C/68°F

Pm = P during measurement
Correction due to Pull: Ps = P standard ≈ 50 N
(Pm − Ps )Lm Lm = measured length
Cp = A = cross − sectional tape area
AE
E = modulus of elasticity of tape

Tape Corrections

Correction due to Sag: w = linear weight of the tape

P = applied pull
w 2 l3 l = measured length between two
Cs = −
24P 2 supported points

Correction due to Slope:

h = vertical rise
h2
Ch = − Lm = measured slope distance
2Lm θ = angle between Lm and horizontal
Ch = −Lm (1 − cos θ)

Correction due to Mean Sea Level: h = altitude of observation

hLm Lm = measured distance
Cmsl = − R = radius of earth ≈ 6400 km
R

Page 4 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Leveling

Concept Formula Notes

Stadia
Method

f
K = stadia interval factor = ≈ 100
Distance: i
D = KScos θ + C S = stadia or rod intercept
θ = LOS angle from the horizontal
C = stadia constant = f + c
Distance Components: f = lens to focus distance
H = Dcos θ V = Dsin θ i = width of lens
c = instrument center to lens distance

Differential
Leveling
Height of Instrument:
HIn = ELn + BSn
Elevation of Next Station: HI = height of instrument from datum
ELn+1 = HIn − FSn+1 EL = elevation from datum
BS = backsight
ΔEL Between Two Stations a-b:
FS = foresight
b−1 b

ELb − ELa = ∑ BSn − ∑ FSn

a a+1

Two Peg Test

Calibration
Solving for ΔAB and e:
Instrument Instrument 𝚫𝐀𝐁 + AA = BA + 𝐞
Near A Near B 𝚫𝐀𝐁 + AB + 𝐞 = BB
Reading at A AA AB Corrections:
Corrected BA = BA + e
Reading at B BA BB
Corrected AB = AB + e

Page 5 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Subtense Bar
Method

L 1 L = bar length ~ 2 m
D= × D = distance
2 tan θ
2 θ = subtended angle

Correction due to
Curvature and
Refraction

Curvature Correction:
D = distance in kilometers
hc = 0.0785D2
Refraction Correction: Due to curvature, the points appear to
hr = −0.011D2 be lower than they really are.
Due to refraction, the points appear to
Combined Correction:
be higher than they really are.
hcr = 0.0675D2

Page 6 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Horizontal Curves

Concept Formula Notes

Arc Basis:
Based in a 20m arc (metric)
3600 or a 100ft arc (english)
R= (meters)
Radius of πD
Curvature Chord Basis:
Based in a 20m chord (metric)
10
R= (meters) or a 100ft chord (english)
sin(D/2)

PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI = point of intersection
PC to PI = backward tangent
PI to PT = forward tangent
RP = radius point
I = angle of intersection
R = radius of curvature
T = tangent distance
L = long chord
Lc = length of curve
E = external distance
M = middle ordinate

Radius, Tangent, and External Distance:

I T
tan ( ) =
2 R
I
T = R tan ( )
2

I R
cos ( ) =
2 R+E
I
E = R sec ( ) − R
2
Simple Curve

Radius, Long Chord, and Middle Ordinate: I L/2

sin ( ) =
2 R
I
L = 2R sin ( )
2

I R−M
cos ( ) =
2 R
I
M = R − R cos ( )
2

Deflection Angle and Offset Distance:

o = offset distance
i = deflection angle
l = offset chord

Rules in Stationing:
Station PC = Station PI − T
Station o = Station PC + S
Station PT = Station PC + Lc

Page 7 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI = point of intersection
PCC = compound curvature point
RP = radius point
I = angle of intersection
R = radius of curvature
T = tangent distance
L = long chord
Lc = length of curve

Triangle PI- PI1-PI2:

θ = 360 − (I1 + I2 )
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent

Compound Curve

Triangle PI-PC-PT:

θ = 360 − (I1 + I2 )

Triangle PCC-PC-PT:

θ 360 − (I1 + I2 )
α= =
2 2

Rules in Stationing:
Station PC = Station PI − T − x
Station PCC = Station PC + Lc1
Station PT = Station PCC + Lc2

Page 8 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI = point of intersection
PCC = compound curvature point
RP = radius point
I = angle of intersection
R = radius of curvature
Reverse Curve T = tangent distance
L = long chord
Lc = length of curve

Rules in Stationing:
Station PC = Station PI1 − T1
Station PRC = Station PC + Lc1
Station PT = Station PCC + Lc2

Spiral Curve
TS = tangent to spiral Ts = tangent distance
ST = spiral to tangent yc = distance from TS to SC
PI = point of intersection measured along the tangent
θ = angle of intersection xc = offset distance from
SC = spiral to curve tangent to SC
CS = curve to spiral P = length of throw
R = radius of the simple curve E = PI to simple curve
θc = angle of intersection Ls = length of spiral
of the simple curve is = deflection angle from TS to SC
θs = spiral angle from SC Dc = degree of simple curve
Length of Throw: 𝑥1 Distance:
xc Ls
P = Xc − (R − R cos θs ) ≈ x1 = yc − R sin θs ≈
4 2
Tangent Distance: External Distance:
Ls θ θ
Ts = + (R + P) tan E = (R + P) sec − R
2 2 2

Page 9 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

X Offset Distance from Tangent: Y Distance Along Tangent:

L3 L5
x= y=L−
6RLs 40R2 L2s
Spiral Angle: Deflection Angle:
L2 θ
θ= i=
2RLs 3
I:L2 Relationship: D:L Relationship:
i L2 D L
= 2 =
is L s Dc Ls
Minimum Length of Spiral:
Pmin = minimum length of throw
Ls min = √24RPmin
R = radius of circular curve (m)
0.036v 3 v = design speed (kph)
Lsmin =
R
Maximum Length of Spiral:
Pmax = usually taken as 1
Ls max = √24RPmax = √24R
Superelevation/Banking of Curve: R = radius (m)
v = design speed (kph)
v2
R= e = superlevation
127(e + f) f = friction coefficient

Page 10 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Vertical Curves

Concept Formula Notes

Page 11 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Earthworks

Concept Formula Notes

Station Notes:
x = distance from centerline
xL 0 xR
y = depth of cut/fill
yL yC yR
1 w 1 w
A = ( ) (yL ) + ( ) (yR )
2 2 2 2
Three-Level Section (CUT) 1 1
Cross-Section + (yC )(x L ) + (yC )(x R )
2 2
Method
Pattern: ½ of

w xL 0 xR
2 yL yC yR

End-Area Method: L = distance between station 1 and 2

L A1 = cross − sectional area of STA 1
VE = (A1 + A2 ) A2 = cross − sectional area of STA 2
2
ΔVP = prismoidal correction
Volume Prismoidal Formula:
Approximation L Am = cross − section area at L/2
VP = (A1 + 4Am + A2 )
Methods 6 Note: Am is not the average of A1 and A2 ,
it is the area of the average station notes
or
D1 = x L + xR of STA 1
VP = VE − ΔVP D2 = x L + xR of STA 2
L
ΔVP = (D − D2 )(C1 − C2 ) C1 = center height of STA 1
12 1 C2 = center height of STA 2

Also known as unit-area method. It

divides the land into prisms of square
bases, thus, the solid will be made up
of smaller truncated prisms which the
volume can be computed using:

hc1 + hc2 + h3 + hc4

Vi = A [ ]
4

hc# = corner height of corner #

A = square area of the prism base

Borrow-Pit
Method
A = cross − sectional area of the
base of each truncated prism
∑ h1 = summation of heights
used only once
∑ h2 = summation of heights
used only twice
∑ h3 = summation of heights
used only thrice
∑ h4 = summation of heights
used only four times

∑ h1 + 2 ∑ h2 + 3 ∑ h3 + 4 ∑ h4
V = A[ ]
4

Page 12 of 13
Surveying Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Mass Haul
Diagram
Characteristics:
1. Rising or upward sloping sections of the mass diagram indicates cut.
2. Falling or downward sloping sections of the mass diagram indicates fill.
3. The difference in ordinates between any two points indicate the net cumulative volume.
4. Any horizontal line drawn to intersect two points within the same curve indicates a balance cut and
fill quantities between to stations.
5. The highest or lowest points of the mass diagram represents where the roadway coincides with the
natural ground level. It also represents the transition from cut to fill or vice versa.
Key Terms:
1. Haul Distance – The distance from the working face of the excavation to the tipping point.
2. Average Haul Distance (AHD) – The distance from the center of gravity of the cutting to the filling.
3. Free Haul Distance (FHD) – The extra distance over which the cost of hauling will justify the amount
of earth to be bought.
4. Overhaul Distance (OHD) – The extra distance of transport of earthwork volume beyond the FHD.
Overhaul Distance:
OHD = AHD − FHD
Limits of Economic Haul: Cb = cost per cubic meter of borrow
Ch = cost per cubic meter of overhaul
LEH = FHD + OHD
per length of station
Cb S = length of each station
LEH = FHD + S
Ch usually taken as 20 m

Page 13 of 13
Transportation Engineering Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Traffic Engineering

Concept Formula Notes

A sub-discipline of transportation engineering that studies
Traffic
the safe and efficient movement of people and goods in
Engineering roadways.
N = number of vehicles
L = length of roadway
Symbols and v = velocity or spot speed TMS = time mean speed
c = length of one car
Notations ρ = traffic density SMS = space mean speed
t = time
q = traffic flow
The mean speed is the average of all
Time Mean ∑v vehicles passing a point over a duration
TMS = of time. It is simply the arithmetic mean
Speed N
of the spot speeds.
The space mean speed is also the
Space Mean N q hs
SMS = or SMS = or SMS = average of speed but instead of using
1 ρ ht time (temporal) as weight for each
Speed ∑
v data, this one uses space (spatial).
N The number of vehicles over a stretch of
Traffic Density ρ= highway. Expressed in vehicles per km.
L
N The rate at which vehicles pass a fixed
Traffic Flow q= point. Expressed in vehicles per hour.
t
1 Difference in position of vehicles
Space Headway hs =
ρ arriving in a certain point.
1 Difference in time of vehicles arriving
Time Headway ht =
q in a certain point.
v
Capacity C=
hs
λ λ = arrival rate
Intensity I= μ = departure rate
μ
f = fatal
f+i
Severity Ratio SR = i = injury
f+i+d d = property damage
q cap qcap = flow capacity of highway
Jam Density ρj = 4
vflow vflow = flow speed
Design of VT VT = volume of traffic
DHV = PHF = peak hour factor
Highway Volume PHF
60
Volume of Traffic VT = PHF × Vn ( )
n
V VT q
Peak Hour Factor PHF = = =
60
4V15 V ( ) VT
n n
R = accident rate for
100 million vehicle miles
Vehicles Traversing a Highway Segment: A = number of accidents during
R A the period of analysis
= ADT = average daily traffic
100,000,000 ADT × N × 365 × L
Accident Rates N = time period in years
L = length of segment in miles
Vehicles Entering an Intersection:
R = accident rate for 1 million
R A
= vehicles entering the intersection
1,000,000 ADT × N × 365

Page 1 of 4
Transportation Engineering Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

λ < μ → Unsaturated
Degree of λ = arrival rate
λ = μ → Saturated μ = departure rate
Saturation
λ > μ → Oversaturated
X = arrival rate nature
General Format:
Y = departure rate nature
X/Y/N N = number of service channel
Queue Notations
Popular Notations: D = deterministic distribution
D/D/1, M/M/1 M = exponential distribution

D/D/1 Queue
Graphical
Analysis

Average Number of Vehicles in the System:

λ I
Nave = =
μ−λ 1−I
Average Waiting Time per Vehicle:
Nave
Tw =
μ
Average Serving Time per Vehicle:
1
Ts =
μ

Average Total Waiting Time per Vehicle:

T = Tw + Ts
M/M/1 Queue
Average Number of Vehicles in Waiting Line:
I2
Nwaiting = λ × Tw =
1−I
Probability that Exactly ‘x’ Vehicles will Arrive:
e−λ λx
P=
x!
Probability that Exactly ‘N’ Vehicles in Queue:
P(n) = pn (1 − p)

Probability that Another Vehicle Arrives Within

Next ‘t’ Time:
P = 1 − e−λt

Page 2 of 4
Transportation Engineering Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Sight Distance

Concept Formula Notes

Definition:
The length of unobstructed view of the driver
Types:
1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
- also known as the Absolute Minimum Sight Distance
2. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
- twice the SSD
Sight Distance 3. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
- sight distance required for a safe passing of vehicles
4. Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)
- distance visible to driver during nighttime using headlight
Elements:
1. Driver Eye Height
2. Object Height
3. Design Speed and Vehicle Type
reaction distance = vt
v2
braking distance =
v2 2g(f ± G)
Stopping Sight
SSD = vt + v = velocity
Distance (SSD) 2g(f ± G) t = reaction time ≈ 2.5 sec
f = friction of roadway coefficient
G = grade of roadway
For Summit Curve: Case 1: S < L
2
200L(√h1 + √h2 )
SD = √
A

Case 2: S > L
2
1 200(√h1 + √h2 )
SD = [L + ]
2 A
Sight Distance for A = |g1 − g 2 |%
Case 1: S < L
Vertical Curves
For Sag Curve: 200L(h + SD tan β)
SD = √
A

Case 2: S > L
1 200(h + SD tan β)
SD = [L + ]
2 A
A = |g1 − g 2 |%
Note: take h = 0.60 m and β = 1°
Desirable Length 2
AK
Lsag = K = design velocity in kph
of Sag Curve 395
Case 1: The Sight Distance is less
Than the Length of the Curve. (S < L)

S = √8MR
Horizontal Sight M = clearance from CL of road
Distance Case 2: The Sight Distance is less R = radius of curve
Than the Length of the Curve. (S > L)

1 8MR + L2
S= [ ]
2 L

Page 3 of 4
Transportation Engineering Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Asphalt Mixture

Concept Formula Notes

From:
Px Py Pz Px+y+z
+ + =
Gx Gy Gz G
Absolute Specific
100%
Gravity of G= Gs = specific gravity of sands
Ps Pf Pa
Composite Gs + Gf + Ga
Gf = specific gravity of filler
Ga = specific gravity of asphalt
Aggregates
Ps = percentage of sand weight
Pf = pecentage of filler weight
Pa = percentage of asphalt weight
wa = weight of compacted specimen
Bulk Specific wa in air
Gb =
Gravity wa − ww ww = weight of compacted specimen
in water
Gsb = bulk specific gravity of the
Gse − Gsb aggregate blend
Asphalt
Pba = 100 ( ) Gb Gse = effective specific gravity of
Absorption Gse Gsb the aggregate blend
Gb = specific gravity of asphalt
G − Gb
Air Voids (%) Air Voids (%) =
G
Concrete Mix This ratio represents the volume
Cement: Sand: Gravel required per 1 volume of concrete
Ratio
Volume Required rρx
of ‘x’ per 1 Bag of Vx/1 bag cement = (Vconc/1 bag cement )
Gx ρw
Cement
Total Volume
Vx = (Nbags of cement )(Vconc/1 bag cement )(r)
Required of ‘x’
No Dowels:
For Rigid Pavements with Dowels:
Thickness of a
3P Load at Corner: use P/2
Rigid Pavement t=√ Load at Center: use P/4
f
Cone
Distribution
Approximation Dispersion Method using 1:1 Slope
for Flexible
Pavements

Page 4 of 4
Ports and Harbor Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Ports and Harbor

Concept Formula Notes

L = wave length
H = amplitude
Steepness = H/L
d = depth of still water
ho = height of CL above still water

Saint-Venant and Flamant Theory:

π H2 2πd
ho = coth ( )
4 L L

Properties of
Waves

L
Deep Water Wave: (d ≥ 2)
gL
v2 =
2π
L L v = wave velocity
Transitional Water Wave: (2 > d > 25) L
T = period =
gL 2πd v
v2 = tanh ( ) g = gravitational acceleration
2π L
L
Shallow Water Waves: (d ≤ 25)
v 2 = gd

Page 1 of 1
Construction Methods and Management Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024

Earthmoving Materials and Operations

Concept Formula Notes

V = volumes per cycle
Production P = VC C = cycles per hour
Cost per Unit of Cost per hour
C/UPr =
Production Production per hour
wmoist − wdry Wdry = dry weight
Moisture Content MC = × 100%
wdry wmoist = moist weight
wb
Shrinkage = (1 − ) × 100%
Shrinkage & wc
Swell wb
Swell = ( − 1) × 100%
wl wb = bank unit weight
Load Factor: wc = compacted unit weight
wl = loose unit weight
wl 1
LF = or LF =
wb 1 + Swell Note: wl < wb < wc
Volume Factors
Shrinkage Factor:
wb 1
SF = or SF =
wc 1 − Shrinkage
Compacted Volume: From:
Vl wl = Vb wb = Vc wc
Vc = Vb × SF
Soil Volume
Relationship Loose Volume: Vb = bank volume
Vc = compacted volume
Vl = Vb ÷ LF
Vl = loose volume
From:
Triangular Spoil Bank: 1 1 B
V = Abase L → BHL → B ( tan R) L
2 2 2
4V
B=√ V = pile volume
L tan R
B = base width
B H = pile height
H= tan R L = pile length
2
Spoil Banks R = angle of repose
From:
Conical Spoil Pile: 1 1 π D
V = Abase H = ( D2 ) ( tan R)
3 3 4 2
3 24V
D= √
π tan R V = pile volume
D D = diameter of pile base
H= × tan R R = angle of repose
2 H = pile height
Pit Excavations:
Volume = Horizontal area × Average depth
Estimating Trench Excavations:
Earthwork Volume = Cross − sectional area × Length
Volumes Large Areas:
Sum of products of depth × Weight
Average depth =
Sum of weights

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Excavating and Lifting

Concept Formula Notes

Plate line capacity is the bucket volume contained
within the bucket when following the outline of the bucket sides.
Struck capacity is the bucket capacity when the load is struck off flush with the bucket sides.
Capacities Water line capacity assumes a level of material flush with the lowest edge of the bucket (i.e., the material
level corresponds to the water level that would result if the bucket were filled with water).
Heaped volume is the maximum volume that can be placed in the bucket without spillage based on a
specified angle of repose for the material in the bucket.

Hydraulic
Excavators

V = heaped bucket volume

C = cycles per hour (Table 3)
P = VCBES B = bucket fill factor (Table 2)
E = job efficiency
S = swing − depth factor (Table 4)

Shovels

V = heaped bucket volume

C = cycles per hour (Table 6)
P = VCBES B = bucket fill factor (Table 2)
E = job efficiency
S = swing factor (Table 6)

Draglines

I = ideal output (Table 7)

P = ISE S = swing − depth factor (Table 9)
E = efficiency

Clamshells

V = heaped bucket volume

C = cycles per hour
P = VCBE B = bucket fill factor
E = job efficiency

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Construction Methods and Management Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
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Loading and Hauling

Concept Formula Notes

V = heaped bucket volume
C = cycles per hour
Production P = VCBES B = bucket fill factor
E = job efficiency
S = swing factor
Fixed time represents those
components of cycle time other than
the travel time. It includes spot time,
load time, maneuver time, and dump
time.
Equipment Variable time represents the travel time
C = Fixed Time + Variable Time required for a unit to haul material to
Travel Time
the unloading site and return. Travel
time will depend on the vehicle’s
weight and power, the condition of the
haul road, the grades encountered, and
the altitude above sea level.
TR = total resistance (lb or kg)
Total Resistance:
GR = grade resistance (lb or kg)
TR = GR + RR RR = rolling resistance (lb or kg)
Grade Resistance:
Alternatively:
GR = VW ′ × G%

English: Metric: VW = vehicle weight (ton, tonne)

GR(lb) = VW × GRF GR(kg) = VW × GRF VW ′ = vehicle weight (lb, kg)
lb kg G = grade in decimal form
GRF ( ) = 20G% GRF ( ) = 10G% G% = grade in percent form
ton tonne
Note: +grade for ascending, -grade for
descending
Rolling Resistance:

Resistance

VW = vehicle weight (ton, tonne)

English: Metric: RRF = rolling resistance factor
RR(lb) = VW × RRF RR(kg) = VW × RRF P = penetration (inch or cm)
lb kg
RRF ( ) = 40 + 30P RRF ( ) = 20 + 6P Note: crawler tractors have no rolling
ton tonne
resistance
English: Metric:
lb kg RRF = rolling resistance factor
Effective Grade RRF ( ) RRF ( t ) G% = grade in percent form
Ge% = G% + ton
Ge% = G% +
20 10
English: Metric:
Effect of Altitude A − 3000 A − 915 A = altitude (ft, m)
DF% = 3 × ( ) DF% =
1000 102

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From:
d
t=
v
L
Estimating Travel TT = AS = section of route from A to B
AS ASF = average speed factor
Time
AS = ASF × Vmax Vmax = maximum vehicle speed

TT = travel time
L = distance
V = heaped bucket volume
P = VCE C = cycles per hour
Tractors and cycle E = job efficiency
C= FT = fixed time (Table 4)
Dozers T
T = FT + DT + RT DT = dozing time (Table 5)
RT = return time
P = VCE V = heaped bucket volume
C = cycles per hour
cycle
Loaders C= E = job efficiency
T BT = basic cycle time (Table 6)
T = BT + TT TT = travel time
V = heaped bucket volume
C = cycles per hour
P = VCBE B = bucket fill factor
cycle E = job efficiency
C= FT = fixed time
Scrapers T VT = variable time
T = FT + VT ST = spot time (Table 7)
FT = ST + LT + MDT LT = load time (Table 7)
MDT = maneuver and dump time
(Table 7)

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