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NERVOUS SYSTEM PPT

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

MR. SUHAS AGEY

Assistant Professor,
Department of Pharmacology
NMIMS, Shirpur
 Introduction
• With a mass of only 2 kg, about 3% of the total
body weight, the nervous system is one of the
smallest and yet the most complex of the 11
body systems.
• Nervous system controls and coordinates all
essential functions of the body including all
other body systems allowing the body to
maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.
• The brain is the control center for registering
sensations, correlating them with one another
and with stored information, making decisions,
and taking actions. It also is the center for
intellect, emotions, behavior, and memory.
 Introduction
About 85 billion neurons and 10
trillion to 50 trillion neuroglia make
up the brain, which has a mass of
about 1300 g (almost 3 lb) in adults.
On average, each neuron forms 1000
synapses with other neurons. Thus, the
total number of synapses, about a
thousand trillion or 1015, is larger than
the number of stars in our galaxy.
 Functions of Nervous system
1. The Sensory Function- Gathers information from both inside and outside the
body through sensory neurons

2. Integrative function- Transmits and processes the information in the brain.

3. Motor Function- Sends information from the brain to the muscles, glands, and
organs so they can respond appropriately through the motor neurons

4. Complex functions- The nervous system is also responsible for our perceptions,
emotions, behaviors, memories etc.
Classification
 CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
•The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain &
spinal cord.
•The brain is the part of the CNS that is located in the skull
and contains about 85 billion neurons.
•The brain is connected to the spinal cord.
•The spinal cord is connected to the Communication to the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) and transmits the
information from the body to the brain and vice versa.
Nervous Tissues
There are 2 types of nervous tissues
1. Excitatory – Neurons
2. Non-excitatory- Neuroglia

Neurons have the potential the excite in response to specific stimuli

Neuroglia are smaller cells but they greatly outnumber neurons,

perhaps by as much as 25 times

Neuroglia support, nourish, and protect neurons, and maintain the

interstitial fluid that bathes them.
Neurons- Parts
• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries its impulses
toward the cell body
• Cell Body with the nucleus
• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from the cell body
• Schwann Cells- cells which produce the myelin sheath
• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
• Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon
Neurons
A. Glial cell in CNS
1. Astrocytes:-
• These are star-shaped cells and are the
largest and most numerous of the neuroglia.
• astrocytes wrapped around blood capillaries
within CNS and forms blood-brain barrier
between capillaries and neurons
• Maintain the chemical
environment of the brain (CNS)
2. Microglia
• They are tissue macrophages
• Spider-shaped
• Phagocytosis- dispose of debris
3. Ependymal cells
• Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
• Synthesize and circulate
cerebrospinal fluid
• Form the blood–CSF barrier
• Oligodendrocytes
Produce myelin
sheath around nerve
fibers in the CNS.
B. Glial Cell in PNS
1. Schwann Cells-These cells encircle PNS
axons. Like oligodendrocytes, they form the
myelin sheath around axons.

2. Satellite Cells- Besides providing

structural support, satellite cells regulate
the exchanges of materials between
neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
• The meninges
• Membranes covering brain &
spinal cord
• Protect the CNS
Three (3) layers of tissue:-
• Dura mater ( outer layer)
• Arachnoid mater ( middle
layer)
•Space contains
cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
• Pia mater ( inner layer)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• There are four (4) ventricles

• It is interconnected cavities within cerebral
hemispheres and brain stem Lateral ventricle
Interventricular
foramen

•The ventricles are continuous with the Third ventricle

Cerebral
central canal of the spinal cord aqueduct
Fourth ventricle

• They are filled with CSF To central canal

of spinal cord
(a)

• The four (4) ventricles are: Interventricular

• Lateral ventricles (2)

foramen

Lateral
•Known as the first and second ventricle

Third ventricle
ventricles
• Third ventricle (1) Cerebral
aqueduct
• Fourth ventricle (1) Fourth

• Interventricular foramen
ventricle
11
• Cerebral aqueduct (b)
To central canal
of spinal cord
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid composed
primarily of water that protects the brain and spinal cord from
chemical and physical injuries.
• The majority of CSF production is from the choroid plexuses,
networks of blood capillaries in the walls of the ventricles
• It also carries small amounts of oxygen, glucose, and other
needed chemicals from the blood to neurons and neuroglia
• CSF continuously circulates through cavities in the brain and
spinal cord and around the brain and spinal cord in the
subarachnoid space
• The total volume of CSF is 80 to 150 mL (3 to 5 oz) in an adult.
 Composition of CSF:-

•Water
•Glucose
•Protein
•Nitrogen substance
•Electrolytes Na,K,Cal,Chloride etc.
•Cell (few)
 Process of CSF
•CSF secreted by choroid plexus with in the cerebral ventricles (rt & lt) by ultra-
filtration o& active secretion.
•From Rt & Lt lateral ventricle

•Third ventricle

•Fourth ventricle

•Sub arachnoid space

•Absorbe in the sinus

 Function of CSF:-

1.Support the brain & spinal cord

2.Protect the brain & spinal cord

3. Maintain pressure around the structure

4. Keep brain & spinal cord moist

5. Conveys nutrition to brain & spinal cord

6. Remove waste product of brain & spinal cord

 Epidural space
Space is superior to dura matter.

Subdural space
Space between dura and arachnoid mater.

Subarachnoid space
Space between arachnoid & pia mater
Filled with CSF
Contains the blood vessels supplying brain.
BRAIN
 Major Parts of the Brain
1. Telencephalon – Cerebrum (Cerebral hemispheres)
2. Diencephalon - Thalamus,
-Hypothalamus
-Epithalamus,
3. Brain stem - Medulla Oblangata
- Pons
- Midbrain (mesencephalon)
4. Cerebellum
 Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum/Cerebral cortex)

A. Folds of the cerebrum

B. Lobes of Cerebrum

C. Layers of the cerebrum

D. Functional area of the cerebral

cortex
Figure 7.13a

Slide
 Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
A. Folds of the cerebrum
i. Larger folds- Sulci (single- Sulcus)
It divides the cerebrum into various lobes
a. Central sulcus- Frontal & parietal lobe
b. Lateral sulcus- Frontal & temporal lobe
c. Parieto-occipital sulcus- parietal lobe &
occipital lobe.
ii. Smaller folds- Gyri- Single (Gyrus)
Figure 7.13a

It increases the surface area of the brain

 B. Lobes of Cerebrum
• Sulcus divides the cerebrum into lobes
• Surface lobes of the cerebrum
• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe
 C. Layers of the Cerebrum

i. Gray matter
• Outer layer
• Composed
mostly of neuron
cell bodies

Figure 7.13a
 C. Layers of the Cerebrum

ii. White matter

• Nerve fiber tracts inside
the gray matter
• Deep within the brain, the
hemispheres are connected
by a mass of white matter
(nerve fibers) called the
corpus callosum.
Figure 7.13a

Slide
 D. Functional Areas of the Cerebrum

I. Sensory area
• Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors of skin.
• Visual area- Located in the occipital lobe, receives impulses from eyes
• Auditory area- Near lateral sulcus, receive impulses from ear.
• Olfactory area- In the temporal lobe, receives impulses from the nose.
• Taste area- Near parietal lobe, receives impulses from the tongue.
II. Motor Area
• Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles
• Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak.
 D. Functional Areas of the Cerebrum
iii. Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
• Wernicke’s Area- Speech/language region- interprets the
meaning of speech by recognizing spoken words
• The prefrontal cortex- concerned with the makeup of a person’s
personality, intellect, complex learning abilities, recall of
information, initiative, judgment, foresight, reasoning,
conscience, intuition, mood, planning for the future
• General interpretation area- Receive impulses from all the above
areas
Functional Area of the Cerebrum
 2. Diencephalon

• The diencephalon forms a central core of brain tissue

completely surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres.
Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Made of three parts
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
Diencephalon
 Thalamus
• The thalamus makes up 80% of the diencephalon, consists of
paired oval masses of gray matter.
• The relay station for sensory impulses that reaches the sensory
area of the cerebrum.
• The thalamus is the major relay station for most sensory
impulses that reach the primary sensory areas of the cerebral
cortex from the spinal cord and brain stem
• The thalamus also relays nerve impulses between different
areas of the cerebrum and plays a role in the maintenance of
consciousness
 Hypothalamus

• small part of the diencephalon located inferior to the

thalamus
• The hypothalamus controls many body activities and is
one of the major regulators of homeostasis.
 Functions of Hypothalamus

• Control of the ANS. The hypothalamus controls and integrates

activities of the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the
contraction of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle and glands.
• Production of hormones- releasing hormones and inhibiting
hormones that control anterior pituitary hormones and
synthesized oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones produced in
the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei respectively.
• Regulation of emotional and behavioral patterns-
participates in expressions of rage, aggression, pain and
pleasure, and sexual arousal
 Functions of Hypothalamus

• Regulation of eating and drinking.- the presence of feeding

center and Thirst center
• Control of body temperature- senses body temperature from
the blood flowing through the hypothalamus.
• Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of
consciousness- sleep-wake cycle) that occur on a circadian
schedule (cycle of about 24 hours).
 Epithalamus

• a small region superior and posterior to the thalamus,

consists of the pineal gland
• The pineal gland is part of the endocrine system because
it secretes the hormone melatonin.
• As more melatonin is liberated during darkness than in
light, this hormone is thought to promote sleepiness.
 3. Brain Stem

• It is the part of the brain between the spinal cord and the
diencephalon.
Parts of the brain stem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
Brain Stem

Figure 7.15a

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Midbrain
The midbrain or mesencephalon extends from the diencephalon to the pons.
The midbrain contains 2 imp nuclei,
• Substantia nigra- large and darkly pigmented nuclei. Neurons, extending
from the substantia nigra to the basal nuclei release dopamine, which
helps control subconscious muscle activities. Loss of these neurons is
associated with Parkinson’s disease
• Red nuclei- look reddish due to their rich blood supply and an iron-
containing pigment in their neuronal cell bodies. Axons from the
cerebellum and cerebral cortex form synapses in the red nuclei, which
help control muscular movements.
 Pons

The pons is a bridge that connects parts of the brain such

as the cerebrum, diencephalon, and cerebellum.
Various ascending sensory tracts and descending motor
tracts pass through the pons.
There are nuclei within the pons that act as relay
stations.
pneumotaxic and apnoustic centers (nuclei) in pons
operate in conjunction with the respiratory center in the
medulla oblongata to control respiration
 Medulla Oblongata

• The lowest part of the brain stem

• Merges into the spinal cord
• The medulla matter contains all sensory
(ascending) tracts and motor (descending)
tracts that extend between the spinal cord and
other parts of the brain.
• 90% of the axons in the right pyramid cross to
the left side. This crossing is called the
decussation of pyramids
 Medulla Oblongata- Functions
The medulla also contains several nuclei that act as control centers
• The cardiovascular center- regulates the rate and force of the
heartbeat and the diameter of the blood vessel.
• The medullary respiratory center- adjusts the basic rhythm of
breathing.
• The vomiting center of the medulla causes vomiting.
• The deglutition center of the medulla promotes deglutition
(swallowing) of a mass of food.
• Sneezing and coughing center involves spasmodic contraction of
breathing muscles that forcefully expel air through the nose and
mouth.
 4. Cerebellum

• The cerebellum, the second largest

part of the brain located in the
posterior and inferior part of the
cranial cavity.
• It is ovoid in shape and has two
hemispheres, separated by a narrow
median strip called the vermis.
• Grey matter forms the surface of the
cerebellum, and the white matter lies
deeply.
Cerebellum
 Cerebellum- Functions
• The cerebellum smooths and coordinates the complex sequence
of contractions of skeletal muscles that help in learning the
skilled muscular movements.
• It coordinates activities associated with the maintenance of
posture, balance and equilibrium. The sensory input for these
functions is derived from the muscles and joints, the eyes and
the ears.
• impulses from the eyes and the semicircular canals in the ears
provide information about the position of the head in space.
• The cerebellum may also have a role in learning and language
processing.
 Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is the elongated, cylindrical part of
the CNS, suspended in the vertebral canal
surrounded by the meninges and CSF.

• Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region

of the 1st lumbar vertebra. 45 cm long

• Below the lumbar vertebra is the cauda equina (a

collection of spinal nerves).

• Link between brain and rest of the body.

• Spinal nerves are the paths of communication

between the spinal cord and specific regions of the
body. The spinal cord appears to be segmented
because the 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge at
regular intervals from intervertebral foramina
 Spinal Cord Internal Anatomy
• A cross-section of the spinal cord
shows that it is composed of grey
matter in the center surrounded by
white matter supported by
neuroglia.
• A. Grey matter- H shaped. They
are clusters of neuronal cell bodies
(sensory and motor nuclei), having
two posterior, two anterior and two
lateral columns.
 Spinal Cord Anatomy

• The posterior gray horns contain cell bodies

and axons of interneurons as well as axons
of incoming sensory neurons
• The anterior gray horns contain somatic
motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell
bodies of somatic motor neurons that
provide nerve impulses for the contraction of
skeletal muscles.
• The lateral gray horns contain autonomic
motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell
bodies of autonomic motor neurons that
regulate the activity of cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and glands
 Spinal Cord Anatomy

The white matter - is organized into the

following regions
(1) Anterior white column,
(2) Posterior white columns, and
(3) Lateral white columns
Each column in turn contains distinct
bundles of axons having a common origin
or destination and carrying similar
information.
 Spinal Cord- Physiology

The spinal cord has two principal functions

1. Sensory and Motor Tracts- Nerve impulses from sensory receptors
propagate up the spinal cord to the brain and motor output from the
brain travels down the to body parts

2. Reflexes and Reflex Arcs- A reflex is a fast, involuntary, unplanned

sequence of actions that occurs in response to a particular stimulus.
Some reflexes are inborn, such as pulling your hand away from a hot
surface before you even feel that it is hot. Other reflexes are learned or
acquired.
 Reflex arc and reflex action
Nerve impulses propagating into, through, and out of the CNS follow specific pathways.
The pathway followed by nerve impulses that produce a reflex is a reflex arc. A reflex
arc includes the following five functional components.
1. Sensory receptor- present in sensory neurons of sense organs, It responds to a
specific stimulus.
2. Sensory neuron- The nerve impulses propagate from the sensory neuron to the
gray matter of the spinal cord.
3. Integrating center- a. Monosynaptic reflex- single synapse between a sensory
neuron and a motor neuron. b. Polysynaptic reflex- the integrating center consists of
one or more interneurons.
4. Motor neuron- Impulses triggered by the integrating center propagate out of the
spinal cord along a motor neuron to the part of the body
5. Effector- The part of the body that responds to the motor nerve impulse, such as a
muscle or gland, is the effector. Its action is called a reflex.
Reflex arc and reflex action
 Spinal Nerves
• They are parallel bundles of axons and
their associated neuroglial cells
wrapped in several layers of
connective tissue. Spinal nerves
connect the CNS to sensory receptors,
muscles, and glands in all parts of the
body.
• The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are
named and numbered according to the
region and level of the vertebral
column from which they emerge.
 Spinal Nerves

Types of Spinal Nerves

1. Cervical Nerves (8)
2. Thoracic Nerves (12)
3. Lumbar Nerves (5)
4. Sacral Nerves (5)
5. Coccygeal Nerves (1)
 Cranial Nerves
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves as they pass through the bones of the cranium
and arise from the brain inside the cranial cavity.
Types of cranial nerves-
1. sensory nerves- Three cranial nerves (I, II, and VIII) carry sensory
neurons and thus are called special sensory nerves.
2. motor nerves- Five cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII) are
classified as motor nerves because they contain only motor neurons as
they leave the brain stem.
3. The remaining four cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) are mixed
nerves—they contain both sensory neurons entering the brain stem and
motor neurons leaving the brain stem.
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
References
1. Tortora, G. J., & Grabowski, S. R. (2012). 15th edition, Principles of
anatomy and physiology. New York.
2. Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness
International Edition, 13th Edition.
 There is a solution to all your problems/doubts, the
main question is how deep you can go.

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