C

i UNIT 4 EXPLORATION OF GROUND

WATER
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Integrated Approach for Ground Water Exploration
4.2.1 Factors Responsible for Ground Water Occurrence
4.2.2 Ground Water Investigations
4.2.3 Convenient Areal Unit
4.2.4 Methodology
4.3 Laboratory Techniques
4.3.1 Investigations Based OII Toposheets
4.3.2 Investigations Based on Aerial Photographs
4.4 Hydrogeological Methods
4.5 Geochemical Methods
4.6 SurfaceGeophysicalMethods
4.6.1 Electrical Resistivity Method
4.6.2 Seismic Refraction Method
4.6.3 Other Methods
4.7 Subsurface Geophysical Methods
4.7.1 Self-potentialLogging
4.7.2 Resistivity Loggi ng
4.7.3 Gamma Ray L'ogging
4.7.4 Neutron Logging
4.7.5 Gamma-gammaLogging
4.7.6 Other Logging Techniques
4.8 Exploratory Borewell Programme
4.9 S u m
4.10 Key Words
4.11 Answers to SAQs
4.12 Further Reading

In Unit 1 of Block 1, we have attempted to familiarise you with the paths that precipitation
follows in the hydrologic cycle. You are aware that water has two distinct manifestations,
the surface water and the ground water. While we can make an assessment of surface water
flow which is a visible phenomenon, assessment of ground water is a complex exercise
because it is a hidden resource. Various laboratory and field based techniques are in vogue
to explore the ground water resources. These exploration techniques are described in this
unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
conceptualise the integrated apprc>achfor ground water exploration,
read and interpret hydrogeological indicators on toposl~eetsand aerial
photographs imageries, etc. in the laboratory,
describe the field methodology to be adopted in hydrogeological, geophysical
and geochemical surveys, and
j * realise the importance of exploratory borewell programme.
Exploration, Well Design
& Comhdion 4.2 INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR GROUND WATER
EXPLORATION
Ground water exploration is a fasc~natingarea of water resources developmental effort. It
involves both technical and managerial skills that are to be put to use in an optimum way.

4.2.1 Factors Responsible for Ground Water Occurrence

The concept of grounti water regime is based on the combination of physical factors such as
climate, topography arid geology. These factors and their components play a significant role
in deciding the characters of hydrogeological regimes.
Climate
The rainfall, telnperature, hunlidity and ev:ipration are the components of climate. The
annual rainfall of the region, seasonal variation and daily tluctuation of temperalure and
humidity are crucial for decidi~~g infiltration or rain water and rate of evaporation
respectively. Heavy to moderate raidall favours more infiltration through soils and pervious
formations. The occurre~lceof rainfall at inany areas is uncertain, the variables of such
uncertainty being changes in aggregated rainfall, the dates of onset and cessation of
monsoon, nun~beroc rainy days ;mtl frequency of dry spells. High temperalure during
sulnnler evaporates aid depletes the water levels in surface reservoirs and also in the ground
water from s1i:lllow deptlis. Evapotranspiration through plaits further enhances the process
of depletion of water table.
Topography
It is another factor that decides the occurrence of ground water. Mc>untainoustopography
though receives heavy to moderate rainfall, the rainwater is carried away in the form of high
surface runoff as a result such areas experience shortage of water in few months after
cessation of monstmn. The ground water in such areas occurs as perched water table or
emerges in the fonn of springs (Figure 4.1). ~p

HILLY TOPOGRAPHY 1 UNDULATORY TOPOGRAPHY I ' FLAT TOPOGRAPHY

L a v e r order stroams I Hiddlc order streams Higher order streams
High runoff I Hoderato runotf I LOU runoff
Erosional landforms I Erosional /dcp o i l t i o n a l landform I Dopo L lional landforms
Perched water table I springs I Discontinuous water tabla I continuous water table
I I

S troam Stroam R~ver

Figure 4.1 :Scheroalic Cross-scetiun of Drainage Basin Showing Run&,

Strem~~,
1,;111dfoni1and Grbund Water Characteristics

The surface runoff transports the sediment load, derived from physical and chemical a

weathering processes, downslope leaving behind erosional landforms. Depending upon the
intensity and periodicity of flowi~igstreams, the sediment load either accumulates at the
foot-hill 'areas or is carried further down and gets spread along the banks of middle or higher
order slreamn?. Tlie depositio~lallandforms are thus developed due to accumulation of
colluvium at the lo:oot-hill ;ue;ls and alluviuni along the stream or river courses.
Erosional landforlns are generally u~isu~table for the occurrence of ground water whereas
depositio~iallandii~rnisperniit rai~lwaterto percolate vertically downward until obstructed
by ~mperviousbed rock. The ground water. thus, stored ultimately follow the topography
and meets the streailis or rivers 1ii;lking their bn~lkssuitable for sinking ground water
structures sucl~as wells. By iu~dlarge. undulatcjry topography exhibits both erosional and
depositional landli>rti~sand discoulnluous water table whereas flat or lowly inclined
tnnr~ornnhvclivrc rlrnr~sitir>i~:~l
I:~~irlt'orii~c
:~nrlr n n t i n ~ r n ~ w
i s n t ~ rt ~ h l ~
 (;eolocy Exploration of Ground Water
f
The gtwlopical features such as folds and faults. clay beds. intrusions like dykcs a i d
pegn~all~es ctc. exert control over Lhe ground water rcgi~ne.During folding aid hulling
ma.jor fractures and associated joints are developed. These liacturcs and joints cnhancc the
ground water recharge. The clay beds being iniperv~ousin nature, causc li~ndruiceto ground
water recharge and n~t~vcment. The dykes and pegmatites. depending upon presence or
absence of joints act as a carrier or a barrier to grou~idwatcr respectively. Tlic disposition of
these features are thus crucial in ground water occurrence.
The hydrogeological properties of rocks such as porosity aid permeability tlccitlc the
storativity and transmiss~vityol ;111 aquifer. Tlie priniary porosity in rocks like basalts and
granites is only upto 3 percent and hence they arc regarded as low per~neablcrocks. Some
hydrogeologists have attempted to classify rocks, on ttlc basis of their processes of
formation, into 'hard' and 'soft' types. Tlie rocks ti)r~ucdby process of sedimenlarion being
more pervious, are grouped into soft rock category. Tlic rocks forincd by et'fusion of magma
being less pervious, are grouped into hard rtxk calcgory. .
The secondary processes such as tectonic disturbances produce fraclures ;uid joints, cooling
of magma gives shrinkage joints whereas physical and cheniical processes c~ihancc
weathering and opening ot incipient joints.The voids, cracks 'and cleavages, joints, fractures
thus Impart secondary porosity on h t h soft and hard rocks making tlicnl su~tablcfor storage
and transmission of ground water.

4.2.2 Ground Water Investigations

Ground water exploration techniques and other investigations arc mainly aimed at
location of recharge, storage and discharge zones of ground water, and
understanding the function of ground watcr rcginic w it11 respect to
environment in which 11occurs viz. tlie latcr;J ;uid vertical extent of aquifer
system, its storage and transmission properties and JSO tlie clienlistry of
waters.
Thus, the studies include determination of hydraulic boundary conditions. directiOn of
ground water movement, input ,and output to the ground water basins ;uddeterinination of
functional response of the system to physical a i d chemical cli;u~ges.The data obtained after
detail studies of these aspects help in :
understanding the occurrence and availability of ground watir,
selecting methods to be adopted in exploitation of ground water, and
deciding managenlent policies and effective conservation of this vital
resource.
From the foregoing description it is clear that characterisdcs of ground water regime is the
function of complex physical framework governed by several factors and their components.
Since these factors vary spatially within short distances and also wilh respect to lime, an
ideal ground water regime having uniform and isotropic characteristics seldom occurs in
nature. A good example of fairly unifvrnl ilnd isotropic ground water repme is a vast tract
of Indo-gangatic plains of north India. In rest of India, with few local exceptions, ground
water regimes are fairly anisotropic and heterogeneous due to diversity in climatic,
topographic and geologic set-ups. Therefore, one or two of tlie'several exploration
techniques do not yield information on all aspects of ground wzter regimes in heterogeneous
and anisotropic tenains. This situation demands ellrploying ;ul integrated approach for
ground water exploration.

4.2.3 Convenient A real Unit

The ground water exploration techniques were employed in the past using village, taluka or
district maps or within the area bounded by certain lofigitudes and latitudes. Looking at the
variety of data to be collected and interpreted in ternis o f water resourccs development, a
tendency to select drainage basins is on the rise. This is because, rainfall occurring in
drainage basin follows the surface and subsurface paths within the basin area upto the
outlet, i t . , closure p i n t of the basin. The drainage basin is considered lo bc Lhe logical areal
unit for meaningful collection and interprsi;ition of hydrogeological iiiforniation, as well
dala, such as, topographic and hydraulic, because the hydrogeologic u ~ i ~(Figure ty 4.2) of
the drainage basin assists in evaluating :
I Exploratio~~,
Well Design - the nalurc ant1 ;uiiou~ltof surfi~ceaid ground water runoffs,
& Construction
- water balance ol. Lhc drainagc hasin,
- lypc aid geonlclry of I;mtlli)r~ns.
- recharge, storage il~lddlschargc zones, and
- denlrucatiny aueas possessing differing potentials for ground water development
aid m:ulagemenr.

DRAINAGE D l V l D E

lyzl OFSTREAMS SHOWING DIRECTION

SURFACE WATER MOVEMENT

LAKE

Figure A2 :Schelllatic Diitgl-111 of Dmil~apel l i ~ sShowing

i~~ Dynamics of SurCace and Ground ~ a k e r s

4.2.4 Methodology
Various n1ethocl5, to extract a variety of information that is necessary for ground water
exploration, are available, such as study of toposheets, aerial photographs and satellite
imageries, and hydrogeological, hydrocheniical arid geophysical methods.
It is clear that the main objective of ground water expbration is to locate the sources of .
ground water for development in the area under investigation. In other words, exploration
should help in demarcating boundary between potential and non-potential areas of ground
water regime. Therefore, it is recornrne~~detlthat a stepwise exploratory effort be made as
outlined below (Figure 4.3) :

IAspad
Q"ALrn

- I
CONTROLS 'OEVELOW-
OVER
D A N E
MT OF
BASIN
OIYANTITATIVE ASPECTS
STUDY OF TOPOSHEETS 1
J
STEP 1
. LABORATORY
TECHNlqUES

T 1
LITHOLOGY RELIFF

STUDY OF AERIAL PHOTOS

DTHER

1 WEL INVENTORY 1- PVHANG TEST 1 I 1

(ELECTRICAL SEISMIC 1 BOREHOLE 1

& FIE LO I I
W@R QUALITY VEGETATIOI TECHNl~ES PHASE 11

PHASE1 GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS

I GEOPHICAL SURVEYS

+
STEP I V
EXPLORATORY BORE WELL PROGRAMHE

Figure 4.3 : Mt.thudcrlogy Adopted in Il~lr(;n~lrd

Appmaeh for Ground Water Exploration
 Step 1 : Laboratory Investigations Exploration of Ground Water

The laboratory investigations include :

! review of literature pertaining to drainage basin under &udy,
qualitative and quantitativ~;interpret:llioo ol'dat;~wit11 the help of toposheets
and aerii~lpliotogaphs, and
preparation of a photo-hydrogeological map.
Step I1 :Field Investigations
Field investigations include verification of interpretation as well as infomiation obtained in
Step I by taking appropriate field traverses aid tentatively dividing h e drainage basin area
into potential, moderately potential rmd non-potential ci~tegories.
Step 111 :Detail Investigations

I The first phase of detailed investigations is to carry out inventory of dug, bore or tube wells
in selected areas to obtain information of ground water regime at shallow and deeper depths.
r
L
Siniultaneously, information on vegetal cover and quality of waler is to be gathered to cover
hydrochemical aspects.
i In the second phase of Step 11, detailed subsurface investigations employing geophysical
1 i techniques such as electrical resistivity or seisnlic refraction surveys and borehole logging
5

I techniques age to be carried out to collect indepth information. particularly 011 ground water
I regimes at different depths.
Necessary changes on the boundaries of potelllial. moderately pote~itialaid non-promising
areas. if any, are to be ~ n d on
e the basis of geophysical data obtailied in tlie second phase of
investigations.
Step IV :Exploratory Borewell Programme
A few cxp.loratory borewells are to he drilled to get the first I I L I I ~i~ili)rniat~oii
~ of the
subsurface ground water regimes and also to obtain feedback on tlie interpretations made in
earl~ersteps. The details of vanous aspects of Explori~toryBorcwcll Pn)gramme are
~ncorporatedin Section 4.8.
Let us now get further detaiIs of each of the exploratio~i~nethods.

LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
The landforms present on the surface of earth are Uie result of action of various endogenic
and exogenic forces operating on the crust (Refer to Block 1: Unit 2). Tlicse landforms can
be studied initially in the laboratory using the toposheets and aerial photographs. The study
brings out some elements and their characteristics tliat directly or indirectly throw light on
subsurface shallow ground water regimes. Tlie job of a prospector is, in the first instance, to
read and interpret the hydrogeological indicators on toposlieets and aerial photographs, and
then to verify the interpretation in the field.

4.3.1 Investigations Based on Toposheets

Topt~sheetsprovide wealth of information about Uie nature of terrain (whether rugged,
undulatory or flat), landforms and type of drainage, aiid controls over their development. A
look at toposheets gives a wealth of qualitative infonnation ;IS regards to :
Disposition of Contours : The distance between consecutive contours gives
an idea ahout the gradient of drainage basin. Close-spaced contours are
indicative of steep gradient: mcxkrately-spaced contours, of gently rolling
topography, and widely-spaced contours of a Inore or less flat terrain. The
disposition of contours tllus helps us in understandilig tlie 1i;lture 01 surface
runoff, and point out the areas where crosioiinl or depositiaial larldforms can
develop: and
Drainage Characteristics :The drainage chi~ri~cteristics such as drainagq
density, stream lengtl~and drainage patteni Uirow light on the dissection of .
terrain land, and controls over the develop~iielitof rlrainagc. The area where
density of streams is more is Iliglily dissccrcrl in nature ;mtl vice-versa.
Figure 4.4 shows three areas having different clrailiiigc densilies. The drainage
patterns suggest the controls whether a particular pattern is tlies.esult of
Exploration, Well Design erosion or structural disturbances. The dendritic drainage pattern indicates
& Constnrdim
more or less a horizontal and homogeneous formatiqn and its hcadward
erosion, whereas the trellis type exhibits sharp turn and fairly straight courses
of streams which is suggestive of structural control such as fractures or
jointing (Figures 4.4 & 4.5).

LOW MAIWAGF DENSITY HEDIUH DRAINAGE DEl6ll'Y

HIGH DRAINAGE DENSITY

Figure 4.4 :Topograyl~icMaps or 1.5 km2Each Showing Vaned Drainage Densities

1Km. 1 Km.
figure 4 5 : Drainage Pattern (a) %Uis and (b) D d r i t i c Types

The description of drainage basins and chamel networks was transformed from a purely
qualitative study to a rigorous quantitative approach due to the impetus provided by several
geomorphologists since 1945. Systematic description of the geometry of a drainage basin
and its stream-channel system requires measurement of linear aspects of the drainage
network; areal aspects of the drainage basin and relief aspects of channel network and
contributing ground slopes. A quantitative treatment of a few of these aspects, which
provide information on controls over the drainage development and stage of development
bash, is described below.
Stream Orders'
The first step in drainage basin analysis is to draw the drainage divide and show all the
streams occurring within it. Then the smallest fingertip tributaries are designated order 1.
Where two first-order channels join, a channel segment of order 2 is formed; where two of
order 2 join, a segment of order 3 is formed; and so forth (Figure 4.6). The stream through
 E x ~ ' O r a ~ ~ n ~ G ~ Water
ooad
which all discharge of water and sediment passes is therefore the stream segment of highest
order.

Figure 4.6 :S c l ~ e l ~to

l e Designelr Siruala~Ordcrs

Usefulness of the stream order system is based on the,prenlise that the order number is
directly proportional to size of the contributing watershed, to channel dimensio~s,and to
stream discharge at that place in the system.
Bifurcation Ratio
After the drainage network elements have been assigned their order numbers, the segments
6f each order are counted to yield the number Nu of segments of the given order u
(Figure 4.6). It is obvious that the number of stream segments of any given order will be
fewer than for the next lower order but more numerous than for the next higher order. The
ratio of number of segments of a given order Nu to Lhe number of segments of the higher
order (Nu + 1) is termed the bifurcation ratio Rh. The bifurcalion ratio can be expressed by
equation :

Bifurcation ratios characteristically range between 3 & 5 for drainage basins in which the
geologic structures do not distort the drainage pattern. In such cases, the development of
higher order streams is normally facilitated by headward erosiori and guided by linear zones
of structural weakness. Such streams are signific'mt because they enhance the recharge and
thereby the potential of ground water. Abnormally high bifurcalion ratios might be expected
in regions of steeply dipping rock formation. The movement of ground water can be
expected towards dip direction. Thus, bifurcation ratio is a significant parameter throwing
light on ground water regimes.
Hppsometric Analysis
Hyposometric or Area-Altitide analysis is carried out lo obtain the relationship of horizontal
cross-sectional drainage-basin area to elevation.
Figure 4.7 illustrates the definition of the two dime~isionlessvariables involved in
hypsometric analysis. Taking the drainage basin to be bounded by vertical sides and a
horizontal base plane passing through the month, the relative height 'y' is the ratio of height
of a given contour 'h' to total basin height 'H'. Relative area 'x' is the ratio of horizontal
cross-sectional area 'a' to entire basin area 'A'. The percentage liypsonietric curve is a plot
of the continuous function relating relative height y to relative area x. Thus, hQiypsometric
integral values obtained in the analysis represent the ratio of the area below the hypsometric
curve to the total area, for different order basins.
The hypsometric integral values throw light on the stage of tlevclopnient o f biisins. From
Figure 4.7, it is evident that the shape of the liypsonieuic curve varies in c i ~ l ygeologic
Exploration, Well Design stages of developmenl of the drainage basin. However, once the steady state, i.e. mature
& Coatrudion
stage is attained, the curve tends to vary little there after. despite lowering relief. Isolated
bodies of resistant rocks may for111pronu~leilthills called monadnocks, rising above a '
generally subdued sutilce. This final stage is ternled the monadnock stage of development.
Thus, a1 the initial stage of developmsnl of ;lny drainage basin, hypsometi-ic integral values
are large and they go on decre;~singas the stage of development proceeds. The youthful
stage'(inequilibrium state) of the drainiigc basin gives an integral values as high as 0.80, at
mature stage (equilibrium state) the villues decrease to 0.50 while at final stage (monadnock
stage) they fall clown to 0.125. The integral value of 0.60 is normally taken as the threshold
limit between inequilibrium and ecluilibrium stages of development. The values between
0.35 and 0.60 ;Ire consitlered lo be i~~dicativc of equilibrium state whereas below 0.35 of the
monadnock slage of developnlcnt.

Percentage hypsome t r i c
curve

AREA a' AREA d ".5.0 0.4 0 -8

( ENTIRE B A S I N )
Relative a r e a a / A

Characteristic curves
o f erosion cycle

Monadnock phase

'0 1
Relativo a r e a
Figure 4.7 :Dcfinitio~~s in~Hypsonlrtric
:111cl l ~ u a c i i u ~ s Analysis of Smdl Drainage Basins

The hypsometric integral values generally decrease from lower order to higher order
streams. Majority of lower order streams are normally confined to periphery or elevated
areas and higher order streains in the central part of the drainage basin. The lower order
s t r e m s exhibit erosional landli,nns whereas higher order slreams the depositional
landforms. Thus, tile central part of drainage basin normally offers potential ground water
regime.

4.3.2 Investigations Based on Aerial Photographs

'
Renlote sensing i f terrain is a part of the large and rapidly growing subject of remote
sensing, which deals with the giltliering and recording of information on many aspects of
natural phenomena from a distance. without actual contact with the object. There are several
techniques such as visual photography, multispcctral imagery, infrared imagery, Radar
imagery etc. ;iv;~ilablefor t h ~ purpose.
s 111 ground water investigations, however, acrial
photographs are widely employed besides satelllle inlagenes. Since satellite imageries are
nor~ilallyiivailiiblc 111 s~llallscale, their use 1s rcsuicted. They can furnish synoptic view and
regional character oi geology. gconiorphology ruld tectonic elements such as folding,
faulting and fracturing but unable to pmvide iudepth i~ifor~~rition
011 other hydrogeological EcXp1QratiQndGr-d Water
indicators. Therefore, some detuls regarding only aerial pliotographs are described here.
Selection of Aerial Photographs
Aerial photography consists of taking photographs at regular time intervals with
overlapping of about 60 percent from an aeroplane flying along definite lines at a certain
flight altitude above the ground. An asse~nblyand matching of aerial phNographs called a
mosaic, provides a continuous photographic representation of the drainage basin under
study. The selection of aerial photographs is dependent u p o ~: the~ purpose of investigations,
i.e., whether preliminary or detaled information is to be sought: areal extent of
investigations, i.e., whether regional or local inforrnatioi~is to be obtained; and type of
survey, i.e., whether photographs are to be used for geolog~cal,land use, forestry,
vegetation, hydrogeological mapping. For the purpose of hydrogeological mapping
photographs are selected after due consideration of appnlprlate scalc, and period of
photography. The quality of photograph is also importall.
Scale of Photography :Aerial photographs are available in various scales from 1 : 5000 to
over 1 : 40,000. Large scale aerial photographs upto 1 : 20,000 scale, are most useful for
yielding information of various hydrogeological indicators. The chance of hissing any
s~gnificanthydrogeological indicator is least on such large scale photographs.
Period of Photography :Aerial photographs taken In dillercnt seasons yield different
details. The appropriate period of photography for hydrogeological purpose is the summer
season because of absence of crops and grass in the field, drying of streams, lowering of
water table etc. The potential areas can be delineated with the help of hydrogeological
indicators such as springs, large diameter or dug wells, moisture conditions etc. on large
scale photographs. p e photographs taken during rainy season are of very little significance
in ground water investigations.
Quality of Photographs :The quality of aerial photographs should be such that the
photointerpretation elements such as tone and texture iue clearly visible. Some precautions
are necessary to obtain good quality aerial photographs, such as :
Photographs should be taken from absolutely vertical direction with a
maximum tilt of 3";
Photography during evening, can produce long and deep shadows which may
obscure details in a rugged topography. It is i,deal for photography to be
carried out between 2 to 3 hours after sunrise;
Photograpl~yshould not be carried nut when obscuring factors like haze and
cloud are present; and
Glossy prints of photographs are preferred for purposes of interpretation.

A pair of aerial photographs taken from two stations covering overlapping area constitutes a
stereo pair. When such'a pair is viewed under a stereoscope, provide a three-dimensional
view of the overlapping area.
Interpretation is normally carried out in three steps
(1) To collect the data through available literature and previous maps to aid the
preparation of map showing hydrogeological indicators;
(2) To check the interpretation in the field and 111denecessary changes, if any; and
(3) To finalise the map and prepare a report of findings.
Let us now discuss various hydrogeological indicators and their signilicance in
understanding the ground water regimes, such as outli~ledbelow :
Lithotypes :Rocks are a medium obstructing gound water and so influence the
hydrogeological properties of a given geological stratum. Bedrocks are deciphered in the
first instance from their type affinity, viz., sedi~neolary,igneous or nl~ti11110~11ic.
Sedimentary rocks are mapped by stratigraphy, structure of sediinentary formation
(composed of layers of various colours) and degree of resistance to erosiol~alprocess.
Igneous rocks, on the other hand, are distinguished by the uniformity of photographic image
and associated jointing. The common deciphering feature of n~etalnorphicrocks is their
displacement and the presence of a nuinber of bedding planes.
 -
Exploration, Well Design To demarcate the contact between Ulese rocks, different varieties of these rocks, and fresh
& Con$t~dion
and weathered rocks assumes great significance. Such contacts differing in water
permeabilities are normally dec~pheredfron~aenal photographs by the sharp change in tone
and outline.
Get~logicalStructures :An intiinate relationship exists between hydrogeological conditions
and geological structures such as folding and faulting. The fractures and Joints associated
with these slructures act as recharge or discharge zones, e.g. fracturing in an anticlinal area
may prove to be recharge area whereis in synchinal areas storage andor discharge zones.
On aerial photographs such zones are 'deciphered from the discontinuous occurrence of
beds, straight line boundary of blocks, large discontinuous dislocations and presence of
springs, bogs etc.
Lineaments : Lineament is the term commonly given to a straight line relationship
observed on aerial photographs. When lineaments cannot be related to cultural influence
(e.g. China Wall), they are attributed lo rock fractures or discordant intrusions such as dykes
or pegmate veins. The medium or large size lineaments are clearly seen on aerial
photographs when exposed to the surface. Sometimes they are also decipherable under a
cover of l w s e deposits, if concealed at a shallow depth. The lineaments characteristically
show the presence of narrow, dark bands of typical water loving vegetation. Disposition of
relief in the form of depressions or mounds also help in delineating them.
If lineaments manifest dykes or pegmatites, then it is essential to understand the nature of .
host rocks in which they are emplaced and to check whether they are jointed or unjointed.
The jointed dykes and pegmatites if emplaced in impervious rocks act as conduits of ground
water. Such conduits support vegetation and can be rccognised by tonal and textural
characteristics. Ensure that they are jointed.
Vegetation : Vegetation is frequently a clear indicator of hydrogeological environment. On
aerial photographs vegetation is deciphered by an intense dark tone while on aerial
photographs taken with pancllromatic film by general honeycomb or patchy appearance.
More details on vegetation are given under Section 4.7 in this unit.
Relief Features :Relief plays a major role on the formation and distribution of ground
water. It affects the distribution of rainfall, decides the places of recharge of surface water
and discharge of infiltrated water, changes in the direction and the rate of ground water
movement ( Refer to Figure 4.1). The analysis of the relief forms is, therefore, significant in
ground water shdies.
Old valleys filled with a alluvial deposits often have flows of ground water. Such buried
channels occupy bottomland of the vallcys and thus play the role of local water basins. The
direction of movement of these tlows corresponds to the direction of flow of this old river.
Such buried channels are deciphered from aerial photogr@hs on the basis of the form of
valleys on the plan. O n large scale aerial photographs, water loving flora and large diameter
walls serve as additional indicators. Present day valleys filled with alluvium are at places
characterised by the presence of underground flows of water. Vegetation and water
collecting structures serve as additional indicators to trace these flows besides tonal and
textural characteristics.
Alluvial fans are visible on aerial photographs in the form of a triangle. The apex of the
triangle is directcd towards Ule hills and alluvium spread base touching foot-hill plain.
~ l l u v l a fans
l composed of coarse material are indentified on aerial photographs by their
sharp boundaries and erosional network on the surface, and the fans composed of clay are
differelltinled by diffused boundaries and smooth shape. Alluvial fans composed of coarse
frag~nentarymaterial offer the most favourable hydrogeological regimes.
The basins, sink holes, dips and other relief features indicate local water reservoirs and
small areas of infiltration Thcy are indicated on aer~alphotographs by moisture zones,
vegetation. water wells, etc., hesides shape and tonal difference.
The drainage pattern on aerial photographs gives direct clues about the control over the
formation of dramage, presencc of ox-bow Inkes, possibility of buried channels, locations of
springs, etc., by v~rtueo f iolial a i d lextural characters.
Surface Water : It conslllules a part o C Ule hydrosphere and is intimately linked with
ground water because surface water a1 one point, after infiltration, becomes a part of the
ground water regime. Lf emerged as spring, il again become surface water. Surface water
can lhercfore be viewed as a direct Iiydropeologlcal indicator. Rivers, streams, both fresh
;uld salt wnler I'lkes. ephemeral stre;lnis, etc.. constitute surface water.
 Depending upon the relative of ground water table wilh respect to water level in Explorationof Ground Water
river, stream or lake, the surface water bodies can be either under effluent or influent states
(Refer to Unit 5 of Block 1 of "Earth and Its EnvironmentwonHydrosphere). If water table
is higher than the water Ievel, the surface water body is said to be under an effluent state. If
water table is lower than the water level of the surface water body, the body is said to be
under an influeht state. Thus, the effluent state rndicates recharge to the surface water body
whereas influent state indicates discharge from the surface water body to the adjoining
ground water system.
On aerial photographs, streams and rivers look like ribbons with meandering or straight
courses having varying thickness. Presence of vegetation along the river banks indicates the
proximity of ground water to the surface. Presence of large diameter wells in the vicinity of
streams or rivers also directly indicates the availability of ground water. The photographic
image of a rivulet is similar to that of rivers but can be differentiated by its small size.
On aerial photographs, freshwater lakes are deciphered from the uniform dark tone of the
reflecting water surface and also from the dark patch of vegetation on their shores. In
summer, some lakes may dry completely. Such lakes can be located froin a patch of
herbaceous flora producing an image with dark'tone. Salt water lakes iue ident~fiedon aerial
photographs from a whitist border of salt efilorescence and ptx~rdevelopment of halophytes
along their shores.
Wells, Springs :Large diameter wells can be deciphered on large scale aerial photographs
by a dark spot, either round or square in shape, surrounded by light tone spot. The dark tone
'reflects depth of a well and water therein whereas light tone is indicative of dumped
material removed from the well.
Springs emerging from hilly rifts, intermontane hollows, river banks and contacts of
formations are deciphered with the help of the phenomena associated with them, viz.,
appearance of water-loving vegetation, moisture zones and dark tone. On a large scale aerial
photographs, it is possible to distinguish bctween the springs and seepage areas. The spring
is a concentrated almost spontaneous outlet of ground water whereas seepage is a very low
discharge of ground water that makes the surface moist. Springs may be perennial or
temporary. ?he temporary springs emerge after precipitation and may turn into seepage
areas in summer. Comparison of aerial photographs of different seasons for the same area
yields information on the yielding abilities of springs with respect to seasons.
, ?he presence of moisture on the surface is indicative of sh;~llowground water regime. The
moisture on aerial photographs is deciphered from the dark to gray tone and coarse grained
texture. The patches of moisture prominently occur along the higher order streams and their
confluences, along the lineaments, synclinal area of folds and also in the vicinity of springs.
Generally, medium to coarse grained texture and gray to dark tone on aerial photographs
assist in delineating the boundaries between permeable and impermeable zones. Potential
-mas of ground water, on aerial photographs, show overlapping of indicators such as the
vegetation, moisture zones, wells, springs etc. Such overlapping is a positive indication of
the most potential ground water regimes.
SAQ 1
(1) Show in thefollowing table, the Cactc~rsand theirco~npo~~ents
responsible for
the occurrence of ground water.
Serial No. Factor Components
1.
2.
3.
(2) Define bifurcalion ratio ;uld stillc its signilici~uce.
(3) State the significance of hyposoinetric integral values.
(4) Give a list of hydrogeological indicators decipherable from aerial photographs.
(5) Which of the following aerial pholographs are suitable for ground water
investigations '? (4)the answer.
(a) Upto 1 : 20,000 1 I : 40,000 / I : 60,000 scale
(b) Photographs t,?ken during rii~ly1 winter 1 sunltller season
(c) Photographs taken at 7 a.m. 10.30 i1.m. / 4 p.m.
Exploration Well Design
& construction 4.4 HYDROGEOLOGICAL MET'HODS
Hydrogeological surveys ~iornlallycover well inventory and pumping test (i.e., aquifer test).
The aquifer characteristics such as storativity and transmissivity are determined through the
aquifer test. These properties are described in Unit 1 (Occurrence and Movement of Ground
Water) of Block 1. The procedure for well invelitory is given in this section.

4.4.1 Well Inventory

The procedure adopted in well inventory aid ulilisation of data obtained from it is discussed
below :
- The base maps used for these surveys are the village revenue maps in which the existing
dug wells can be shown. On these base maps the boundaries of various lithological units are
marked. These base maps are, thus, converted into large scale geological maps. The wells
are then classified into various groups on the lithological basis, i.e., the wells tapping a
particular rock are grouped into one class; similarly, those wells tapping another rock are
grouped into another class. Those wells which tap two or more rock types are grouped into a
separate category. After grouping, the wells are numbered serially rock-type wise like 1A,
2A, 3A, etc., lB, 2B, 3B, etc., A & B indicating differCnt rocks.
A temporary bench mark (B.M.) is then selected and marked on the map. This bench mark
is given an approximate value with the help of Survey of India toposheet pertaining to that
area. To locate the position of the temporary bench mark, a landmark object such as a
temple or an old well or gram panchayat office is taken into consideration. The inferred
elevation of the B.M. (with respect to the Mean Sea Level) is marked on it. With the help of
this bench mark, the reduced levels of Uie ground surface of the wells, existing in the area,
are determined by means ol'an alt~meter.The reduced levels of the ground surface of the
respective wells are then q t e d on the well ulventory schedule form (Refer to following
proforma of Well Inventory).

PROFORMA FOR WELL INVENTORY

(2) Well Number : (3) Survey Number :

(4) Name of Owner :

(6) Type of Well : 1 Dug I Dug cum bore I Bore Well ]

(7) LinedIUnlined : If lined, length of lining :

(9) Well Diameter : (10) MP Elevation :

(11) Static Water Level : (12) Reduced S.W.L. :
a. Rainy Seaqon : - a. Rainy Season :
b. Winter Season : b. Winter Season :
c. Summer Season : __- c. Summer Season :
(13) Depth of Well : (14) Well Head Elevation :
(15) T j p o f P u m p : (16) Horse Power :
(17) Average Pumping Hours : (18) Hectares under Irrigation :
(19) Qua11ty of Water :

(20) Type of Aquifer :

(21) Any other l~iforn~ation
:
 , A day is then chosen to measure the depths of the sliluc grouiid water levels with reference EwIoration of<:rould Water
to the reduced ground levels of the respective wells, once before the advent of rains. a
second time within a month after the rains have stopped (i.e. after a steady state ?f ground
water levels are reached) and a third time the* wq&amm& are met with. On
the day of measwemen€,one bas to ensure that water is not drawn from the wells and that
the ground water has reached its approximate static water level position for that part of the
season. Other &tails such as the diameter of the well, its depth, the nature of lining
materials used for construction of the well, the horse power of the pump used, etc., are also
noted. The &tails provided by the farmer about the ability of well to irrigate the land in
terms of hectares during different seasons of the year are also to be recorded. The enclosed
II profonna for well inventory gives an i&a about data collection through well inventory.
t The ground water depths are converted into reduced ground water levels with reference to
4 the earlier determined reduced ground surface levels of the wells. These are noted in the

iI map against the respective wells. With the help of these data the ground water contour map
at one metre contour intervals is prepared. Thus, three ground water level contour maps
pertaining to three different seasons of a year are prepared. Figure 4.8 shows one of such
water table map showing contours and direction of flow of ground water.

~i~n4
l.8R r Water Table Map of Khopi Village

On the basis bf the horizontal distances between the ground water level contours, the area
covered by the ground water level maps for each rock type is divided into following three
categories :
(i) the area covered by closely spaced contours,
(ii) the area covered by medium spaced contours, aid
(iii) the area covered by widely spaced contours.
Out of the wells equipped with pumps occurring in each of the above mentioned area
categories, wells which have penetrated the entire aquifer are selected for pumping and
recuperation tests during different seasons of a year. The results obtained for each category
are taken as yields and recuperation times for the respective seasons 0f.a year.
On the basis of the infonnation provided by the water table maps and the pumping test data,
it is easy to determine the locations for new wells, deepening and widening of wells, pattern
of horizontal and vertical drilling, spacing of new wells, diameter of new wells, etc. The
water table maps help in delineating the area into different potential zones. By and large
closely spaced contours indicate high gradient of ground water and impermeable strata. The
potential of ground water in such areas is low. The widely spaced contours, on the other
hand, indicate low gradient of ground water and permeable strata and hence high ground
water ~ t e n t i a l
Exploration, Well Design
& Construction
4.5 GEOCHEMICAL METHODS
,

Geochemical surveys nonnally cover two types of investigations, first to collect information
on water quality and second tc understand the relationship between vegetation and
hydrogeological regime. These investigations are coupled with hydrological surveys.
The chemical composition of ground water is related to water-rock interaction which in turn
is dependent upon residence time and spatial variation in rock formations. A few physical .
and chemical parameters of ground water such as temperature, pH-value, turbidity and
electrical conductivity are measured in the field, while properties such as hardness,
alkalinity, presence of compounds, nitrates, nitrites, sulphates, phosphates, chlorides,
chemical oxygen demand and presence of substances, like, sodium, potassium, ferric iron,
etc., are determined in the laboratory. The data obtained in the field and laboratory help in
deciding the suitability of ground water for domestic, agricultural and industrial putposes
after proper interpretation and comparison with water quality standards. These details have
been incorporated in Unit 6 (Ground Water Quality). The significance of vegetation in
ground water investigation 1s discussed in the following sub-section.

4.5.1 Vegetation
A study of plants in relalion to hydrologic environment i.e., 'hydrobotanical investigation'
has its own importance in ground water prospecting.
Proper identification of vegetation and plant association helps to treat some flora as \
indicators of potential ground water regime, as well as brackish and saline ground waters.
On the basis of this relationship, plants can be classified into :
phreatopliytes - p1;uits that grow on water from subsurface zone of saturation,
halophytes - salt resistant plant, and
xerophytes - drought resistant plants.
The hydrogeobotanical observations are based on the fact that water is an essential
ingredient for plant life. Plants gel nutrition through waler by several ways. Some plants
penetrate their roots deep below the subsurface to suck water from water table, others reach
the capillary level, and yet others receive water on account of internal evaporation and
condensation. It is thus, clear that not all plants are linked with ground water.
Plants of first type, i.e. plireatophytic plants are of great significance for ground water
investigatio~~s because they are in direct and most ~ntimatecontact with the ground water. It
is to remember that not all pl1re;itopliytic plants are of equal significance, andhowever, they
play useful role in ascertaining tavourable ground water conditions. Only fey of them
indicate about sut'ficient quauitity of grouud water. It is customary to classify plireatophytic
plants into 'significant' and 'insignificalt' types. The 'significant' type of phreatophytic
flora shows luxuriant growth where'storativity ot aquifer is high. In literature a number of
plants ate grouped into slgnifiault type, Ficus glorttertlla, Phonix sylvestix, Pongamia
gl(ibm, Prosopis spici,oercr, Eugcnio jc~tnbtlrnrr.Aegb tnar-tnelos,etc., being the most
commonly ~ne~itio~ied pluils. These plants have a tendency to grow mainly along streams
aid rivers, ill ilreas where waiter table is shallow. around lakes, reservoirs, springs, etc.

SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

In general, geophysical ilivestigations provide valuable information as regards the following
aspects :
Subsurface Geology : Depth of interface of weathered and fresh rocks,
pervious zones within the impervious formations, and presence and altitude of
joints, fractures and faults.
Hydrogei)logical Regime : Depth, thickness and lateral extent of aquifers, and
type of hyt1roga)logical regi~iie,i.e., whether there exists a single or-
~nulli-aquilcrtype.
Extcllt of salt watcr encroachment in coastal tracts and location of saline water
pockcts in a11 otherwise fresh water environment and vice-versa.
A variely of gcopliysical methods ;ire i l l vogue for ground water investigations. These
r n o i l ~ ~ ~, -t, tlnc h,, hr, ~ . h , l I ~ c~rtxsn
r I i n t , \ L ~ S ~ V V.,tQ , r s n , l
n,>, L-) thcanr&>,*o m a n n h ~ ~ c i om~o tl h f i A c
 The surface methods on the basis o f physical propcrlies Lo be mc;~sured,ciui include Explorntinn of Ground Water

(1) Electrical Resitivity Method,

(2) Seismic Refraction Method, and
(3) Gravity and Magnetic Methods.

4.6.1 Electrical Resistivity Method

\
This method was first used for practical purpose by Schlumberger in France in 1912. Since
then it has proved to be the most efkctive means of subsurface ground water investigations.
Hence, a detailed description of this method is incorporated in this unit.
Electrical Resistivity method is based on the variations in resitivity o f subsurface layers
depending upon density, chemical composition and ~noisturccontenl. An electrical current I
is introduced into the ground with the help of two current electrodes and the potential
difference V between two potential electrodes is measured. The measured resitivity, i.e., V/I
is converted into apparent resitivity Rho (p) by applying proper geometrical factor. The
apparent resistivity depends upon density, thickness of different layers and current electrode
spacing. As the current electrode spacing increases, information at greater and greater depth
is made available.
Field Procedure
There are different makes of resistivity meter. In a D.C. (direct current) type resistivity
meters V and I are separately measured to oblain resistance values. In an A.C. (allernate
current) type meter, however, resislance R in ohms is oblained
'
directly. A schematic
diagram d Resistivity .meter is shown in Figure 4.9.

I I BATTERY

I'I
0

Figure 4.9 :Schematic Diagram of a Resistivity Meter

Electrode Arrangements

,~;m/,
Different electrode arrangements are in vogue for Uie measurement of earth resistivity. The
most popular amongst them are the We~merand Schlumberger arrangenlenls (Fikure 4.10).
BATTERY CURRENT HETfR

---" --- ,
L1 p1
C2
WENNER ARRANGEMENT

SCHUMBERGER ARRANGEMENT

Figure 4.10 :Wenner and Sclllun~bergerElrctrocle A'rrangernenb

Wenner Configuration :In the Wenner calfiguralion (Figure 4.1(I), the electrodes are
spaced a1 equal distances (A). and Lhe appilrenl resistivity for a nlci~surcdresis~ancoR = V/I
is obtained by :
 I
Exploration, Well Design The field curve in this darrngementis plotted on a semi-log paper (pa versus a), pa being in
& Comtrudion
ohm-inetres on logarithmic scale and A in metres on arithmetic scale.
In Wenner electrode configuration, the outer electrodes, CI and C2,serve as the current
,., t electrodes and inner electrotles. PI and P2. as the potential electtodes. Each potential
electrodes is situated at a distance A12 and each current electrode at a distance 3A 12 from
the survey line.
Schlumberger Configur;ltion :tn'this caifiguration, the distance 'b' between the two inner
potential eleclrodes (Figure 4.10) is kept constant tbr sometime and the distance between
the currenl electrodes 'L'is varied as shown in the enulosed profocma. The apparent
v.
resistivity pa for a lneasured resistance R = - 1s obtaii~edby the equation :
i

pa = n (L12)2- (b12)2 R, if L > h, and

b

The field curve is plotted on a log-log paper as pa versus U2, pa being in ohm-m
and U 2 in metres.

PROFORMA FOR SCHI,UMBEH(;ER RESISTIVITY SOVNDING DATA

Dates : Sounding No. : -

Owner :
Location : Orientation :

ABl2 MN/2 K Reading I Reading I1 Reading I11

1.5 0.5 6.82

2.0 0.5 11.78
3.0 0.5 27.49
4.0 0.5 49.48
5.O 0.5 77.75
6.0 0.5 112.31
8.0 0.5 200.28
10.0 0.5 31 3.37
10.0 1.3 102.36
12.0 1.3 148.44
15.0 1.3 233.26
20.0 1.3 416.52
25.0 1.3 652.14
25.0 5.0 185.50
30.0 5 .O 274.89
40.0 5 .O 494.80
50.0 5.0 777.54
50.0 10.0 376.99
60.0 10.0 549.78
80.0 10.0 989.60
100.0 10.0 1555.09
120.0 10.0 2246.24
120.0 20.0 1099.56
140.0 20.0 1507.96

Remark
 Vertical Electrical Sounding and Profiling Exploration of Ground Water

Depending upon the area to be covered and the nature of geological formation, two types of
operations are carried out in the field. l l l e first operation is lenned as Vertical Electrical
. Sounding (VES) in which depths, thicknesses and the true resistivities of layers are explored
. at a given position on the ground surface. Vertical Electrical Soundings are normally carried
out for investigating horizontal or nearly horizontal layers.
The second operation is termed as resistivity profiling (or traversing) in which the ground is
explored horizontally for a given depth range to search for latcml inhoinogenities caused
due to faulting, intrusions, variation in weathering and jointing and other factors. In
resistivity profiling the spacing of the electrodes is kept constant but the station of
measurement moves along a profile or traverse, that is usually oriented perpendicular to the
strike direction of an inclined layer.
Interpretation
An interpretation of resistivity data is a most challenging job. It is comparatively easy when
layer boundaries are horizontal and layers are homog&eous incharacter. The conditions in
the field are, however, seldom ideal. If the geology of an area under investigation is known
fairly well then one can make reasonable estimate of the resistivity values of the various .
layers. The job of a prospector is then to detect, locate and [race these layers by virtue of the
difference in resistivity values. The techniques of interpretation are broadly grouped into
two categories :
(i) Empirical or Rule of Thumb techniques, and
(ii) Master Curve Comparison tech~iiques.
The selection of a technique largely depends upon the experience of using a specific method
of interpretation and the availability of background geotechnical information.
Empirical methods are so called practical rules which are based on the recognition of certain
discontinuities or breaks noticeable in the depth sounding curves. The validity of these
methods is always questioned as they are not supported by theoretical background. In
practice, however, useful results are reported Lo have bee11 obtained in a number of cases.
The methods based on matching of curves obtained from the field data with that of master
curves enjoy more popularity because they are supported by sound theoretical background
and give quantitative treatment to the data. When properly interpreted such comparison
gives information regarding changes in resistivity with depth. To aid in the proper
interpretation, theoretically calculaled type curves (master curves) have been prepared
showing apparent resistivity versus depth for a variety ol' two, three or four layered systems
with different resistivity values for each layer. Comparing the field curve of apparent
resistivity versus depth with that of type curves yields information about thickness and
resistivity values of various layers. The most accurate interpretation is done for the two -
layered case. For multi-layered cases, a number of uncertainties and variables affecting field
data make the interpretations of the lithology a difl'icult task. The interpretation of field
curves becomes more accurate and meaningful if additional information about depth and
type of aquifer, is available from well logs.
Two-layer Profiles
Case I : Low-resistivity Layer over High-resistivity Layer
1 Consider a low-resistivity layer such as soil overlying a thick, high resistivity layer such as
dense rock.
A completely uniform subsurface formation whosi resistivily equals the top (soil) layer
would have lines of current flow as shown by dashed lines in Figure 4.11. As the electrode
spacing increases, the presence of rock substratum starts to alter either the current density 'i'
or the true resistivity, or 'apparent resistivity' measured by the instrument along the surface
lines between the two potential electrodes. The effect ot' bedrock upon the current density at
the surface will depend upon the electrode spacing or more precisely, upon the ratio of the
electrode spacing to the depth of the bedrock. The left side of Figure 4.1 1(a) shows that
when the electrode spacing is small compared to the depth, the current density will be
largely unaffected by the layer. The corresponding apparent resistivity reading is shown at
electrode spacing A on the resistivity field curve in Figure 4.1 l(b).
The right side of Figure 4.1 1 (a) shows redistribution of current density for larger current
. electrode spacing as the current starts to cntcr rock. The current is deflected away from the
high resistivity rock substratum as the currenl seeks to fnfkm a path ol lower resistance
Exploration, Well Design The current density in the soil layer is increased everywhere and in particular, between the
& Comtrudioo
current electrodes. Since the apparent resistivity is directly proportional to 'i', the apparent
resistivity will also be increased. The corresponding reading on the resistivity field curves is
shown at electrode spacing 'A' in Figure 4.11 (b).

SMALL ELECTRODE
NORMAL LINES O f

APPARENT
RESISTIVITY

I I I
A' A'' A
ELECTRODE
SPACING

Figure 4 1 1 :(a) lbo-layer Cwe with Law-resistivity Layer over H i g h - d d v l t y Layer

(b) Corresponding Reastivjty Field Curve

Two conclusions should be apparent. First, the current density distribution will change
gradually as the electrode spacing is increased (and the effect of the lower-laying,
high-resistivity stratum increases). Hence, the apparent resistivity curve will rise smoothly
to gradually approach the true resistivity of the bedrock layer as the electrode spacing
becomes very large compared to the depth of rock. If a sharp chmge in the resistivity curve
is observed, it can usually be accounted for lateral changes in the subsurface conditions.
Second, the true resistivity in the near-surface soil layer can be easily determined. It is.
simply the left hand limit of the sounding curve. If the sounding curve is extrapolated back
to the limit of zero electrode separation, this apparent resistivity will be equal to the true
resistivity of the surface layer. This can be seen in Figure 4.11 (b) and also in Figure 4.12
(b) to be discussed below.
Case I1 :High-resistivity Layer over Low-resistivity Layer
In this case, the higher resistivity layer such as gravel overlies the low-resistivity layer such
as clay. The analysis proceeds exactly as before, except that the lines of current flow are
deflected downward toward the low resistivily substratum. This results in reduced current
density, 'i', along the surface between the potential electrodes. Hence, the apparent
resistivity values are reduced. The pattern is shown in Figure 4.12 (a) and the expected
resistivity curve is shown in Figure 4.12 (b).
Three-layer Profile
A three layer structure consists of a surface layer, an intermediate layer and an underlying
material of considerable thickness. As with the two-layer cases, the current density will be
affected by the presence of multiple layers. If pl, p2, pg are the resistivity of the three
successive layers. a sounding curve (with central lowest value, i.e., pl > p2 c p3) is said to
be a H-type curve (Figure 4.131, where, h is the depth from the surface. This type of
sounding curve is ohtilined ge~lerallyin hard rock terrains which consist of dry top soil of
 high resistivity as the first layer, water saturated weathered layer of low resistivity as the ExplorationI of Ground
second layer, and the hard rock of very high resislivity as the third layer.
In hard rock areas with'conductive top soil layer A-type sounding curve is obtained. In this
case, the resistivity of the layers will be continuously increasing, i.e, p l < p2 < ps .
SMALL ELECTRODE LARGE E LECTROOt
SPACING, A' SPACING, A"

APPARENT
R~SISTIVITY I : \_

1 , I
C
A' A" A
ELECTROOE
SEPARATION
(b)
Figmm 4.12 r (a) 'ho-layer Case with High-mLUvlty Layer over Lower-..rrrhrlvky Layer
(b)Corresponding Resistivity Field Curve

Sounding curves showing a mass (hump) flanked by low resistivity values, i.e. p l < p2 > ps
is called K-type curve. Such curves result from various situations. In basaltic areas this type
of curve is very common where compact and massive trap exists between a top black cotton
soil and a lower vesicular basalt. In coastal areas also, this curve will also be encountered
due to freshwater aquifer underlying a clayey layer 'and overlying a saline water layer.
A sounding curve in which the resistivity decreases continuously, i.e. p l > p2 > p3. is called
a Q-type curve. This type curve is usually obtained in coastal and saline areas where saline
water is present.
Four-layer P w l e
There are eight four-layer curves. These curves can be idcnlified by a cornbination of two
b three layer curves, i.e. HA, HK, QH, QQ, KH, KQ, AA, & AK. There could be more
complicted sounding curves, representing multilayer like HKHK, KHKH, HAA, and so on.
Figure 4.13 shows basic resistivity-curve types for two-, three- and four-layer cases as
r.
"discussed above.
For reliable interpretation of data, the fist and foremost thing is accuracy in measurements.
Utmost care has to be taken while making the measurements, and also for site selection. It is
also necessary to calculate resistivity values and to plot the sounding curve on the spot, If
there is a prominent deviation from the smoothness of the curve, the measurements has to
be verified by taking readings again. A gotxi hydrogeological knowledge of the area is
essential for proper interpretation of the geophysical data, so collecled.
. l',

4.6.2 Seismic Refraction Method

Though the electrical resistivity method is widely employed, scis~nlcrciiaction method is
also used by some geophysicists. The shock or sound waves are generated by setting off a
small explosion at a depth of about 1 metre or more or by a sledge hamner striking a metal
?he waves thus propagated travel downwards into various rock layers
back to the surface tiom the interface between those lavers. The
Exploration, Well Design
& Constmdioo

F O R THREE LAYER SYSTEMS

-- FOR FOUR L A Y E R SYSTEMS

Figure 4.13 :Basic Resistivity Curve Types for nbd FmICIayed Cges

detectors,.called gebphones, placed on the ground surface. These geophones are connected
with cables,to a central oscillograph or other device for recording the arrival time of the fust
wave after detonation or striking of a sledge hammer on a metal plate. The arrival times of
different waves at different distances (Figure 4.14) from the shot point are utilised for
calculating the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer. The velocities
are characteristic of particular rocks in particular condition, i.e., whether the rock is dry,
saturated with water, weathered or jointed. The refracted waves arrive at the surface only if
the velocity of the propagation in underlying layer is higher than that of overlying layer. The

,-
thickness of a layer should be adequate enough to allow transmission of the wave.
I

SHOT POINT
GEOPHONE

VADOSE-
ZONE
WATER TU f
-
-
-
AQUIFER \ +:IS00 MI%/ /

Wgure 414 :Schematic Diagram for Travel of Sound Waves in T h m - I a y d Strata 4 t h Refraction Suvey

4.6.3 Other Methods

The o@r$ethods that are available for ground water prospecting include grahtY and
magnetic methods. Gravity surveys measure difference in density on the earth's surface
which is a reflection of subsurface geologic environment. As gravity surveys are relatively
insensitive to small changes in geology, these are normally used in ground water studies to
map only large burried valleys. In this method, gravimeter is used to measure the direct
effects of the pull of gravity on a mass suspended by a delicate spring.
Magnetic surveys are, in particular, e~nployetl111 gruiitic or I);LF;IIL~~~crrai~i:,wlicrc.ver11cal Exploration of Ground Water
or nearly vertical dykes are present. An ;iinomaly 111 the n~;igllcliuI~eltlbciiI1 hc observed ~t
dykes possess different mineral compositioil and texlure than Lhe rocks ~n'wh~ch they are
emplaced. A magnetometer is used to measure Ule ~nleilsil~ and d~rectionof magnetlc forces.

SAQ 2
(1 ) Give-a br~efsignificance ot well 111ve111ory
(2) Explain the Schlumberger arrallgeliiclil o f clcctrotlc sp;icing. with the help of a
diagram.
( 3 ) Explain, in brief, vertical electrical soundi~ig.
(4) Explain the principle of seis~nicrefraction nlclhod wilh tile help ofn diagram

4.7 SUBSURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

Geophysical logging consists of lowering sensing ele~nenlc;illed sonde inlo a well or bore
hole (Figure 4.15) and recording its output to produce a dcptli trace or log (Figure 4.16) of
the parameter in question. Logging techniclues (including self-potential, resistivity, gamma,
neutron, gamma'-gamma, temperature and caliper log) are find~ngillcreased application in
the water-well industry. Self-potential and resist~vilylogging, colleclively called electric
logging, are among the most commonly used Lechniques.

Figure 4.15 :Electrode Arrm~gc~~lents for Resistivity Logging

- [Current Electrodes :A mid B, Potential 1Slectrodeu :(: :u~dB (Single I'uini Device)]

4.7.1 Self-potential Logging i

A log of self or spontaneous potential (SP) is obtained by recording the naturally oicurring
voltage difference between an electrode that is placed in the surface soil uear the bore hole
and another electrode that is lowered into the hole. The holc ~llustI1e u11c:med arrd is filled
with drilling fluid when the SP log is to be oblii~ned.Vnr~alions111 Ihe recorded voltage
difference will occur as the hole electrode passes through d~ll'erculfor~ni~tions. These
variations are due to electrochemical effecis between dissiniilar layers, d~ffererltstreaming
potentials and other electrokinetic iffects associated with Ihc movement of water through
various layers. The resulti~rgrecorder trace thus serves as ;I f;iirly accurate indicator of the
depth of discontinuities and types of nlalerials exisling.
The right-side boundary of a SP-l!)g is callcd sh:~leline iiS shown ill Figure 4.16. 11 indicates
impermeable beds like clays, shale ;uid other rocks. The outpul o f [he recording
Exploration, Well Design potentiomeler is so arranged that the shale line represents the zero or reference potential, so
& ColkSt~Cti~Il
that the recorder output to the right o f the shale line is positive and to the left of the shale
link is negative. The left-side boundary of the recorder tracing is called sand line and it
represents more pernieable slrata sucli as sands, gravels, sandstones, and rock with
secondary porosity. Any negative deviation Srom the shale line may indicate a permeable
. stratum, particularly if the clevialion exlends only over a short depth interval. For some
strata, such as sand acluifcrs containing waler wiLh a very low salt content, the SP trace may
move to Ule positive or rig111 sitlc 01' Lhe shale line. The self-potential becomes more
negative wiUi increasing s;~llcontell1 ol' the formation water, thus, also indicating zones of
saline water.

1
GEOLOGIC DRILL SELF RESISTIVITY GAMMA N N T W N GAMMA

-
LOG TIME POTENTIAL GAMMA

M/HR NEGATIVE 0 OHM. M COUNTS PER SECOND

---C t
OVERBURDEN
WATER TABLE
-
-
-
SAND
CLAY
SAND
AND
GRAVEL

CAV ERNOU S
LIMESTONE

SHALE

DENSE
LIMESTONE

WITH
SALINE WATER
IGNEOUS

I'igt~rc 4.16 : Hyl~ull~elical

Geopl~ysiealLogs

4.7.2 Resistivity Logging

To obtain a log of apparent resislivilies of formations an alternating current is applied to two
electrodes and the potential difl'erence between these electrodes or two other electrodes is
meitsured with ;I recording potentiometer. Tolal current is measured with an ammeter.
Various electrode arr;ulgenienls arc used. the simplest being the single-point electrode where
one currenl eledrode is placed in the surfikce soil near the well and the other is lowered into
the bore hole (Figure 4.15). ?'he hole must be uricased and is usually still filled with drilling
mud. The polential difference is measured between the current electrode in the borehole and
a polcnlial klectrodc placed in Ihc soil near the well (singly-point device, Figure 4.15).
The resistivity of it water-bearing Lhr~nationprimarily depends on the salt content of the
water ruild the porosily o f [he liliderial. Ililerpretation of resistivity logs usuall! is most
successful wheii usetl in conjunction with sell-potential logs. Resistivity value : are highest
for dense, solid rock and lowest for clay arid shale layers. Medium resistivities in
combination with l~egativesell-potentials indicate sand aquifers. If the formation material
and porosity are known. the mcnsured resislivity may furnish estimates of the salt content of
the formation waler.

4.7.3 Gamma Ray Logging

Logs of the natural ganmlit ray elnlssloll oS varlous soillrock suata are obtained by lowering
a ganlma-ray clelcclor inlo the well illid recording its output (counts per seco, td). Since
galnlnrt rays pass through ~ ~ i c l i 111c
l l ~ ,Lcchnlquc c;ui illso be used in cased holes. Gamma ray
logs, however. ;uc rn;11111y
ubcd to cl~sl~ngu~sh bclwcen clay and non-clay materials. Clays
and shales contain much more of the gamma-emlttlng elelnents (for example, daughter Exploration of Ground Water
products of uranium and thorium) than linles tones and sands. In this way, gamma logs
enhance the usefulness of the interpretation of electrical logs.
i

4.7.4 Neutron Logging

Neutron logs are obtained by lowering a probe with a fast-neutron source, e.g., 3 mCi of
americium-beryllium, into the bore hole and recording the intensity of the slow neutrons
caused by backscatter and attenuation of the fast neutrons by hydrogen in the surroundirig
formation. The intensity of the slow neutrons, which is measured with a detector in the same
probe, can then be related to the water content of the forination ~rlaterialaround the probe
(Figure 4.16). The method can be used on both, cased or uncased holes.
Neutron logs yield information about water content and, if the format~onis saturated, about
porosity of the material around the well. Measured changes in water content may be helpful
in locating water tables.

4.7.5 Gamma-gamma Logging

Gamma-gamma logs are obtained by lowering a probe with ;I gamma-radiation source,
e.g., 10 to 35 mCi of 60c,, into a bore hole and measuring the intensity of the backscattered
and attenuated gamma rays with a detector ui the same probe. This intensity is related to the
density of the surrounding material (Figure 4.16), so that bulk density and porosity of
formation material around the probe can be detected.

4.7.6 Other Logging Techniques

Acoustic Logging :Acoustic logging is also called sonic logging. The method utilizes many
frequencies not audible to the hum'm ear. Basically all acoustic logg~~ig devices contain one
or two transmitters that convert electrical energy to acoustic energy. The energy is
transmitted through the bore well and the rock surroullding. The receiver converts the
acoustic energy to electric energy. The tool is constructed so that the shortest path for the
acoustic wave is through the rock surrounding the well and then refracted along the
borehole well. The method is used to locate Ule positions of inflow of water in the hole.
Caliper Log :The caliper log is a record of the average diameter of drill-hole. Most caliper
sondes consist of one to four pads, or bow springs, which follow the wall of the hole.
Caliper logs are utilized for the identification of lithology and stratigrapliic correlation, for
the location of fractures and other openings, as a guide to well construction and to correct
the interpretation of other logs for hole-diameter effect.
Lithological factors which will affect the hole diameter include type and degree of
cementation or compaction, porosity aid perme;ibility, bed thickness and vertical distance to
adjacent hard bed, size, spacing and orientation of fractures and swelling of clay.
Temperature Logging :Temperature logs are cont~iiuousrecords of the temperature of the
environment immediately surrounding a sensor in a bore hole. They can provide
information on the source and movement o i water 'md thc thermal conductivity of rocks.
Basically temperature logging sondes contain a thermistor whose internal electrical
resistance changes in response to temperature changes. In gcneral gcothermal gradient is
steeper in rocks with low permeability than iu rocks with high pernleability, possibly
because of ground water flow.

4.8 EXPLORATORY BOREWELLS PROGRAMME

Actual ground water regimes may deviate to somc extent from the features indicated and
inferred through interpretations of toposheets and aerial photographs and data obtained in
hydrogeological, geochemical and geophysical surveys. In order to obtain a first hand
information of ground water regimes and oorrelate it with interpretation made during the
investigations, there is no substitute to exploratory borewell operations especially in virgin
areas which do not possess any hydrogeological information. Borewells drilled on
exploratory basis not only provide adequate data on subsurface geology and aquifers but
also help in deIineating vertical and lateral limits of ground water regime and qualitative.and
quantitative variations, if any, due to changes in rock types. All borewells need not be
completed as test wells under the programme. A few wells may bc drilled completely at
sites selected on the basis of different ground water potentials, for obtaining a complete
hydrogeological information and other wells may be drilled upto shallow dcpth to define
ueriuherv of the aauifer svstem. Borewells comoleted in all resoect ciul be treated as 'kev'
Exploration, Well Design wells and olhers as 'slinlholcs'. Key wells also prnvide an opportunity to conduct aquifer
& Construction
test for obtaining storativity ruld trru~smissivityvalues. On the basis of these values overall
potential of ground waler regirile can be estimated. Information so obtained is useful in
de iding number of wells to be drilled, Lhe~roptimum depth and safe distance between
the . llle clut~lityof water can also be Lesled through exploratory borewells. It is, thus,
evident that exploratory borewell opcral~onsrue of greaus~gnificancein ground water
exploration programmes.

SAQ 3
(1) Fill 111 the necessary &tails of logging in the following table.

SI. No. Technique Property to be Probe Characteristic 1

Measured

1.

2.
Resisl~v~ty

Neulron
-1-
3. G anmmil-ganuna

4. Acoustlc

5. Callper

(2) Give the sigliificrulce o f Exploratory Borewell Programme.

4.9 SUMMARY
In this unil an attempt has been made to provide information on various exploration
techniques that are in vogue for ground water investigations. Ground water regimes of any
terrain is the reflection of a complex interaction of the physical system constituted of
climatic, topographic and geological factors and their components. The factors such as
topography and geology vary in space whereas climate varies in both, space and time, and
hence impart heteroge~iietyand isotrophism on the gr&d water regime. Any one method
of ground water exploration is therefore inadequate to furnish desired hydrogeological data
for proper understanding of a given aquifer system.
It is proposed that.an integrated approach involving both, conventional and modem ground
water exploration methods be employed in the drainage basin of interest. The data so
obtained and interpretation made help in classifying the basin area into potential, moderately
potential and poor potential categories and obtaining geometry of the aquifer system. It is
further proposed ttiat exploratory borewell operations be carried out to get the first hand
information about the ground water regime in the study area and also to confirm the validity
of interpretation made through various exploratory techniques.

4.10 KEY WORDS

Alluvium : Layer of snnd and silt deposited on the valley floor as streadriver
clianriel becomes choked and overflows the adjacent ground.
Alluvial Fan : A broad, gently sloping depositional surface, in an arid or semi-arid
region, at the base of retreating mountain front. The bed rock is
manlled with a veneer of alluvium of varying thiclaess derived from
the upland bedrock.
Bedlands Rugged surface resembling miniature mountains, developed on Exploration of Ground Water
unconsolidated or wealthy cemented clay or silt formations by
erosion, too rapid to permit plant growth. Bedlands occur in arid
climates.
Colluvium Accumulation of soil or silt particles as a laycr at the base of the slope
from which they were removed by surface flow,
Depositional : Sequential landforms made up of sediments transported by running
Landforms water and deposited at a location downstream of the source.
Drainage Basin : Entire land surface within drainage divide contributing to outflow by
a single channel.
Erosional Landibrms formed by progressive removal of the bed rock mass due
Landforms to the influence of running water.
Ox-bow Lake : A crecent-shaped lake left as a result of a meander cutoff and silting
of the ends of the abandoned channel loop.

4.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(1) Refer to Sub-section 4.2.1
(2) Refer to Sub-section 4.3.1
(3) Refer to Sub-section 4.3.1
(4 Refer to sub-section 4.3.2
( 5 ) Refer to Sub-section 4.3.2
SAQ 2
(1 Refer to Sub-section 4.4.1
(2) Refer to Sub-section 4.6.1
(3) Refer to Sub-section 4.6.1
(4) Refer to Sub-section 4.6.2
SAQ 3
(1 Refer to Section 4.7
(2) Refer to Section 4.8
- - - - - - pp

4.12 FURTHER READING

Raghunath, H. M., Ground Water, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, 1988.
Todd, D. K., Ground Water Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, London, 1982.
Nefedov K. E. and Popova T. A,, Deciphering of Ground WaterfromAerial Photographs,
Translated from Russian by Dr. V. S. Kothekar, Amerind Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Valdiya, K. S., Environmental Geology :Indian Context, Tata McGraw-~iilPublishing
Company, New Delhi, 1987.