LED Characteristics •Output power increases linearly with current •Digital signal biased from 0.

•Analogue modulation signal biased at half-way point between 0

and maximum. •Circuitry straight forward and inexpensive. •More reliable than lasers due to lower current density. •Maximum bandwidth/bit rate (analogue/digital) is
limited by carrier recombination lifetime, t. •Defined as time taken for spontaneous emission power to exponentially decrease to 1/e •Recombination occurs as
electron drops from conduction band to valence band, separated by energy. •Due to range in energies in conduction and valence bands the created photons also
have energy range. •This energy range relates to a bandwidth of between 25- 100nm. What about a laser? •Laser structure is similar – but need population
inversion. • Larger current density supplies larger number of electrons in the active region. • High number of electrons in conduction band and large number of holes
in valence band → population inversion. • Lasers also need feedback. • Applying mirrors to end faces provides this feedback. • Both laser mirrors are highly
reflective allowing light to be trapped in the cavity. • A small portion of light exits from one of the mirrors. In optical waveguides, guided modes are electromagnetic waves
that are confined to the core of the waveguide and propagate along the length of the waveguide. These modes are characterized by their transverse field profile, which describes the
distribution of the electric and magnetic fields in the transverse plane.The conditions that must be satisfied for guided modes to exist are:•The refractive index of the core must
be greater than the refractive index of the cladding. This ensures that the •electromagnetic wave is reflected back into the core at the core-cladding interface.•The transverse field
profile of the guided mode must satisfy the boundary conditions at the core-cladding interface. •This ensures that the electromagnetic wave is smoothly transmitted across the
interface.the factors that determine the bandwidth (maximum bit rate) of a photodiode receiver:•The rise time of the photodiode: This is the time it takes for the photodiode
to generate a current pulse in response to a sudden change in light intensity. The shorter the rise time, the higher the bandwidth of the receiver.•The capacitance of the
photodiode: The capacitance of the photodiode limits the bandwidth of the receiver by storing charge that must be discharged before the photodiode can respond to a new light
pulse. The lower the capacitance, the higher the bandwidth of the receiver.•The bandwidth of the amplifier: The amplifier that is used to amplify the current pulse from the
photodiode also limits the bandwidth of the receiver. The higher the bandwidth of the amplifier, the higher the bandwidth of the receiver.•The noise in the receiver: Noise in the
receiver can also limit the bandwidth of the receiver. The lower the noise, the higher the bandwidth of the receiver.There are a few ways to optimize the bandwidth of a
photodiode receiver:•Use a photodiode with a short rise time: This will reduce the time it takes for the receiver to respond to a new light pulse.•Use a photodiode with a low
capacitance: This will reduce the amount of charge that must be discharged before the photodiode can respond to a new light pulse.•Use an amplifier with a high bandwidth: This
will increase the bandwidth of the receiver. •Reduce the noise in the receiver: This will allow the receiver to detect smaller changes in light intensity, which will increase the
bandwidth of the receiver. There are two main dispersion mechanisms that result in chirp and pulse spreading in single mode optical fibers: Material dispersion: This is
caused by the fact that the refractive index of the fiber material varies with wavelength. This means that different wavelengths of light travel at different speeds in the fiber, which
causes the pulse to spread out as it propagates. •Waveguide dispersion: This is caused by the fact that the shape of the fiber core also varies with wavelength. This means that
different wavelengths of light experience different effective refractive indices in the fiber, which also causes the pulse to spread out. The combined effect of material and waveguide
dispersion is called chromatic dispersion. Chromatic dispersion is the main limiting factor in the bandwidth of single mode optical fibers.To minimize pulse spreading in single
mode fibers at wavelengths beyond 1270 nm, fiber designers use dispersion-shifted fibers (DSFs). DSFs are designed to have zero chromatic dispersion at a specific wavelength,
which is typically chosen to be around 1550 nm. This allows for the transmission of high-speed optical signals over long distances without significant pulse spreading.In addition to
DSFs, fiber designers also use polarization-maintaining fibers (PMFs) to minimize pulse spreading. PMFs are designed to maintain the polarization of the light as it propagates
through the fiber, which helps to reduce the effects of polarization mode dispersion (PMD). PMD is another type of dispersion that can cause pulse spreading in single mode
fibers.By using DSFs and PMFs, fiber designers can minimize pulse spreading in single mode fibers at wavelengths beyond 1270 nm. This allows for the transmission of high-speed
optical signals over long distances without significant loss of signal quality. the descriptions of the electro-optic effect and the magneto-optic effect, as well as their
applications in phase-modulators and Faraday rotators: Electro-optic effect The electro-optic effect is a phenomenon in which the refractive index of a material is changed by
the application of an electric field. This effect can be used to control the phase of light passing through the material. In a phase-modulator, the electro-optic effect is used to change
the phase of light in a controlled way. This can be used to modulate the signal in an optical communication system. Magneto-optic effect The magneto-optic effect is a phenomenon
in which the refractive index of a material is changed by the application of a magnetic field. This effect can be used to control the polarization of light passing through the material.
In a Faraday rotator, the magneto-optic effect is used to rotate the polarization of light in a controlled way. This can be used to filter out specific polarizations of light, or to change
the polarization of light in an optical communication system. Application of electro-optic effect in phase-modulators A phase-modulator is an optical device that changes the
phase of light in a controlled way. This can be used to modulate the signal in an optical communication system. The electro-optic effect is often used in phase-modulators because it
is a relatively easy effect to implement. A common type of phase-modulator is the Mach-Zehnder modulator. In a Mach-Zehnder modulator, a beam of light is split into two
beams, which are then recombined after passing through different regions of a material with an electro-optic effect. The phase of one of the beams is changed by the application of
an electric field, which causes the two beams to interfere with each other in a controlled way. Application of magneto-optic effect in Faraday rotators A Faraday rotator is an
optical device that rotates the polarization of light in a controlled way. This can be used to filter out specific polarizations of light, or to change the polarization of light in an optical
communication system. The magneto-optic effect is often used in Faraday rotators because it is a relatively strong effect. A common type of Faraday rotator is the Faraday isolator.
In a Faraday isolator, a beam of light is passed through a material with a magneto-optic effect. The polarization of the light is rotated by the application of a magnetic field, which
prevents the light from reflecting back from the end of the material. Sure. The wavelength of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is sensitive to both temperature and strain. The two
temperature influences are:•Thermal expansion: The refractive index of the fiber material changes with temperature. This change in refractive index causes the Bragg wavelength
to shift.•Thermo-optic effect: The refractive index of the fiber material also changes with the intensity of the light that is propagating through the fiber. This change in refractive
index also causes the Bragg wavelength to shift.The two strain influences are:•Mechanical strain: When the fiber is strained, the refractive index of the fiber material changes. This
change in refractive index causes the Bragg wavelength to shift.•Piezo-optic effect: The refractive index of the fiber material also changes with the electric field that is generated by
the strain. This change in refractive index also causes the Bragg wavelength to shift.One way to isolate the desired strain measurement from temperature change influences is to use
a technique called wavelength interrogation. In wavelength interrogation, the reflected light from the FBG is passed through a spectrometer, which disperses the light into its
component wavelengths. The wavelength of the reflected light is then compared to a reference wavelength, and the strain is calculated from the difference in wavelengths. the key
points about how the EDFA simplified the construction of DWDM links and enabled it to support future upgrades in data rate:•Before the EDFA, DWDM links were not
possible because the optical signal would be attenuated (weakened) as it propagated through the fiber.•The EDFA is a type of optical amplifier that is specifically designed to
amplify signals at the wavelength of 1550 nm. This wavelength is ideal for DWDM because it is where the fiber has the least attenuation.•The EDFA eliminated the need for regular
amplification along the link, which made the links much simpler and less expensive to build.•It allowed for longer links to be built, which increased the capacity of the network.•It
enabled future upgrades in data rate, as the EDFA could be easily upgraded to amplify signals at higher powers. explanation of what happens to the modes in an optical
waveguide as we increase the wavelength of the input light and as we increase the thickness of the waveguide: Increasing the wavelength of the input light As the
wavelength of the input light increases, the modes in the waveguide become more confined to the core. This is because the wavelength of the light determines the size of the
evanescent field, which is the region of light that extends beyond the core of the waveguide. The evanescent field is responsible for coupling the light into the core, so as the
wavelength of the light increases, the evanescent field becomes smaller and the light becomes more confined to the core. Increasing the thickness of the waveguide As the
thickness of the waveguide increases, the modes in the waveguide become more spread out. This is because the thickness of the waveguide determines the size of the core, and as the
thickness of the waveguide increases, the core becomes larger and the modes become more spread out. Mode cut-off Mode cut-off is a phenomenon that occurs when the
wavelength of the input light is too long for the modes to be confined to the core of the waveguide. In this case, the light is reflected back from the core-cladding interface and does
not propagate through the waveguide. The conditions for mode cut-off are: •The wavelength of the light must be greater than the cutoff wavelength. •The thickness of the waveguide
must be greater than the cutoff thickness. Mode cut-off can be used to create a single mode waveguide for use at a specified wavelength. This is done by making the thickness of the
waveguide greater than the cutoff thickness for the specified wavelength. In this case, only the fundamental mode will be able to propagate through the waveguide, and all other
modes will be cut off. the main types of attenuation within optical fiber and how certain causes of attenuation have been eliminated in modern fibers: •Absorption: This is the most
common cause of attenuation in optical fibers. It occurs when the light is absorbed by the fiber material. The absorption losses are wavelength-dependent, with the absorption being
strongest at shorter wavelengths. In modern fibers, the absorption losses have been reduced by using high-purity materials and by doping the fiber with materials that have low
absorption coefficients. •Scattering: This is the second most common cause of attenuation in optical fibers. It occurs when the light is scattered by impurities or defects in the fiber
material. The scattering losses are also wavelength-dependent, with the scattering being strongest at shorter wavelengths. In modern fibers, the scattering losses have been reduced
by using high-quality manufacturing processes and by reducing the number of impurities and defects in the fiber material. •Microbending: This is a type of scattering that occurs
when the fiber is bent on a very small scale. Microbending losses can be caused by manufacturing defects, by the way the fiber is handled, or by the environment in which the fiber
is installed. Microbending losses can be reduced by using fibers with a smooth surface and by careful handling of the fiber. The absorption and scattering losses vary as a function
of wavelength as shown in the following diagram: As you can see, the absorption losses are strongest at shorter wavelengths, while the scattering losses are strongest at longer
wavelengths. This is why optical fibers are typically designed to operate at wavelengths where the absorption losses are low. In addition to the three main types of attenuation listed
above, there are a number of other factors that can contribute to attenuation in optical fibers, such as: •Mode coupling: This occurs when the light is coupled from one mode to
another in the fiber. Mode coupling losses can be caused by imperfections in the fiber core or by bends in the fiber. •Polarization mode dispersion: This occurs when the different
polarization modes of the light travel at different speeds in the fiber. Polarization mode dispersion losses can be caused by the birefringence of the fiber material or by bends in the
fiber. These are just a few of the factors that can contribute to attenuation in optical fibers. The amount of attenuation in a fiber depends on the type of fiber, the wavelength of the
light, and the environment in which the fiber is installed.