Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals CAT-B1B2 - 1

Training Manual
PART 66 Basic Training

CAT-B1&B2 Module 3
Electrical Fundamentals
AERO-Bildungs GmbH
Document Reference: BT_B1&B2_M3
For Training Purposes Only Last Revision Date: Sep 2017 Page 1 of 192
Module 3 PART66 – Basic Training
Introduction to the Training Manual CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
Introduction to the Training Manual

This training manual was prepared to provide information about the Module
3 Electrical Fundamentals in accordance with related EASA Part-66
requirements.
It is expressly emphasized that this training document is of a purely
informational nature and is not subject to any revision service.
Version : May 2021
Contact
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Friedrichshafener Str. 2
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Tel.: +49 (0) 8105 77849 – 0
Fax: +49 (0) 8105 77849 – 13
Mail: [email protected]
For Training Purposes Only Last Revision Date: May 2021 Page 2 of 192
Table of Contents CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
Table of Contents
3.1 Electron Theory ............................................................................. 12 3.5.1.2 Secondary Cells ....................................................................... 24
3.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 12 3.5.1.3 Lead Acid Batteries.................................................................. 24
3.1.2 Electric current .............................................................................. 14 3.5.1.4 Alkaline Batteries .................................................................... 28
3.1.3 Nonmetallic insulators ................................................................... 15 3.5.1.5 Connection of Cells.................................................................. 30
3.1.4 Semiconductors ............................................................................. 16 3.5.2 Thermoelectricity Thermocouples ................................................. 32
3.2 Static Electricity ............................................................................. 16 3.5.2.1 Thermocouple Theory ............................................................. 32
3.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 16 3.5.2.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples ......... 33
3.2.2 Coulomb ........................................................................................ 18 3.5.2.3 Thermocouple Construction ................................................... 33
3.2.3 Electron Theory ............................................................................. 19 3.5.3 Photocells / Photovoltaic Cells ....................................................... 34
3.3 Electrical terminology .................................................................... 20 3.5.3.1 Solar Cell Structure.................................................................. 34
3.3.1 Potential Difference....................................................................... 20 3.5.3.2 A Photon Causes the Photoelectric Effect .............................. 34
3.3.2 Electro-Motive Force ..................................................................... 20 3.5.3.3 The PN-junction....................................................................... 34
3.3.3 Voltage ........................................................................................... 20 3.6 DC circuits ..................................................................................... 36
3.3.4 Current........................................................................................... 20 3.6.1 Ohm´s Law ...................................................................................... 36
3.3.5 Resistance ...................................................................................... 20 3.6.1.1 What is Ohm´s Law? ................................................................ 36
3.3.6 Specific Resistance......................................................................... 21 3.6.1.2 Voltage .................................................................................... 37
3.3.7 Conductance .................................................................................. 21 3.6.1.3 Resistance ............................................................................... 38
3.3.8 Charge ............................................................................................ 21 3.6.1.4 Current (Amperes) .................................................................. 39
3.3.8.1 Conventional Current ............................................................. 21 3.6.1.5 Kirchoff´s Laws ........................................................................ 41
3.3.8.2 Electron Current ..................................................................... 21 3.7 Resistors ....................................................................................... 42
3.4 Generation of electricity ................................................................ 22 3.7.1 Circuit Symbol and identification ................................................... 42
3.5 DC Sources..................................................................................... 23 3.7.1.1 Fixed Resistors......................................................................... 42
3.5.1 Batteries ........................................................................................ 23 3.7.1.2 Variable Resistors .................................................................... 44
3.5.1.1 Primary Cell............................................................................. 23 3.7.1.3 Current / Resistance Relationship ........................................... 46
3.7.1.4 Resistor Types and Identification ........................................... 47 3.10.1.2 Permanent Magnets.............................................................. 72

3.7.2 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance ......................................... 49 3.10.1.3 Properties of Magnetic Fields ............................................... 74
3.7.2.1 Thermistors (NTC)................................................................... 50 3.10.1.4 Magnetic Flux ........................................................................ 74
3.7.2.2 PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) ................................. 51 3.10.1.5 The Magnetic Effect of Current ............................................. 76
3.7.3 Calculations of Resistances............................................................ 52 3.10.1.6 The Magnetic Field of a Coil .................................................. 78
3.7.3.1 Resistance in a Series Circuit .................................................. 52 3.10.1.7 Magnetic Characteristics ....................................................... 79
3.7.3.2 Resistance in Parallel Circuits ................................................. 53 3.11 Induction/Inductor ...................................................................... 88
3.7.4 Conductance (G) ............................................................................ 54 3.11.1 Faraday’s Law ............................................................................... 88
3.7.5 Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel ............................. 54 3.11.1.1 Rate of Change of Flux .......................................................... 90
3.7.6 Wheatstone Bridge ........................................................................ 56 3.11.1.2 Direction of an Induced EMF (Lenz’s Law) ............................ 90
3.8 Electrical Power ............................................................................. 57 3.11.1.3 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field 94
3.8.1 The Maximum power transfer theorem ........................................ 58 3.11.1.4 Back EMF and Inductance ..................................................... 96
3.8.2 Electrical energy/ Electrical work .................................................. 61 3.11.1.5 Time Constant ....................................................................... 99
3.9 Capacitors and capacitance ............................................................ 62 3.11.2 Inductance Circuits ..................................................................... 102
3.9.1 Capacitance ................................................................................... 62 3.11.2.1 Inductances in Series........................................................... 102
3.9.2 Factors Affecting Capacitance ....................................................... 64 3.11.2.2 Inductances in Parallel ........................................................ 103
3.9.3 Time Constant................................................................................ 66 3.11.2.3 Inductor Losses ................................................................... 104
3.9.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel .................................................... 68 3.12 Direct Current Generators/Motors ..............................................105
3.9.4.1 Capacitors in Series................................................................. 68 3.12.1 Theory ........................................................................................ 105
3.9.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel .............................................................. 69 3.12.2 Production of Direct Current...................................................... 106
3.9.4.3 Safe Working Voltage ............................................................. 70 3.12.2.1 Construction and Purpose of Components in DC Generator
3.9.5 Types of Capacitors........................................................................ 70 ........................................................................................................... 109
3.10 Magnetism .................................................................................. 72 3.12.2.2 Field Magnet System ........................................................... 110
3.10.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 72 3.12.2.3 The Armature ...................................................................... 112
3.10.1.1 Artificial Magnets ................................................................. 72 3.12.3 DC Motor Principle of Operation ............................................... 117
3.12.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 117
3.12.3.2 Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field ................ 117 3.14.3 Resistances and Reactances in Single-Phase AC Circuits ........... 149
3.12.3.3 Operation and Factors Affecting Motor Output Power Torque 3.14.3.1 Series Connection of Resistor and Capacitor ...................... 149
.......................................................................................................... 120 3.14.3.2 Series Connection of Resistor and Coil ............................... 152
3.12.4 Series Wound, and Shunt Wound DC Machines ....................... 121 3.14.4 Power in RC and RL Series Circuits ............................................. 155
3.12.4.1 Series DC Motor.................................................................. 121 3.14.4.1 Power Triangle and Waveform Diagrams ........................... 155
3.12.4.2 DC Shunt Generator............................................................ 122 3.15 Transformers ..............................................................................158
3.12.4.3 Compound DC Motor ......................................................... 123 3.15.1 Principle of Operation and Construction ................................... 158
3.12.4.4 Starter/Generator Construction ......................................... 124 3.15.1.1 Principle of Operation ......................................................... 158
3.13 Alternating Current .................................................................... 126 3.15.1.2 Construction ........................................................................ 160
3.13.1 The Sine Wave ........................................................................... 126 3.15.2 Characteristics ............................................................................ 164
3.13.1.1 Instantaneous Value ........................................................... 127 3.15.2.1 Turns Ratio .......................................................................... 164
3.13.1.2 Period and Frequency......................................................... 128 3.15.2.2 Losses and Efficiency ........................................................... 167
3.13.1.3 Peak / Peak to Peak Value .................................................. 129 3.15.2.3 The Autotransformer .......................................................... 168
3.13.1.4 Power in AC Circuits ........................................................... 132 3.16 Filters .........................................................................................170
3.13.1.5 Other waveforms ................................................................ 134 3.16.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 170
3.13.2 Three - Phase AC ........................................................................ 135 3.16.1.1 Pass-band ............................................................................ 170
3.13.2.1 Symmetry and Balance ....................................................... 135 3.16.1.2 Stop-band ............................................................................ 170
3.13.3 Three Phase Interconnections ................................................... 136 3.16.1.3 Cut-off Frequency ............................................................... 170
3.13.3.1 Star Connection .................................................................. 136 3.16.2 Types of Filter ............................................................................. 170
3.13.3.2 Delta Connection ................................................................ 138 3.16.2.1 Low-Pass Filters ................................................................... 170
3.14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive (L) Circuits .................. 140 3.16.2.2 High Pass Filters .................................................................. 172
3.14.1 R, C and L in AC Circuits ............................................................. 140 3.16.2.3 Band Pass Filters.................................................................. 173
3.14.2 Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in AC Circuits .... 142 3.16.2.4 Band- Stop Filters ................................................................ 174
3.14.2.1 Pure Resistance in AC Circuits ............................................ 142 3.16.3 Circuit Symbols ........................................................................... 174
3.14.2.2 Pure Inductance in AC Circuits ........................................... 144 3.17 AC Generators ............................................................................175
3.14.2.3 Pure Capacitance in AC Circuits .......................................... 147
3.17.1 Types of AC Generators ............................................................. 175

3.17.1.1 Principle of Operation ........................................................ 175
3.17.1.2 AC Generators (Alternators) ............................................... 178
3.17.1.3 AC- Brushless Generators ................................................... 182
3.18 AC Motors ................................................................................. 183
3.18.1 Types of AC Motors ................................................................... 183
3.18.1.1 Description of AC Motors ................................................... 183
3.18.1.2 Induction Motor (Asynchronous Motor) ............................ 183
3.18.1.3 Three-Phase Motor............................................................. 183
3.18.1.4 Single-Phase Motor ............................................................ 186
3.18.1.5 Shaded-Pole Motor ............................................................ 187
3.18.2 Synchronous Motor ................................................................... 188
3.18.2.1 Three-Phase Motor............................................................. 188
3.18.3 AC Motor Control ...................................................................... 190
EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements

Knowledge Levels Level 3:
The basic knowledge requirements for category A1, B1, B2 and B3 are • A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the
indicated by the using the knowledge level indicators as Level 1, 2 or 3. The subject.
knowledge levels are described below: • A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Level 1:
Objectives:
• A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
• The applicant should know the theory of the subject and
Objectives:
interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the • The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the
subject. subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the • The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical
whole subject, using common words and examples. formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms. • The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare
sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
Level 2: • The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the manner using manufacturer's instructions.
subject. • The applicant should be able to interpret results from various
• An ability to apply that knowledge. sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
appropriate.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
drawings and schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
manner using detailed procedures.
Certification Requirements
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC)
No.1142/2018 Annex III (Part-66) and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:
License M3.5 DC Sources of Electricity

Part-66 Category & Construction and basic chemical action of: primary cells,
Sub- Subject Level secondary cells, lead acid cells, nickel cadmium cells,
Module other alkaline cells;
-B1&B2- Cells connected in series and parallel; 2
Internal resistance and its effect on a battery;
M3.1 Electron Theory
Construction, materials and operation of thermocouples;
Structure and distribution of electrical charges within: Operation of photo-cells.
atoms, molecules, ions, compounds;
1 M3.6 DC Circuits
Molecular structure of conductors, semiconductors and
insulators. Ohm’s Law, Kirchoff’s Voltage and Current Laws;
Calculations using the above laws to find resistance,
M3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction 2
voltage and current;
Static electricity and distribution of electrostatic charges;
Significance of the internal resistance of a supply.
Electrostatic laws of attraction and repulsion;
M3.7 Resistance/Resistor
Units of charge, Coulomb’s Law; 2
Conduction of electricity in solids, liquids, gases and a Resistance and affecting factors; Specific resistance;
vacuum. Resistor colour code, values and tolerances, preferred
values, wattage ratings; Resistors in series and parallel;
M3.3 Electrical Terminology M3.7.a Calculation of total resistance using series, parallel and 2
The following terms, their units and factors affecting series parallel combinations; Operation and use of
them: potential difference, electromotive force, voltage, potentiometers and rheostats; Operation of Wheatstone
2
current, resistance, conductance, charge, conventional Bridge;
current flow, electron flow. Positive and negative temperature coefficient
M3.4 Generation of Electricity conductance; Fixed resistors, stability, tolerance and
Production of electricity by the following methods: light, limitations, methods of construction; Variable resistors,
M3.7.b 1
heat, friction, pressure, chemical action, magnetism and 1 thermistors, voltage dependent resistors; Construction
motion. of potentiometers and rheostats; Construction of
Wheatstone Bridge.
M3.8 Power M3.11 Inductance/Inductor

Power, work and energy (kinetic and potential); Faraday’s Law;
Dissipation of power by a resistor; Action of inducing a voltage in a conductor moving in a
2
Power formula; magnetic field;
Calculations involving power, work and energy. Induction principles;
M3.9 Capacitance/Capacitor Effects of the following on the magnitude of an induced
voltage: magnetic field strength, rate of change of flux,
Operation and function of a capacitor;
number of conductor turns;
Factors affecting capacitance area of plates, distance
Mutual induction;
between plates, number of plates, dielectric and dielectric
constant, working voltage, voltage rating; The effect the rate of change of primary current and mutual 2
inductance has on induced voltage;
Capacitor types, construction and function;
Factors affecting mutual inductance: number of turns in coil,
Capacitor colour coding; 2
physical size of coil, permeability of coil, position of coils
Calculations of capacitance and voltage in series and parallel
with respect to each other;
circuits;
Lenz’s Law and polarity determining rules;
Exponential charge and discharge of a capacitor, time
Back EMF, self-induction;
constants;
Saturation point;
Testing of capacitors.
Principle uses of inductors.
M3.10 Magnetism
M3.12 DC Motor/Generator Theory
Theory of magnetism; Properties of a magnet; Action of a
magnet suspended in the Earth’s magnetic field; Basic motor and generator theory;
Magnetisation and demagnetisation; Magnetic shielding; Construction and purpose of components in DC generator;
M3.10.a Various types of magnetic material; Electromagnets 2 Operation of, and factors affecting output and direction of
construction and principles of operation; Hand clasp rules to current flow in DC generators;
2
determine: magnetic field around current carrying Operation of, and factors affecting output power, torque,
conductor; speed and direction of rotation of DC motors;
Magnetomotive force, field strength, magnetic flux density, Series wound, shunt wound and compound motors;
permeability, hysteresis loop, retentivity, coercive force Starter Generator construction.
M3.10.b 2
reluctance, saturation point, eddy currents; Precautions for
care and storage of magnets.
Module 3.1 PART66 – Basic Training
Electron Theory CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
M3.13 AC Theory M3.17 AC Generators

Sinusoidal waveform: phase, period, frequency, cycle; Rotation of loop in a magnetic field and waveform
Instantaneous, average, root mean square, peak, peak to produced;
peak current values and calculations of these values, in Operation and construction of revolving armature and
2 revolving field type AC generators;
relation to voltage, current and power;
2
Triangular/Square waves; Single phase, two phase and three phase alternators;
Single/3 phase principles. Three phase star and delta connections advantages and
M3.14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive (L) Circuits uses;
Permanent Magnet Generators.
Phase relationship of voltage and current in L, C and R
circuits, parallel, series and series parallel; M3.18 AC Motors
Power dissipation in L, C and R circuits; Construction, principles of operation and characteristics of:
Impedance, phase angle, power factor and current 2 AC synchronous and induction motors both single and
calculations; polyphase;
2
True power, apparent power and reactive power Methods of speed control and direction of rotation;
calculations. Methods of producing a rotating field: capacitor, inductor,
M3.15 Transformers shaded or split pole.
Transformer construction principles and operation;
Transformer losses and methods for overcoming them;
Transformer action under load and no-load conditions;
Power transfer, efficiency, polarity markings;
Calculation of line and phase voltages and currents; 2
Calculation of power in a three phase system;
Primary and Secondary current, voltage, turns ratio, power,
efficiency;
Auto transformers.
M3.16 Filters
Operation, application and uses of the following filters: low
1
pass, high pass, band pass, band stop.
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
3.1 Electron Theory

3.1.1 Introduction
To understand the nature of electricity and the basic electrical properties of
materials the construction of matter has to be studied. The simple structure
of atoms and how they are linked gives the matter electrical properties.
The structure of matter
All pure substances are made up from a relatively few basic substances called
elements, either separately or combined together to form what is known as a
compound. There are 92 such elements occurring naturally.
The ultimate particle to which an element can be reduced to is called the atom.
However, many elements cannot exist in a stable form as individual atoms, but
only in groups of atoms. The smallest part of an element or compound that
normally exists in a free state is the molecule. The molecule of an element may
consist of one or more atoms of that element. The molecule of a compound
consists of 2 or more atoms of different elements. For example, the molecule
of the element oxygen is made up of 2 oxygen atoms, whereas the compound
of water is made up of 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. In a pure Figure 1: Atomic Model
compound each molecule contains the same number of atoms of each Every atom consists of a central nucleus around which one or more electrons
element. It follows therefore that elements can only combine to form orbit. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge; the protons situated in the
compounds in certain fixed proportions. nucleus have a positive charge. The third part of atom is the neutron; this is
also in the nucleus but has no charge.
Of course, not all substances are pure in the sense that every molecule is
identical. Many of the substances met in everyday life are simply mixtures of Not a lot is known about the nature of these charges except that there are 2
elements or compounds. kinds and they are opposite to each other, and when we bring them together,
like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Under normal conditions the
When the structure of matter is looked at below the atomic level, it is found
number of electrons and protons in an atom are equal, it is then said to be
that the atoms of all elements are made up of 3 main components, protons,
electrically neutral
electrons and neutrons. All except hydrogen, which does not contain a
neutron. The characteristics of a particular element are determined by the The neutron has the same mass as the proton, so nearly all the weight of an
number of each of these components in its atom. atom is contained in the nucleus. Electrons have a much smaller mass and may
be easily removed from their orbit around the nucleus.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in layers we call shells, and there is a limit to
the number of electrons which can be accommodated in each shell. Working
outwards from the nucleus, the K shell can have a maximum of 2 electrons,
the L shell can have eight, M shell eighteen and so on. For example copper has
twenty-nine protons and twenty-nine electrons orbiting. The layers or shells
are made up as 2 electrons in the K shell 8 in the L shell, eighteen in the M shell
leaving one to orbit in the N shell. For the atoms to combine to form elements
they share the electrons in the outer shells, these electrons are called valence-
electrons.
Figure 2: Electron Shells (1) Figure 3: Electron Shells (2)
Ions 3.1.2 Electric current

It is possible that atoms could lose or gain electrons from other atoms and An electric current is a flow of electric charges. The current can flow quite
when this happens the atom is said to be positively or negatively charged. easily through some materials, called conductors, and finds it nearly
From what we said about the charges on electrons and protons, if an atom impossible to flow through others, termed insulators.
loses an electron then there would be more protons than electrons. This would Let us now think of how current flows through a conductor, most conductors
result in the atom taking up an overall positive charge; we then call this atom are metals such as copper, silver and gold (Refer to Figure 3). All metals have
a positive ion. If the exchange of electrons resulted in the atom gaining less than their full complement of electrons in the outer shell, and those that
electrons, then it would become negatively charged (more electrons than are present are loosely bound to their parent atom. They can easily be
protons), this we call a negative ion. detached from the atom and move about in the space between atoms. For this
reason they are called free electrons.
So if an electron leaves, remember it takes its negative charge with it, leaving
behind a positive ion. The interior of the metal under normal conditions can
now be visualized as a framework of positive ions in a fixed regular pattern
known as a crystal lattice, through which the free electrons may move freely.
At temperatures above absolute zero the free electrons are in a constant state
of motion that changes, with temperature. The positive ions are also vibrating
about their mean position in the crystal lattice.
In spite of all this intense activity within the interior of the metal, there is no
overall movement of electrons, and the piece of metal as a whole is electrically
neutral since the total number of negative charges is equal to the positive
charges.
Figure 4: Positive and negative Ions
Figure 5: Free Electrons
External Charge 3.1.3 Nonmetallic insulators

If we now bring an external charge near that metal the electrons will be forced Non-metallic materials are normally materials that do not have many free
into a flow either towards the charge or away from it depending on the type electrons in their outer shell and the attraction between the electrons and
of external charge. If the external charge was a battery, we know it has 2 their parent atom is very strong. It therefore follows that current flow through
terminals, a positive and negative. Therefore the electrons of our metal would these materials would be virtually impossible, these materials we call
be attracted to the positive terminal and you have an instantaneous current insulators. Typical insulators are rubber, ceramics, glass and PVC’s.
flow. You would also get a force of attraction of the positive ions towards the
negative terminal but as they are held in the crystal lattice they cannot move.
We will look at these 2 effects a little later.
Figure 7: Insulators ( 5-8 electrons in outer ring)
Figure 6: External Charge
Static Electricity CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.1.4 Semiconductors 3.2 Static Electricity

There is another type of material that falls in between both conductor and the 3.2.1 Introduction
insulator, we call it a semiconductor. It is this material that has given rise to
Atoms are said to attract each other (remember like charges repel and unlike
the electronic age of computers. The special properties of the semiconductor
charges attract).
are such that under normal conditions it is an insulator and does not pass
current, but under certain conditions it can be made to pass current, and then It can be seen then that some sort of force has been created. This is found in
can be made to return to its normal non-conducting state again without any everyday life, if you unwrap a piece of polythene and try to put it down you
damage. This switching can be done hundreds of thousands of times a second find it sticks to your fingers, you call this static. A better way to describe static
if required. Materials commonly used are silicon and germanium. The force electricity is electricity that is standing still, or voltage potential with no
that is used to switch semiconductors is voltage. electron flow. It is actually the attraction of unlike charges.
We call it static electricity, demonstrated below, by rubbing a silk cloth over a
glass rod which is a charge that is stationary or at rest.
In theory we look at electrical charge as being point charges, this is because of
Coulomb’s Law, which states that:
The force between 2 point charges of a body is found to vary inversely as the
square of the distance between them, and directly with the magnitude of
charge.
Figure 8: Semiconductors (4 electrons in outer ring)
Figure 9: Static Electricity
We have already looked at how static electricity is formed, using this principle Vacuum
and coulombs law it can be said that conduction of electricity can occur across
Since vacuums contain no charged particles, they are normally very good
any medium examples of this are below:
insulators, however a metal electrode present in the vacuum can make it
Solid conductive, by adding charged particles in a cloud of free electrons through a
process known as thermionic emission. External to the vacuum the electrode
Electrical conduction through solids occurs when a potential difference is
is heated so that the electrons are released, these electrons are then free to
applied across the material, the free electrons in the material will be attracted/
move through the vacuum towards their opposite charge. An example of this
repelled along the material to try and equalize their potential. An example of
is a Cathode ray tube.
this is a metal bar.
Liquid
If a liquid solution is to conduct electricity it is called an electrolyte, it is
achieved by immersing 2 electrodes into the solution and creating a potential
difference across them, the free electrons in the liquid will then be
attracted/repelled, towards/from the electrodes, an example of this, is a cell.
The liquid is being used as the medium by which the ions flow through.
Gases
Normally most gases do not have free electrons from which conduction can
occur, therefore they are considered as a good insulator, or dielectric,
however if a high enough potential difference is applied across the gas this will
cause the electrons within the gas to break free and become mobile, and so
conduction to their opposite polarity charge will occur. A good example of this
is a lightning strike, where there is a huge potential difference between the Figure 10: Cathode Ray Tube
cloud and earth the PD is so high that the electrons in the gas are freed up to
produce a charge.
3.2.2 Coulomb
We have seen that a current of electricity (I) is a flow of electrons but the
electron itself is too small to be of use as the unit of electrical quantity and
therefore a more practical unit consisting of many millions of electrons has
been chosen. It is called the Coulomb (C) and is 6.28 x 1018 electrons.
NOTE
This is a Quantity of electricity (Q) not a measure of current, but it is used
to define the unit of electrical current the AMPERE (A). When a current
of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, 1 coulomb of electrons pass any
point in the conductor every second. In other words the size of an
electrical current is dependent upon the rate of flow of electrons not a
number of electrons.
We can write this in equation form.:
𝑄(𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)
𝐼(𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠(𝐴)
𝑡(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
Thus 1 ampere of current flowing in a conductor for 1 hour is equivalent to

3600 Coulombs and this is called an ampere-hour.
Now we have to look at what makes the electrons flow in a conductor to form
an electric current. Consider the diagram in which 2 bodies with opposite
charges on them are fixed in their position and not joined.
3.2.3 Electron Theory

If the bodies were free to move, they would be attracted to one another so Conventional Theory
clearly there is potential mechanical energy between them. There is also
Conventional theory, also known as hole theory, states that current flows from
electrical potential energy between them since we know that if a conductor
positive to negative. Protons or the lack of electrons (the holes) move towards
joins them, electrons will flow from the negative body to the positive body
the negative. (Current flow direction in hole theory is the opposite of that in
until the bodies are equally charged.
Electron Theory.)
Therefore the oppositely charged bodies are producing the energy required to
move the electrons, i.e. to produce a current of electricity. The oppositely
charged bodies are said to have a potential difference (PD) between them and
the size of this PD is measured in the unit of Volt (V).
Figure 12: Conventional flow of current
Figure 11: Direction of electron flow
Electrical terminology CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.3 Electrical terminology

Having studied electricity at the atomic level we have met a number of words, 3.3.4 Current
which need to be defined and explained before we move on. It is the flow, through a conductor of either charge or electrons. Its unit is the
The laws governing the behavior of the different units are dealt with in the Ampere (Amp), which is defined as the result of 1 coulomb of charge (6.28 x
relevant section rather than including them in these definitions. 1018 electrons) passing a point in a circuit in 1 second.
3.3.1 Potential Difference The symbol for charge in coulombs is Q, and for current in amps is I.
It is the difference between charge values, which exists at the atomic level in The current may flow in one direction (DC) or it may continuously reverse
materials with free electrons. direction (AC), depending on the method of generating the EMF, which drives
it.
The unit of potential difference (PD) is the Volt, which is defined as:
3.3.5 Resistance
‘The difference of potential across a 1 ohm resistor carrying a current of 1
ampere is 1 volt.’ It is the measure of a materials ability to oppose current flow when an EMF is
applied to it.
The factors governing a materials resistance are:
3.3.2 Electro-Motive Force
• Length : in meters (ℓ)
This is the ability to cause current to flow in a complete circuit.
• Cross section area : in millimeters2 (A)
The unit of EMF is the Volt (V).
Ω∙𝑚𝑚2
NOTE • Specific resistance of the material : in (ρ)
𝑚
It should be noted that both EMF and PD are measured in the same units,
they are, in fact, both differences in charge potential. However, it is
important to realize that an EMF is the force to do work, i.e. cause current It is calculated by the formula:
to flow, whereas PD is the volts drop as a result of the current flow. 𝜌•ℓ
Another way to look at it is that the EMF is off- load, the PD is on-load. 𝑅=
𝐴
3.3.3 Voltage Its unit is the Ohm and the symbol used is Ω (Omega) when describing a
It is the expression generally used to indicate the value or quantity of the PD quantity of resistance and R (as in the formula above) when describing
or EMF. resistance.
Electrical terminology CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.3.6 Specific Resistance 3.3.8 Charge

The specific resistance is the resistance of a material which is defined as the It is the difference between atoms whose outer shells have gained or lost an
resistance of 1 meter of the material with a cross-section of 1 mm² at a electron. An atom missing an electron is said to be positively charged (positive
temperature of 20°C. ion), and an atom with an extra electron is said to be negatively charged
𝛺•𝑚𝑚2
(negative ion).
The unit is and the formula symbol is ρ (roh).
𝑚 ‘Charging’ a battery is a process in which chemical changes take place due to
the displacement of electrons.
3.3.7 Conductance 3.3.8.1 Conventional Current
A material with low resistance has high conductance, and a material with high Before the electron was discovered, scientists studying electricity could only
resistance has low conductance. observe positive and negative charges and consider them mathematically.
Mathematical logic indicates that current must flow from Positive to Negative,
Practically, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, that is; and this was the convention used.
1 1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ⟹ 𝐺= 3.3.8.2 Electron Current
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅
To create positive ions, electrons must flow in the opposite direction to that
which current has been assumed by convention to flow. This makes no
Its unit is the Siemens, and the symbol is G. practical difference as the same amount of work is done.
DC circuits in aircraft are considered with respect to conventional current
while electronic circuits may be considered in conventional or electron
current.
Generation of electricity CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.4 Generation of electricity

Electricity can be generated in 6 basic ways. These are by: Light (Photovoltaic Cells)
• Chemical Action These devices utilize the energy from a light source to produce electricity.
• Friction These devices can be used power battery chargers when connected as solar
panels.
• Pressure
Heat (Thermocouple)
• Light
At the point of contact between 2 different metals there exists an electrical
• Heat
potential difference, which depends on the temperature of the junction. When
• Magnetism and Motion we complete the circuit with a second junction at a different temperature, a
current flows in the circuit.
We shall look at these methods briefly.
This thermoelectric effect is called the “Seebeck” effect after the man who
discovered it, and the junction is called a ‘thermocouple’. Either the EMF in
Chemical Action (Cell) the circuit or the resulting current may be used to measure temperature.
This is by use of 2 different metals placed in a liquid called an electrolyte. We Magnetism and Motion (The Generator)
call this a cell and by grouping these cells we produce a battery.
See Chapter 10.
Friction (Static Electricity)
When a comb is passed through hair it acquires an electrical charge. If a piece
of tissue paper is then held close to the comb it is attracted towards it. These
effects are due to static electricity (electrostatics). Aircraft in flight build up
large amounts of static electricity and acquire a charge potential much greater
than that of the atmosphere. This charging of the aircraft is undesirable but
unavoidable, although the effects can be minimized.
Pressure (Crystal Controlled Oscillators)
Certain crystalline substances, notably quartz, exhibit a piezoelectric effect
which results in PD appearing between the opposite faces of the crystal when
it is mechanically deformed and vice versa. The Crystal can be shown to have
an ‘electrical’ equivalent circuit. A PD is only produced in the piezo, when the
pressure of the crystal is changed.
DC Sources CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.5 DC Sources
There are 3 main sources of stable DC supplies, these are: Another problem that occurs in a dry primary cell is that because the case is
made of zinc this has a tendency to corrode rapidly, this leads to the case
• Batteries leaking the electrolyte that it is holding, to prevent this the electrolyte is mixed
• Thermocouples with wheat flour so that it forms a thick paste and hence the term “dry” cell.
The EMF of a dry cell is approximately 1.5 volts.
• Photocells
We shall look at each one of these in turn.
3.5.1 Batteries
There are 2 basic types of batteries these are categorized as:
• Primary cells.
• Secondary cells.
3.5.1.1 Primary Cell

Primary cells are called so, as the chemical reaction used to produce the
output voltage is extremely difficult, or impossible to reverse i.e. they cannot
be recharged, an example of this is the dry primary cell, a standard type of dry
primary cell is the Zinc carbon cell, these are constructed by having 2 poles,
one of them being a carbon rod which is the + pole (cathode) and the other
pole being made of zinc, this being the – pole (anode) connected to a steel disc
at the bottom of the cell to aid connection to a circuit. In a dry cell the zinc
pole also acts as the container and surrounds the carbon rod, and also holds
the electrolyte, which is constructed from ammonium chloride (al-ammoniac).
Figure 13: Basic construction of a primary dry cell
With this basic arrangement there is a very distinct disadvantage in that as the
cell is being discharged the chemical reaction that takes place produces
hydrogen bubbles which accumulate around the carbon rod and effectively
insulate it from the electrolyte. To overcome this reaction – known as
polarization, manganese dioxide is added to the electrolyte during
construction.
3.5.1.2 Secondary Cells

There are 2 types of secondary cells used in the formation of secondary cells A fully charged cell will have a voltage in excess of 2.5 volts after its charge this
for aircrafts these are: will drop to 2.2 volts after an hour standing, during discharge the cell voltage
will drop to 2 volts and will remain at this level for the majority of the cell
• Lead acid.
charge life after this time, which is dependent on the load connected to the
• NiCd Alkaline. cell, the voltage of the cell will drop to 1.8 volts and is considered to be
Because these cells are classed as secondary this means that they have the discharged. Because the voltage remains at a constant 2 volts for the vast
ability to be recharged. One obvious difference between these cells to primary majority of the time, this is considered to be the cells nominal voltage value.
cells is that unlike the primary cell where the zinc was used as the case and the 3.5.1.3.3 Capacity
negative electrode, secondary cells use different materials for the case and it
The definition of capacity in terms of batteries is the quantity of electricity that
has no acting part on the output of the cell.
can be taken from a fully charged cell at a specified discharged rate measured
in amps, before the cells nominal voltage of 2 volts drops to a defined level of
1.8 volts. Battery capacity is therefore measured in terms of current and time
3.5.1.3 Lead Acid Batteries
i.e. ampere-hours and is expressed as a percentage against the maximum
3.5.1.3.1 Construction available amps/hours for that specific type of cell. The factors, which affect the
These batteries use an impact and acid resistant case for each individual cell, battery capacity, are the area and number of plates, strength of electrolyte
which is made from polystyrene compounds. Each cell case is molded so that and temperature.
they provide outlets for the terminal posts so that each cell can be connected 3.5.1.3.4 Chemical Action
with ease to the adjoining cell, the case also houses a vent valve, which whilst
To produce a voltage each cell has to create a chemical reaction between its
the battery is being charged allows gases to escape but does not allow the
plates, this principle is best demonstrated by the table following:
electrolyte to leak out, the method of connecting the cells varies dependent
on the required use of the battery and will be discussed later. Battery State of Positive Negative
Electrolyte
3.5.1.3.2 Electrolyte type charge plate(Cathode) plate(anode)
Lead acid batteries consist of cells with an electrolyte made of sulphuric acid H2SO4 – Strong
PbO2- Lead
and water mixed to a specific gravity of 1.270 for a fully charged battery, only Charged. Pb -(Lead) solution of
Lead dioxide.
distilled water is used in this mix, as the impurities found in normal tap water sulphuric acid.
Acid
will reduce the life and charge of the cells. PbSO2 – Lead PbSO4 – lead H2SO4 – Weak
Discharged.
As the cells are discharged and charged, the level of electrolyte will decrease Sulphate. Sulphate. sulphuric acid.
and so periodically the battery cells will require a “top up” of distilled water, if
this action is required it is to be noted that the acid is always added to the
water, as the reverse procedure is extremely dangerous, because the water
will react violently with the acid and literally explode when added.
Figure 14: Lead acid battery
3.5.1.3.5 Voltage and Specific Gravity Relation

It can be seen that during the discharge the voltage of each individual cell What can also be determined from the graph is that the voltage value cannot
remains constant for a considerable time at approximately 2 volts, however be used to determine the amount of charge in the battery, consider this graph.
this is only true if the load connected has a small current draw, if a larger
current is drawn from the cell the discharge will become more linear as the
voltage drops more rapidly.
Figure 15: Charge / discharge voltage versus time
It can be seen from this graph that the specific gravity of the electrolyte Because of this, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is a very good indication
produces an almost linear decrease/ increase in value for most of the time of the charge held by the cell. An instrument called a Hydrometer can measure
during discharge/recharge. the amount of specific gravity.
Charge/Discharge
1.3
1.25
1.2
Specific Gravity
Charge
1.15
Discharge
1.1
1.05
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time (hours)
Figure 16: Charge / discharge gravity versus time
3.5.1.4 Alkaline Batteries

There are several types of alkaline batteries, so to differentiate the types, the
metal used in the manufacture of the plates usually gives them their name, for Battery State of Positive Plate Negative
Electrolyte
example the most common in use on aircraft is the Nickel/Cadmium battery Type Charge (Cathode) Plate(Anode)
as it is these 2 metals that are used for the plates. However in all alkaline KOH –
batteries the electrolyte solution used is Potassium Hydroxide which has a NI2O2 and NI3 and O3
Charged Cd - Cadmium Potassium
– nickel oxides
specific gravity of 1.24 to 1.30, dependent on the size and material used for Nickel Hydroxide
the metal plates this will determine the value of EMF of the cell, with some cadmium
cells being as low as 1.2 volts. Cd(OH)2 – KOH –
Ni(OH)2 – Nickel
Discharged Cadmium Potassium
Hydroxide
3.5.1.4.1 Semi Sealed Hydroxide Hydroxide
The cells in these batteries are arranged in steel containers and fitted with
safety valves, this is due to the fact that the cells can be charged at a high rate,
and so can be easily overcharged, this overcharge will make the electrolyte
“bubble” gas and create a large amount of heat, which can if not dealt with
cause the battery to go into a state of thermal meltdown. Under normal
conditions these batteries require very little maintenance and only a periodic
capacity check.
3.5.1.4.2 Semi Open
These type of batteries are constructed similar to the semi sealed type, but
when on charge they are deliberately allowed to “gas”, this gassing is allowed
to vent to atmosphere, this aids the temperature control of the cells and
indeed is used to monitor the battery charge by switching the battery charger
on or off dependent on the temperature reached by the cell.
Due to the cells being allowed to gas during charge the recharge time is
considerably shorter than the semi sealed type however this has the
disadvantage that the electrolyte requires “topping up” more often, the
frequency of this topping up will be determined by the aircraft manual. The
cells are fitted with the same type of vent as the lead acid battery in that they
allow the electrolyte gasses to escape but not the liquid.
3.5.1.4.3 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline

This is a common type of alkaline battery; the plates are formed on a woven
wire mesh by heating, the cathode plate is formed by using Nickel salts and
the anode by using Cadmium salts, a separator of nylon cloth and a gas barrier
of cellophane is used between them, the electrolyte has a specific gravity of
1.3 and consists of Potassium Hydroxide and distilled water.
Figure 17: Liquid NC Battery Plate
Chemical Reaction
The chemical reaction of alkaline batteries works on the same principle as the
lead acid battery.
However as can be seen, the difference is that the electrolyte does not change
its specific gravity or chemical structure during charge/discharge, it is used
purely as a medium in which the electrons can flow through between the
plates. As the charge of the battery cannot be determined from the electrolyte
specific gravity as in the lead acid type, the temperature of the cell has to be Figure 18: Typical Liquid NC Aircraft Battery
monitored to determine the charge state, for this reason, switching on or off
the charge supply to maintain the correct ampere/hour rating.
3.5.1.5 Connection of Cells

All cells contain an internal resistance caused by factors such as the plate
material and size etc. In primary cells this resistance is quite high, with
secondary cells due to the plates having a much larger cross sectional area
compared to primary cells the internal resistance is considerably lower.
When cells and batteries are connected together the internal resistance has
to be taken into account so as to determine the output characteristics, this is
achieved in the following ways:
3.5.1.5.1 Series
In order to obtain a high voltage from any cell type it is necessary to connect
the cells in series. In this arrangement the voltage from each cell is added for
example 5 x 2 volt cells connected in series will give an open circuit terminal
voltage (EMF) of 10 volts. The disadvantage of a series arrangement will be
that the internal resistance of each cell is also added, this results in a high EMF
Figure 19: Series Connection of Cells
voltage but low current output, therefore an increase in current drawn from
the cell will result in a drop in the output voltage due to the high internal
resistance. In this arrangement all the cells will be required to be of the same
ampere/hour rating, as this type of connection will take the lowest
ampere/hour rated cell as its output.
3.5.1.5.2 Parallel
If cells are connected in parallel this will have the effect of the individual cell
voltage being the EMF voltage, due to the large surface area of the all the
cathode plates being connected together, and also all the anode plates being
connected together, the internal resistance is greatly reduced. In this
arrangement the current from each cell is added together, therefore the
current capacity from a parallel connected group of cells is greatly improved,
and as the EMF voltage is the same as the cell voltage it is considerable more
stable when a load is connected to it also. In this arrangement the cells Figure 20: Parallel Connection of Cells
ampere/hour rating does not need to be considered, however the voltage
rating of each cell needs to be equal as this type of connection will reflect the
lowest voltage of cell as its EMF voltage.
3.5.1.5.3 Series/Parallel 3.5.1.5.4 EMF (Terminal Voltage) and internal Resistance

From the 2 methods of connection before, it would make sense to connect all Internal resistance in batteries is mainly due to the resistance of the
cells in a battery in a series/parallel configuration, this would provide the electrolyte and the cross sectional area of the plates. The voltage that is
battery with a high voltage and also a high current capacity with an overall measured across the terminals of the battery when it is off load is known as
lower internal resistance, in this arrangement the power obtained from the the EMF voltage. When a load is connected to a battery the current flows
battery would be at its maximum. through the internal resistance and causes a voltage drop proportional to this
resistance, if the internal resistance remains constant then the fall in the
terminal voltage will be proportional to the load current.
With switch “s” open, the Voltmeter V reads EMF (off load voltage). With
switch “s” closed, the Voltmeter reads PD (the volt drop across the load or on-
load voltage).
Figure 21: Series Parallel Connection of Cells
Figure 22: EMF / PD
3.5.2 Thermoelectricity Thermocouples

The thermocouple is one of the simplest of all sensors. It consists of 2 wires of
dissimilar metals joined near the measurement point. The output is a small
voltage measured between the 2 wires known as thermoelectricity.
The dissimilar metals used in thermocouples will really depend on the
application that the thermocouple will be used for; some of the most common
metals used in their construction are as follows;
Aluminium, Chromium, Copper, Magnesium, Molybdenium, Nickel, Platinum,
Rhenium, Rhodium, Silicon, Tungsten.
Figure 24: Thermocouple Measurement

The ice bath is now considered impractical and is replaced by a reference
junction compensation arrangement. This can be accomplished by measuring
Figure 23: Thermocouple Principle the reference junction temperature with an alternate temperature sensor
(typically a thermistor) and applying a correcting voltage to the measured
thermocouple voltage before scaling to temperature.
3.5.2.1 Thermocouple Theory The correction can be done electrically in hardware or mathematically in
A thermocouple circuit has at least 2 junctions: the measurement junction and software. The software method is preferred as it is universal to all
a reference junction. Typically, the reference junction is created where the 2 thermocouple types (provided the characteristics are known) and it allows for
wires connect to the measuring device. It is the point where the metals change the correction of the small non-linearity over the reference temperature
- from the thermocouple metals to whatever metals are used in the measuring range.
device - typically copper.
The output voltage is related to the temperature difference between the
measurement and the reference junctions.
The voltage generated by a thermocouple is a function of the temperature
difference between the measurement and reference junctions. Traditionally
the reference junction was held at 0°C by an ice bath. Refer to Figure 24 .
Figure 25: Thermocouple Correction
3.5.2.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of

Thermocouples 3.5.2.3.4 Exposed Fast Response
Because of their physical characteristics, thermocouples are the preferred Fastest response time constant, typically 2 seconds but with fine gauge of
method of temperature measurement in many applications. They can be very
junction wire the time constant can be 10-100 ms. In addition to problems of
rugged, are immune to shock and vibration, are useful over a wide
the exposed bead type, the protruding and light construction makes the
temperature range, are simple to manufacture, require no excitation power,
thermocouple more prone to physical damage.
there is no self-heating and they can be made very small. No other
temperature sensor provides this degree of versatility.
On the down side, the thermocouple produces a relatively low output signal
that is non-linear. These characteristics require a sensitive and stable
measuring device that is able provide reference junction compensation and
linearization. Also the low signal level demands that a higher level of care be
taken when installing to minimize potential noise sources.
3.5.2.3 Thermocouple Construction

There are 4 common ways in which thermocouples are constructed, all have a
stainless steel or inconel sheath and electrically insulated with mineral oxides.
Each of the methods has its advantages and disadvantages.
3.5.2.3.1 Sealed and Isolated from Sheath
Good relatively trouble-free arrangement. The principal reason for not using
this arrangement for all applications is its sluggish response time - the typical
time constant is 75 seconds. Figure 26: Different Thermocouples
3.5.2.3.2 Sealed and Grounded to Sheath

Can cause ground loops and other noise injection but provides a reasonable
time constant (40 seconds) and a sealed enclosure.
3.5.2.3.3 Exposed Bead
Faster response time constant (typically 15 seconds), but lacks mechanical and
chemical protection, and electrical isolation from material being measured.
The porous insulating mineral oxides must be sealed
3.5.3 Photocells / Photovoltaic Cells

The photovoltaic cell (PV cell) offers a limitless and environmentally friendly 3.5.3.2 A Photon Causes the Photoelectric Effect
source of electricity. Also called a solar cell, the PV cell is able to create The photon’s energy transfers to the valance electron of an atom in the N-type
electricity directly from photons derived from light. silicon layer. That energy allows the valance electron to escape its orbit leaving
3.5.3.1 Solar Cell Structure behind a hole. In the N-type silicon layer, the free electrons are called majority
carriers whereas the holes are called minority carriers. As the term “carrier”
On the following figure, the layers of a solar cell are shown:
implies, both are able to move throughout the silicon layer, and so are said to
• a : Encapsulate be mobile. Inversely, in the P-type silicon layer, electrons are termed minority
carriers and holes are termed majority carriers, and of course are also mobile.
• b : Contact Grid
3.5.3.3 The PN-junction
• c : The Antireflective Coating (AR Coating)
The region in the solar cell where the N-type and P-type silicon layers meet is
• d : N-Type Silicon
called the PN-junction. As you may have already guessed, the P-type silicon
• e : P-Type Silicon layer contains more positive charges, called holes, and the N-type silicon layer
contains more negative charges, or electrons. When P-type and N-type
materials are placed in contact with each other, current will flow readily in one
direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased).
An interesting interaction occurs at the PN-junction of a darkened
photovoltaic cell. Extra valance electrons in the N-type layer move into the P-
type layer filling the holes in the P-type layer forming what is called a depletion
zone. The depletion zone does not contain any mobile positive or negative
Figure 27: Solar Cell Structure charges. Moreover, this zone keeps other charges from the P and N-type layers
from moving across it.
After a photon makes its way through the encapsulate it encounters the
antireflective layer. The antireflective layer channels the photon into the lower When photons hit the solar cell, free electrons (-) attempt to unite with holes
layers of the solar cell. on the P-type layer. The PN-junction, a one-way road, only allows the electrons
to move in one direction. If we provide an external conductive path, electrons
Once the photon passes the AR coating, it will either hit the silicon surface or will flow through this path to their original (P-type) side to unite with holes.
the contact grid metallization. The metallization, being opaque, lowers the
number of photons reaching the silicon surface. The contact grid must be large The electron flow provides the current (I), and the cell’s electric field causes a
enough to collect electrons yet cover as little of the solar cell’s surface as voltage (V). With both current and voltage, we have power (P), which is just
possible, allowing more photons to penetrate. the product of the 2. Therefore, when an external load (such as an electric
bulb) is connected between the front and back contacts, electricity flows in
the cell, working for us along the way.
N- TYPE
P- TYPE
Figure 28: Solar Cell P/N- Junction
Figure 29: Solar Cell Electron Flow
DC circuits CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.6 DC circuits
3.6.1 Ohm´s Law
3.6.1.1 What is Ohm´s Law?
A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in If you have difficulty in remembering them in the correct positions, you may
electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for fast, find it easier to use the triangle method. By arranging the symbols within the
accurate electrical problem diagnosis and repair. triangle as shown in the diagram the method of determining the value of an
unknown quantity is shown when its symbol is covered.
The relationship between:
• Resistance (measured in Ohms and symbol Ω omega)
• Current (measured in Amps and symbol I
• Voltage (measured in Volts and symbol V)
…is known as Ohm’s Law after George Ohm the physicist who derived the
formula. The law allows the Volt to be defined as:
The potential difference between 2 points in a circuit having Resistance (R) of
1 ohm between them and carrying a current of 1 Ampere, providing
temperature remains constant.
Figure 30: VIR Triangle
This relationship leads to the electrical circuit equation:
𝑉 =𝐼•𝑅
As long as the V is at the top, i.e. next to the apex, it does not matter where
This is called Ohm’s Law. This law is used extensively in electrical and the other 2 symbols are placed.
electronic circuit analysis and we shall be using it continuously, so you must
learn it thoroughly. The other 2 forms of it are:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
And
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
It must be remembered that when the symbols are given values in the solution 3.6.1.2 Voltage
of a problem, the values must be in the basic units i.e. V for volts, I for amperes
Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a conductor.
and R for ohms. Consider the following circuit in which a current of 10 amperes
Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF (Electro Motive Force) that
flows in a resistance of 5 ohms and we wish to find the potential difference (V)
pushes electrons.
developed across it.
The higher the difference in electrical potential push (difference between
positive and negative), the higher the voltage force Potential.
Figure 31: Voltage Drop at a Resistor

Figure 32: Voltage applied to a conductor
The solution will be:
𝑉 = 𝐼 • 𝑅(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
3.6.1.2.1 Measurement
i.e. : 𝑉 = 10𝐴 • 5𝛺 = 50𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
A Voltmeter measures the voltage potential across or parallel to the circuit.
The Voltmeter measures the amount of electrical pressure difference between
2 points being measured. Voltage can exist between 2 points without electron
Although we commonly use the simple formula 𝑉 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅 as Ohm’s Law, the
flow.
law is a statement, usually worded as follows:
In a uniform a wire, at a constant temperature, the Current Flowing will be
Directly Proportional to the Voltage Applied and Inversely Proportional to the
Resistance.
Figure 33: Voltage Measurement
3.6.1.2.2 Voltage Units 3.6.1.3 Resistance

Voltage is measured in a unit called volt. Voltage measurements can use Resistance is the force that reduces or stops the flow of electrons. It opposes
different value prefixes such as millivolt, volt, Kilovolt, and Megavolt. voltage. Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons and lower
resistance will allow more electrons to flow.
Less than Larger than
Voltage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Symbol mV V kV
Pronounced millivolt Volt Kilovolt
Multiplier 0.001 1 1,000
Figure 34: Resistance of a Conductor
3.6.1.3.1 Measurement
An Ohmmeter measures the resistance of an electrical circuit or component.
No voltage may be applied while the ohmmeter is connected, or damage to
the meter will occur.
Example: Water flows through a garden hose, and someone steps on the hose.
The higher the pressure placed on the hose, the higher the hose restriction
and the less water flows.
Figure 35: Ohmmeter measures

current flow
3.6.1.3.2 Resistance Units 3.6.1.4 Current (Amperes)

Resistance is measured in units called ohms and its symbol is Ω. Resistance Current is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past a point within one
measurements can use different value prefixes, such as Kiloohm and second. Current flow is also known as amperage, or amps for short. Higher
Megaohms. voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower voltage will produce lower
current flow.
More than More than
Amperage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit
Symbol K M
Pronounced Ohm Kiloohm Megaohm
Multiplier 1 1,000 1,000,000 Figure 36: Current flow in a conductor
3.6.1.4.1 Measurement of Current

3.6.1.3.3 Resistance Factors
An Ammeter measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are placed in
Various factors can affect the resistance. These include: series (inline) to count the electrons passing through it.
• Length of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the higher the Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it.
resistance.
• Diameter of the conductor. The narrower the conductor, the higher
the resistance.
• Temperature of the material. Depending on the material, most will
increase resistance as temperature increases.
• Physical condition (damage) to the material. Any damage will
increase resistance. Figure 37: Water Equivalent for Ammeter
• Type of material used. Various materials have a wide range of
resistances.
3.6.1.4.2 Amperage Unit’s

Current flow is measured in units called Amperes or Amps. Amperage Multiples and Sub- Multiples
measurements can use different value prefixes, such as microamp, milliamp,
and Amp. Multiple Prefix Symbol
Less than Less than 1,000 = 103 kilo k

Amperage Basic Unit
Base Unit Base Unit 1,000,000 = 106 mega M
Symbol µA mA A 1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G
Pronounced Microamp Milliamp Amp 1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 tera T
Multiplier 0.000001 0.001 1 0,001 = 10-3 milli m
0.000,001 = 10-6 micro 

3.6.1.4.3 Effects of Current Flow
0.000,000,001 = 10-9 nano n
Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and
Electromagnetism. 0.000,000,000,001 = 10-12 pico P
Heat: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the current flow
the greater the heat generated. An example would be a light bulb. If enough Examples of Multiples and Sub- Multiples
current flows across the filament, it will glow white hot and illuminate to
produce light. 1mA means 1 milliampere which is 0.001 of an ampere, therefore if a problem
is one in which the current is 35mA, when this is put in the Ohm’s Law equation
Electromagnetism: When current flows, a small magnetic field is created. The it must be written as 35 x 10-3.
higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. An example:
Electromagnetism principles are used in alternators, ignition systems, and A voltage of 5kV would be written as 5 x 103.
other electronic devices. A given power supply may well provide currents for many different devices
When calculating values of current, voltage and resistance, it is quite often having various resistances and they may be connected in series or parallel or
that the values calculated will be very small or indeed very large. Therefore a combination of both. What we are very much concerned with is how much
multiples of a unit are used to express this. On the next table some of the current is being taken from the supply. In order to determine the total current
common multiples used and their terms are shown. being used we must know the total resistance (RT) of the circuit, considering
𝑉
the equation 𝐼 =
𝑅
3.6.1.5 Kirchoff´s Laws

When we discussed the 2 ways that resistors can be connected together i.e. in 3.6.1.5.2 Current Law (Kirchhoff’s first law)
series or in parallel, we noted that in the latter case the sum of the individual
The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction will always be Zero.
currents flowing into the parallel network equaled the total current and in the
former case the applied voltage was equal to the sum of the voltages 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0
developed across the resistors in series.
These 2 facts are expressed in 2 laws stated by Kirchoff and defined below as:
• voltage Law
• current Law
3.6.1.5.1 Voltage Law (Kirchhoff’s second law)

The voltage drops in a Series circuit will always equal the voltage applied i.e.
the sum of the PDs equals the EMF. In such a circuit the sum of all voltages
with respect to their direction equals zero.
Figure 38: Kirchoff´s second law

Figure 39: Kirchoff´s first law
Resistors CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.7 Resistors
3.7.1 Circuit Symbol and identification 3.7.1.1 Fixed Resistors
There are 3 general kinds of fixed resistor in common use:
• Wire wound
• Composite
• Deposited film
3.7.1.1.1 Wire Wound Resistor

Resistance wire is wound around a rod of insulating material, usually
porcelain. The whole is covered in an insulating material, e.g. epoxy coating.
Wire Wound resistors are normally of low ohmic value and high power rating.
The ohmic value is usually printed on in numbers.
Their size depends on the heat to be dissipated and therefore the power
loading. It is not indicative of resistance value.
They are normally used for the control of large currents due to their excellent
heat dissipation abilities.
Figure 40: Resistor Symbols Figure 41: Wire- wound resistors
3.7.1.1.2 Composite Resistor 3.7.1.1.3 Deposited Film Resistor

Consists of a mixture of granulated carbon and powdered resin binder fused A glass core has a resistive film sprayed onto it. The depth of coating of the
together. Altering the percentage of carbon in the mixture varies the ohmic film, usually metal oxide or carbon determines the amount of resistance.
resistance value. Wire fly leads are attached at each end.
The ohmic value is indicated by the color coding around the body of the
Ohmic value is usually given by a color code. The power-rating is indicated by resistor. The power rating is indicated by their size.
the size of the body of the resistor.
They are also inexpensive and commonly used in electronic circuits.
They are cheap and common in electronics due to their small size.
They cover the range: 10Ω to 1MΩ and have a power range of 0.125W to 1W.
They cover the range: <10Ω to > 20 MΩ. They have a low power dissipation
and are used in low current circuits.
Figure 43: Deposited film resistor
Figure 42: Composite resistor
3.7.1.2 Variable Resistors

The wire-wound and the composite resistors, both come in a variable form. A
conductive arm is moved along the resistive element increasing or decreasing
the length of the resistance element. This in turn alters the value of resistance
of the unit.
Figure 44: Variable Resistor Symbol
Figure 45: Different kinds of variable resistors
3.7.1.2.1 The Potentiometer

A Potentiometer uses all 3 terminals, so as one resistance increases the other
decreases and varies the voltage across a load.
NOTE
Four wires are connected to the 3 terminals. This component will be of
high resistance, taking a small current and therefore low wattage.
Figure 47: Potentiometer Circuit

Figure 46 Potentiometer Symbol
3.7.1.2.2 The Rheostat 3.7.1.3 Current / Resistance Relationship

A Rheostat only uses 2 terminals, reducing the flexibility of the unit to an It can be seen that the current in a circuit is not only dependent on the voltage
increase or decrease single action and varies the current through a load. applied but also relies heavily on the resistance of the circuit, factors which
affect the resistance and hence the current are described below.
NOTE
Specific Resistance
Two wires are connected to 2 terminals. This component will be of low
resistance, taking the full circuit current and therefore of high wattage, • The material of which the resistance is made, and different materials
maybe needing cooling! have different resistances. This is called the Specific Resistance or
Resistivity (ρ) of the material and the value of the resistance is
directly proportional to ρ (rho).
• The length of the material ℓ and again the value of the resistance is
directly proportional to ℓ.
• The cross-sectional area (A) of the materials, but in this case the
resistance is inversely proportional to current.
Putting them all together the resistance is given by:
𝜌∙ℓ
𝑅= (𝛺)
𝐴
To find the value of R, ℓ must be in meters, A in mm² and ρ found in tables in
physical text books, in ohm/ meters.
Consider the following problem. If the length of a piece of material is doubled
and its area is halved, what is the effect on its resistance? Since ℓ is doubled
and A is halved, the effect is to quadruple the value of the resistance. This is
all very well but what materials are we talking about when used to make
resistances? In the main, there are 2 types of resistors, those which are made
of a carbon composition or those made of special resistance wire wound on a
ceramic former. The wire wound can be made physically larger than the
carbon and are used in high current circuits, although it should be realized that
Figure 48: Use of a rheostat in a sample circuit the size does not indicate resistance value, but the size does depend upon the
heat to be dissipated. For wire wound resistors the value of resistance is
usually stenciled on the body but for carbon resistors a colour code is used.
3.7.1.4 Resistor Types and Identification

3.7.1.4.1 Colour Coding
The most common method of resistor value identification is colour coding
whereby a series of colour bands around the resistor body show:
• Value
• Multiplier
• Tolerance
• Reliability (optional)
The table shows the colours used and their meaning in the identification
system.
Figure 49: Resistor Colour Coding
3.7.1.4.2 Preferred Values

In order to reduce manufacturing costs, Standard resistors are made to a
Preferred values of resistors (First 2 significant figs.)
range of preferred values.
This means that a specific resistor may not be readily available, but practically 20% (no band) 10% (silver band) 5% (gold band)
there is little problem as available resistors may be combined, (by series, 10
parallel or series/parallel connection), into an Equivalent Value network. 10
11
10
Some resistors use 4 bands, others use 5 bands e.g.: 12
12
13
• Yellow, Violet, Orange, Gold = 47 x 103, +/- 5%
15
• Yellow, Violet, Black, Red, Gold = 470 x 102 +/- 5% 15
16
15
18
18
20
Table of preferred values:
22
It should be noted that an important advantage of resistor networks is that 22
24
very accurate resistances may be obtained in spite of the manufacturing 22
27
tolerances of individual resistors e.g.: 27
30
• 47kΩ +/- 10% would have a maximum/minimum value of +/- 4,700Ω 33
giving 51,7 to 42,3kΩ. 33
36
33
39
39
43
47
47
51
47
56
56
62
68
68
75
68
82
82
91
100 100 100
3.7.2 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

If the resistance of a coil of insulated copper wire is measured at various The ratio of the increase of resistance per degree kelvin rise of temperature to
temperatures up to, say, 200°C, it is found to vary as shown in the diagram, the resistance at some definite temperature, adopted as standard, is termed
the resistance at 0°C being, for convenience taken as 1Ω. The resistance the temperature coefficient of resistance and is represented by the Greek
increases uniformly with the increase of temperature until it reaches 1.426Ω letter α (alpha).
at 100°C; i.e. the increase of resistance is 0.426Ω for an increase of 100°C in
In general, if a material has a resistance 𝑅0 at 0°C and a temperature
temperature, or 0.00426Ω /°C rise of temperature
coefficient of resistance 𝛼0 at 0°C, the increase in resistance for 1°C rise of
temperature is 𝑅0 ∙ 𝛼0 . If the temperature rises to 𝑡, the increase of resistance
is 𝑅0 ∙ 𝛼0 ∙ 𝑡. Hence, if 𝑅𝑡 be the resistance at 𝑡.
𝑅𝑡 = resistance at 0°C + increase of resistance

= 𝑅0 + 𝑅0 ∙ 𝛼0 ∙ 𝑡 = 𝑅0 ∙ (1 + 𝛼0 ∙ 𝑡)
= 𝑅0 ∙ (1 + 0,00426 ∙ 𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
Figure 50: Variation of Resistance of Copper with Temperature
3.7.2.1 Thermistors (NTC)

These are semi-conductor devices whose resistance decreases as temperature
increases.
The change in resistance is not linear, so temperature indication is only
possible over small ranges. The device is highly sensitive however which makes
it ideal for switching applications such as over or under temperature switching
in air conditioning systems.
Typical NTC materials are the semiconductor materials like silicon and
germanium.
Figure 51: Thermistor Symbol (NTC)
3.7.2.2 PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)

These are materials whose resistance decreases as temperature decreases.
Typical materials which show this effect are all metals.
Figure 52: PTC Symbol
3.7.3 Calculations of Resistances

3.7.3.1 Resistance in a Series Circuit
The total resistance can be calculated with the following formula:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
So the total resistance is 10 Ω
The current is constant at any point in the circuit.
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
Using Ohm’s Law, knowing that the voltage applied is 10V and that the total
resistance is 10Ω, we can find that the current of the circuit.
𝑉 10𝑉
𝐼𝑡 = = = 1𝐴
𝑅 10𝛺
If a current of 1A is flowing through each resistor the voltage across to each

resistor can be calculated separately.
𝑅1 = 𝐼 • 𝑅 = 1𝐴 • 5𝛺 = 5𝑉
𝑅2 = 1𝐴 • 3𝛺 = 3𝑉
𝑅3 = 1𝐴 • 2𝛺 = 2𝑉
Figure 53: Series Connection of Resistors
3.7.3.2 Resistance in Parallel Circuits

The applied voltage, is 24 volts, the same voltage or PD is felt across each This can be used to calculate the total resistance in the circuit. Therefore:
resistor. The current flow through each resistor can be found by using Ohm’s
𝑅𝑡 = 1 𝛺
Law.
This can be confirmed by using ohms law on the whole circuit:
𝑉 24𝑉
𝐼1 = = = 4𝐴 𝑉 24𝑉
𝑅1 6𝛺 𝑅𝑡 = = = 1𝛺
𝐼𝑡 24𝐴
24𝑉
𝐼2 = = 8𝐴
3𝛺
24𝑉
𝐼3 = = 12𝐴
2𝛺
But, using Ohm’s Law on the whole circuit:

𝑉
𝐼𝑡 =
𝑅𝑡
The current flow from the applied voltage must equal the SUM of the currents
through each resistor.
Therefore:
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 24𝐴
Substitution:
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Dividing by V:
1 1 1 1
= + + Figure 54: Parallel connection of resistors
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
3.7.4 Conductance (G) 3.7.5 Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel

Sometimes it is more convenient to think in terms of how well a material In the solution of such circuits, the most important fact to know is, which
conducts current, rather than to think in terms of how well it opposes current. components are in series with each other and what parts of the circuit are
Because of this, the property called conductance is often used. Conductance parallel branches. The series components must be in one current path without
is the opposite, or more properly, the reciprocal of resistance. any other. If you take a look to point A, the current in R1 divides at this point
into its 2 component branches. Similarly, R5 is not in series with R3. A branch
Conductance (G )= 1/R and is measured in Siemens.
point such as point A or B is common to 2 or more current paths. For instance,
R1 and R6 are not in series with each other.
To find the currents and voltages, first find RT (resistance total) in order to
calculate the mainline current IT (current total) as VT/RT. In calculating Rtot, start
reducing the branch further from the source and work toward the applied
voltage. The reason for following this order is that you cannot tell how much
resistance is in series with R1 and R2 until the parallel branches are reduced to
their equivalent resistance.
Figure 55:Resistor arrangements to calculate
3.7.6 Wheatstone Bridge

The series/parallel arrangement of resistors shown in the diagram below is When the voltages are equal between the 2 legs there will be no potential
known as the Wheatstone Bridge. difference felt across the output, in this state the bridge is said to be balanced.
The Wheatstone bridge consists of 2 potential dividers connected between a At this point the value of RX can be found from:
potential and ground, one divider is formed from resistors RB and RC, and the 𝑅𝐴 ∙𝑅𝐵
other is formed from RX and RA (unknown resistance) the voltage between 𝑅𝑥 = or
𝑅𝐶
each leg RB and RC and RA and RX will vary dependent on their resistor values 𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝐵
as shown in the diagram. The ratio =
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶
The voltages are made equal by adjusting the variable resistor RC, e.g.
If RA =25kΩ, RB = 5kΩ, and RC = 20kΩ
Then;
25𝑘Ω ∙ 5𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑋 = = 6.25𝑘Ω
20 𝑘Ω
Figure 56: Wheatstone Bridge
Electrical Power CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.8 Electrical Power

Electrical power is the rate at which an electrical system can perform work.
The SI unit of power is the Watt, which is a rate of work of 1 joule per second:
1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 ∙ 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
The symbol used for power is P:
i.e. :
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃) = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒(𝑉) ∙ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝐼) 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠(𝑊)
By substituting 𝑉 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅 in the above power formula, 2 other expressions for

electrical power are obtained:
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼 = 𝐼2 ∙ 𝑅 =
𝑅
Example:
Calculate the power dissipated in a 40Ω resistor connected to a 200V supply.
𝑃 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼 = 200𝑉 ∙ 5𝐴 = 1000𝑊
Or
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 ∙ 𝑅 = 5𝐴 ∙ 5𝐴 ∙ 40Ω = 1000𝑊
NOTE
If current is not given, it must first be calculated using Ohm’s Law
It is simpler to use the formula into which the information given readily fits:
𝑉 2 200𝑉 • 200𝑉
𝑃= = = 1000𝑊
𝑅 40𝛺
3.8.1 The Maximum power transfer theorem

Earlier it was demonstrated the existence of internal resistance in the power
supply such as in a battery, and the effect that this resistance has on the
voltage supplied to the load was discussed.
The load voltage is the actual voltage given by the power supply after it has
dropped a percentage of its EMF voltage across its internal resistance.
How much voltage is dropped across the internal resistance depends on the
value of the internal resistance in relation to the value of the load.
The relationship between the values of load resistance and internal resistance
is also important for another reason. Maximum power can be developed in a
load resistance only when the values of the load resistance and the internal
resistance of the source are equal.
This statement is known as the maximum power transfer theorem or power
matching.
Figure 57 shows a 12V EMF source of internal resistance 3 ohms connected to
a load resistance of 1 ohm. The total resistance in the circuit is 4 ohms and the
circuit current is therefore 3 amperes. The power developed in the load (𝐼 2 ∙
𝑅) is therefore 9 watts.
Figure 57: Load Resistor less than internal Resistance
Figure 58 shows the same source connected to a load resistance of 3 ohms. Figure 59 shows the effect of inserting a load of 9 ohms. The total resistance
The total resistance is now 6 ohms and the current 2 amperes. The power is now 12 ohms and the current 1 ampere. The power developed in the load is
developed in the load is now 12 watts. now 9 watts.
Figure 59: Load Resistor higher than internal Resistance
Figure 58: Load Resistor equal to internal Resistance

The examples above have used the power formula 𝐼 2 ∙ 𝑅, but any of the other
2 formulas, 𝑉 2 /𝑅 and 𝐼 ∙ 𝑉 could be used.
Example ‘B’ using V2/R would give the same answer by measuring the volts
drop across the load resistance and then dividing the square of that by the
actual load resistance. Try it, it works!
The graph shows these and other results by plotting the power developed in
different values of load resistance. It shows that maximum power is developed
in the load only when the load resistance is equal in value to the internal
resistance of the source and, thus, illustrates the maximum power transfer
theorem.
In many circuits we are interested in transferring the maximum possible
amount of power to a load circuit.
To do this we must ‘match’ the load resistance to the internal resistance of the
source. Matching is very important in electronic circuits that usually have a
fairly high source resistance. A typical example is the ‘matching’ of an audio
amplifier to a loudspeaker and we shall consider this and many others later in
the book.
Note however that batteries, generators and other power supply system’s
cannot be operated under maximum power transfer conditions. It can be seen Figure 60: Maximum Power Transfer
from the previous figure that to do so would result in the same amount of
power being dissipated in the source as was supplied to the load. This is
obviously extremely wasteful of energy and power supply systems are always
designed to have the minimum possible internal resistance to minimize losses.
3.8.2 Electrical energy/ Electrical work

Energy is defined as the capability to do work. Energy has different forms. When energy is converted into work, some of it may be lost in the form of
’Electrical energy’ is one form, because electricity is capable of performing heat. The energy and the amount of work done are equivalent; the heat losses
work. But it is necessary to use some kind of electrical components to convert are neglected.
electrical energy into some other forms of energy to accomplish work.
Electrical energy expressed in watt-seconds (Ws) or watt-hours (Wh) is found
For example, an electric motor is used to exert a vertical force on an elevator by multiplying the voltage times the current times the time:
through a distance. Other examples of energy are heat and light.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘) = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ⋅ 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ⋅ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
One of the first types of energy was mechanical energy. Mechanical energy 𝑊 =𝑉⋅𝐼⋅𝑡
exists in two forms:
• potential energy
• kinetic energy
Potential energy is the energy that a body has by virtue of its position. It took
a certain amount of work to get the box on the table. A vertical force had to
be exerted through a distance to accomplish this.
Once the box rests on the table, it is capable of doing work simply because of
its position. In other words, it has potential energy.
If the box is knocked off the table, it will fall and strike the ground with an
impact. It is assumed that there is a nail resting under the box where it strikes
the floor. If the box is heavy enough, it can actually push the nail into a wooden
floor. Since this requires a force through a distance, the box is capable of doing
work.
Although the box resting on the table has potential energy, it will do no work
until this potential energy is converted into some other form of energy. As the
box is moving through space it has energy by virtue of its motion. This is called
’kinetic energy’. Both kinetic and potential energy are forms of energy which
represent the capability to do work.
Capacitors and capacitance CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.9 Capacitors and capacitance

3.9.1 Capacitance
Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:
large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is • The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of
measured in farads, (symbol F). However 1F is very large, so prefixes the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.
(multipliers) are used to show the smaller values:
• The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of
• µ (micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F. the battery loses electrons to the battery.
• n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF.
• p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF. Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery (1.5 volts
on the battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor). For a small capacitor, the
capacity is small. But large capacitors can hold quite a bit of charge.
In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely
different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy, inside the
battery; chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb
electrons at the other terminal. A capacitor is a much simpler device, and it
cannot produce new electrons - it only stores them.
Like a battery, a capacitor has 2 terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals
connect to 2 metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air,
paper, plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the
plates from touching each other.
In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:
Figure 62: Capacitor on a Battery
Figure 61: Capacitor symbol
Here you have a battery, a light bulb and a capacitor. If the capacitor is pretty The unit of capacitance is a farad (symbol F). A 1-farad capacitor can store 1
big, what you would notice is that, when you connect the battery, the light coulomb (Q) of charge at 1 volt (V). A 1-farad capacitor would typically be
bulb would light up as current flows from the battery to the capacitor to charge pretty big. So you typically see capacitors measured in microfarads (millionths
it up. The bulb would get progressively dimmer and finally go out once the of a farad).
capacitor reached its capacity. Then you could remove the battery and replace
These sub units are:
it with a wire. Current would flow from one plate of the capacitor to the other.
The light bulb would light and then get dimmer and dimmer; finally going out 1
𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝜇𝐹)10−6 𝐹
once the capacitor had completely discharged (the same number of electrons 1,000,000
on both plates).
also 10−9 𝐹 = 1 𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
1
𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 1 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑝𝐹)10−12 𝐹
1,000,000
There is a direct relationship between the voltage (V) placed across the plates
of a capacitor and the charge (Q) held by them. If the voltage is doubled the
charge is doubled, if the charge is halved then the voltage is halved etc. This
tells us that the ratio of charge to voltage is constant and this is known as the
capacitance (C) of the capacitor i.e.:
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
Figure 63: Capacitive Circuit with Light Bulb in series
3.9.2 Factors Affecting Capacitance

Capacitance increases as the total area (A) of the opposing surfaces of the Typical values are given on the table.
plate’s increases, because a large plate area can hold a greater charge.
Dielectric
Capacitance increases as the distance (d) between the plates is decreased Material
because the electric field then becomes more concentrated. Constant Ԑ
Capacitance depends upon the material, often called dielectric, between the Air or vacuum 1
plates and this is called the Dielectric constant (Ԑ). This indicates the ability of
an insulator to concentrate the electric flux. Its numerical value is specified as Aluminium oxide 7
the ratio of flux in the insulator compared with air or a vacuum.
Ceramics 80-1200
The dielectric constant is actually its relative permeability with the symbol Ԑr.
Various materials are used as dielectrics and they have their own dielectric Glass 8
values. One material used is, waxed paper, when inserted between the plates
instead of air, the capacitance is multiplied by about 3 and this is the dielectric Mica 3-8
constant for waxed paper.
Oil 2-5
The relative dielectric constant of materials (Ԑr) is always given as a multiplier
of that of Air or Vacuum.
Paper 2-6
The formula from which the capacitance is found is:
𝜀∙𝐴 Plastic film 2-3
𝐶= 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝑑
Tantalum oxide 25
With:
𝐶 = Capacitance
Ԑ = Dielectric constant
𝐴 = area of plates
𝑑 = distance between the plates
3.9.3 Time Constant

A change of voltage applied across the plates of a capacitor causes the When the switch is moved to position B this results in a high rate of change of
capacitor’s charge to change. This takes time, therefore voltage changes are voltage across the plates of the capacitor (detail a). At this instant the current
delayed in a capacitive circuit. is maximum and only limited by the circuit resistance R. All the applied voltage
is dropped across R.
As the charge builds up on the plates the voltage rises and the current
decreases (due to the opposition of the negative plate charge to the electron
flow).
At the time constant value of 1𝜏 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶 (in seconds) the voltage across the
plates is 63.2 % of the applied voltage. The current has a maximum of 36.8 %.
Therefore the voltage drop across 𝑅 is 36.8% of the applied voltage (detail b).
At five time constants 5𝜏 = 5 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶 the capacitor is fully charged, and the
current has reached its approximate final value of 0 amps.
This means, at 5 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶 :
• 5𝜏 = 5 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶
• the rate of change of charge is minimum
• the rate of change of voltage is minimum
• the current flow is minimum
• V=I* R (voltage) drop across the resistor is minimum, the voltage
across the plates is maximum.
Figure 64: Charge of a capacitor
When the switch is in position A the opposite sequence of events is caused

(detail a).
At the instant of switching to position A:
• the maximum rate of change of voltage occurs
• the charge and resulting voltage across the plates tries to maintain
the voltage in the circuit
• the discharge current flows in the direction opposite to the charge
current.
The capacitor voltage decreases at a certain rate determined by the

capacitance (C) and the resistance (R) (detail b). When the current has reached
the time constant 1𝜏 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶 the voltage across the plates is 36.8% of the
maximum value.
The current is 36.8% (with opposite polarity to charge) and causes a voltage
drop across the resistor (R) of -36.8% of the maximum value. Current flows
into a capacitor when it charges and flows out when it discharges.
At five time constants 5𝜏 = 5 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶 the capacitor voltage and current are
approximately zero. All of the energy stored in the electric field of the plate
charges has been discharged through the resistor.
A dielectric is a good insulator and practically no current leakage occurs
between the plates. So a capacitor can hold its charge for a long time.
Therefore many circuits have discharge resistors connected across the
capacitor to slowly discharge the capacitor’s energy over a period of
approximately five minutes after the applied voltage has been switched off.
Figure 65: Discharge of a capacitor
3.9.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

In the previous topic we saw what is meant by capacitance in electrical terms There is a movement of Q coulombs of electricity in each part of the circuit
and how the capacitance of a capacitor is measured. Just as in the case of and when the current ceases i.e. the capacitors are fully charged, the charge
resistors and inductors we now need to be able to calculate the total on each capacitor is Q coulombs.
capacitance of circuits with capacitors in series, parallel and combinations of
If V1 and V2 represent the final voltages across the capacitors C1 and C2
series and parallel.
respectively then, from the general formula 𝑄 = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑉, we get the following
3.9.4.1 Capacitors in Series expressions:
Consider the circuit shown in the diagram below in which 2 capacitors C1 and 𝑄 = 𝐶1 ∙ 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = 𝐶2 ∙ 𝑉2
C2 are joined in series. To find the total capacitance of the circuit we can replace the 2 capacitors by
one capacitor having a capacitance of C farads such that it would have the
same charge Q coulombs on it when the voltage across it is the supply voltage
V. This yields the following expression:
𝑄
𝑉=
𝐶
Now it can be seen from the circuit diagram that:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
and by substituting the above values of V, V1 and V2 we get:

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
Figure 66: Capacitors in Series Divide each expression on each side of the equation by Q giving:
1 1 1
When the switch is closed the 2 ammeters A1 and A2 both start at a maximum = +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
value and then decrease simultaneously to zero. During the charging process,
the displacement of electrons from the positive plate (+) of C1 to the negative
plate (-) of C2 is exactly the same as that from positive plate of C2 to the Note that the total capacitance is always less than the smallest of the
negative plate of C1. capacitors joined in series and that all the capacitor values must be in the same
units.
3.9.4.2 Capacitors in Parallel

We now consider 2 capacitors having capacitance C1 and C2 farads respectively It should be noticed that the voltage across each capacitor is the same and this
joined in parallel with a supply voltage V placed across them as shown below. is the supply voltage V.
Suppose C1 and C2 are replaced by a single capacitor C so that the same total
charge Q1 + Q2 is produced by the same supply voltage V1 then:
(𝑄1 + 𝑄2 ) = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐶
Substituting equation (1) into equation (2) we get:
𝑉 ∙ 𝐶1 + 𝑉 ∙ 𝐶2 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐶
Since V has a constant value, we can cancel it from each side of the equation
giving:
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Figure 67: Capacitors in Parallel This is the formula from which the total capacitance of any number of
capacitances connected in parallel is obtained.
When the switch is closed in the above circuit and, assuming the capacitances Let us now illustrate how to determine the total capacitance of capacitors in
of the capacitors are not equal, the currents in the 2 ammeters A1 and A2 will parallel and the value of the charges of each of the capacitors.
be initially at maximum but different values. These currents will fall
exponentially to zero as the capacitors become charged. When the capacitors
reach their maximum charges no current flows in the circuit and the capacitors Example: Three capacitors of 8µF, 10µF and 2µF are connected in parallel.
are again behaving as DC blocking devices. What is the total capacitance of the circuit?
From the general formula: Answer: Using the parallel formula and substituting the given values:
𝑄 = 𝐶∙𝑉 𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑄1 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐶2 𝐶 = 8µ𝐹 + 10µ𝐹 + 2µ𝐹 = 20µ𝐹
𝐶 = 20µ𝐹
3.9.4.3 Safe Working Voltage 3.9.5 Types of Capacitors

The safe working voltage is the maximum DC voltage that can be applied to
the capacitor without the dielectric breaking down. A large value capacitor has
a thin dielectric which is suitable only for low voltages. A high voltage, high
value capacitor is usually very bulky.
Capacitor values are stated in capacitance and maximum working voltage.
e.g. 1µF 750 DCw (DC working)
This voltage must not be exceeded.
When an electrolytic capacitor is of the polarized type it can only be used in
a DC circuit and must be connected with the correct polarity.
Figure 68: Paper Capacitor
Figure 69: Mica Capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitors Construction
Figure 70: Ceramic Capacitor
Figure 71: Electrolytic Capacitor

Figure 72: Capacitors Construction
Magnetism CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.10 Magnetism
3.10.1 Introduction
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known and used for much longer 3.10.1.2 Permanent Magnets
than any other property in the science of electricity. Magnetism occurs A common form of permanent magnet is a bar magnet. We have already seen
naturally in some minerals, e.g. lodestone and has the property of attracting that any magnet attracts pieces of iron and when it is in the shape of a bar the
and picking up small pieces of iron or steel. A further property of these force of attraction is usually greatest in the regions of the ends, which are
minerals is that if they are freely suspended, they will come to rest pointing in called Poles and negligible in the middle of its length. We also saw that if the
a north-south direction. This is because the earth itself behaves like a huge bar is freely suspended it will take up a fixed position with one end pointing to
natural magnet and its magnetism pulls the piece of mineral into line with it. the north, called the north seeking pole (or more commonly just North Pole)
This property forms the basis of the magnetic compass and has been used by and the other end pointing to the south called the South Pole.
mariners for navigation over many years.
Materials, which exhibit magnetic effects, are called Ferromagnetic materials,
3.10.1.1 Artificial Magnets e.g. iron, cobalt and nickel.
The use of an irregular shaped piece of natural magnetic material is not very The 2 poles of any single magnet are always of equal strength and are
satisfactory in practice. However, some other material such as iron or steel, complementary and cannot exist in isolation.
made to the shape required, can be made into a magnet. If a piece of iron is
placed near to a natural magnet (or any other magnet) it will exhibit magnetic The region around a magnet in which its forces can be detected is called its
properties and it is said to be magnetized by induction. A piece of un- Magnetic Field and this can conveniently be imagined as consisting of Lines of
magnetized iron can also be made into a magnet by stroking it with one end Force or Lines of Magnetic Flux.
of a natural magnet. We shall also see later that a piece of iron can be
magnetized using an electric current.
Any magnet formed by one of the above methods is called an artificial magnet.
Some materials are easily made magnetic, such as soft iron, but others, such
as hard iron (and steel) are much more difficult to magnetize.
In general, materials that are easily magnetized also readily lose their
magnetism and make Temporary magnets. Conversely, materials, which are
difficult to magnetize, do not lose their magnetism easily and make
Permanent magnets.
Figure 73: Lines of force around a bar magnet
3.10.1.3 Properties of Magnetic Fields

These are as follows:
• Lines of force tend to contract to the shortest possible length rather
like an elastic band.
• Lines of force laterally repel one another.
• The direction of lines of force is from the North Pole to the South
Pole, external to the magnet. They form closed loops, which are
completed by the lines of force passing through the magnet (from
South Pole to North Pole).
• Lines of force never cross over each other.
It should be remembered that magnetic forces are present everywhere in the

field and do not only exist on the lines of force. Lines of force are a concept to
aid the understanding of magnetism. They have a definite direction, Figure 74: Attraction and repulsion of magnets
representing strong magnetism where they are dense and weak magnetism
where they are spread out. The diagram shows how lines of force can be used 3.10.1.4 Magnetic Flux
to illustrate the magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet. This term describes the total amount of magnetic ’power’, which seems to
The lines of force shown in the diagram are referred to, collectively, as ’flow’ out at one pole of the magnet.
Magnetic Flux given the symbol ɸ (the Greek letter Phi) and its unit is the The more powerful the magnet, the greater the amount of flux which is
Weber (Wb). generated. For some applications it is the concentration of flux or flux density
Resultant Field Patterns for 2 Bar Magnets which is important, rather than the total amount of flux generated by the
magnet.
Figure 754 shows the resultant field patterns, which occur when like poles are
If a permanent magnet is left for a long period without a keeper or means of
adjacent and when unlike poles, are brought together.
completing the magnetic path for the flux, its magnetic strength will soon
It can be seen that when like poles are placed adjacent to each other the decrease. A soft iron keeper for each pair of poles provides a closed magnetic
magnets are repelled from one another whilst when unlike poles are adjacent path for the flux and the result is very little loss of magnetism.
the magnets are attracted to each other. This can be shortened to:
Unlike poles attract, like poles repel.
Figure 76: Magnetic Screen

Figure 75: Magnets with Keepers
Conclusion
Bar magnets are generally arranged for storage in pairs so that opposite poles Magnetic flux is invisible and has no physical existence but forms a convenient
face the same direction. The keepers are then placed across the poles at each basis for explaining magnetic effects. Each ’line of magnetic flux’ forms a
end. Where magnetic flux is undesirable (e.g. in the vicinity of a watch) a closed loop from north to south outside the magnet and from south to north
magnetic screen of iron is used. This has the effect of concentrating the flux inside the magnet. ’lines of flux’ can never cross. They are infinitely elastic and
within itself so that it does not penetrate the surrounding air space. cannot be broken.
NOTE Nevertheless when looking at a pattern of iron filings around a magnet lines
This concentrating effect is called ’permeability’. Soft iron has a high of flux sometimes seem to end in the free space. The reason for this is that the
permeability and air has a low permeability. lines of flux become weaker the farther they are situated from the magnetic
pole. The process continues until the flux is too weak to arrange the filings in
a pattern.
3.10.1.5 The Magnetic Effect of Current

Whenever a current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is developed.
There are two methods of determining the field direction:
• right-hand rule
• corkscrew rule.
Figure 78 shows the ’right-hand rule’, whereby the thumb points in the
direction of the current through a conductor and the other fingers point in the
direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 77: Electromagnetic Field around a Conductor
Figure 78: Right Hand Rule
Figure 79 shows the ’corkscrew rule’. When the current flows to the paper the The direction of the current within a wire is indicated as follows:
magnetic field is clockwise. When the current direction is away from the paper
• an arrow indicates the direction of current flow
the magnetic field is anti-clockwise.
• the cross represents the tail of the arrow pointing to the page
• the dot represents the head of the arrow pointing away from the
page.
Figure 79: Corkscrew Rule
Figure 80: Direction of current
3.10.1.6 The Magnetic Field of a Coil

A coil carrying a current is surrounded by a magnetic field like a permanent The flux lines enter at the south pole and emerge at the north pole. Thus the
magnet. One end of the coil acts like a south pole, the opposite pole acts like loop of current-carrying wire has the characteristics of a magnet and is
a north pole. By reversing the current direction in the coil its magnetic poles therefore called an ’electromagnet’.
are interchanged.
If a conductor is a straight piece of wire a weak magnetic field of little practical
use is developed around the wire. Although the magnetic flux has direction
the conductor has no north or south pole.
By changing the shape of the conductor its magnetic properties can be greatly
improved. Figure 81 shows a view of a short piece of wire twisted into a loop.
Simply forming the loop improves the magnetic characteristics in three ways:
• this brings the flux lines together,
• concentrates the flux lines at the centre and
Figure 82: North-South Direction of a Coil
• creates north and south pole.
The north pole of an electromagnet can be determined by the use of the ’right-
hand grasp rule’. The fingers of the right hand grasp the coil and point in the
current direction. The thumb points to north.
The flux density of an electromagnet depends on:
• the current in the coil
• the number of turns
• the core material, if arranged within the coil.
Iron within a coil concentrates the flux and thus increases the strength of the
magnet. The iron core makes the magnetic force stronger, so that heavy loads
can be carried.
A comparison between coils with different numbers of turns shows that with
a higher number of turns a smaller current is sufficient to bear a load of equal
weight. In addition to its high load bearing capacity, the electromagnet has a
further advantage over a permanent magnet: its capacity can be varied within
Figure 81: North and South Pole of a Coil wide limits by varying the supply current.
3.10.1.7 Magnetic Characteristics

3.10.1.7.1 The Magnetic Circuit 3.10.1.7.2 The Magnetic Field Strength
The flux lines or lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet, or a current- The magnetic field strength (symbol H) is the intensity of the magnetic force
carrying solenoid are all continuous or completely closed. The magnetic circuit that sets up the magnetic flux density (symbol B) in an electromagnet
is formed by the closed path of magnetic flux. One of the simplest forms of (magnetic circuit). It can be compared with the EMF that forces a current (I)
magnetic circuit is shown in Figure 83 where part of the magnetic circuit is in through an electric circuit. The unit of magnetic field strange is “Tesla”. The
the iron and part is in the air gap. magnetic field strength is determined as:
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐻) =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡)
3.10.1.7.3 Permeability
Permeability or flux-multiplying factor (symbol µ) is a measure of how easily a
magnetic flux can be set up in a material.
Air and most materials (including most metals) have a multiplying factor of
approximately 1. Iron placed in a magnetic field causes the lines of flux to
concentrate in it. In doing so the iron itself becomes magnetized. The iron
generates ’flux lines’ of its own, so more ’lines’ are added to the original flux.
Thus the presence of iron increases the flux density. Multiplying factors range
from 1 to some thousands, depending on the material.
Figure 83: Magnetic Circuit
Figure 84: Effect of Iron in a magnetic Field
3.10.1.7.4 Magnetic flux density 3.10.1.7.7 Magnetic Field Strength/Flux Density Curve (B-H
Curve)
The magnetic flux density has the symbol “B”. The unit of the magnetic flux
density is “weber”. If a circuit is set up as so, that current can be varied by moving the rheostat
slider. Adjusting the current, changes the magnetic field strength (H) because:
The magnetic flux density can be calculated with the formula:
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝐵 =µ∙𝐻 𝐻=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
So, the magnetic flux density is the magnetic field strength times the
permeability.
The formula shows that the number of turns and the length of the magnetic
circuit are fixed values. Only the current is variable.
3.10.1.7.5 Reluctance
Increasing the magnetic field strength (H) means increase in the flux density
Reluctance (symbol S) is the opposition to magnetic flux and therefore the (B) because flux density (B) is proportional to:
opposite to or reciprocal of permeability. Reluctance can be compared to
• the magnetic field strength (H)
resistance in an electric circuit. A material, for example, has a permeability of
2,700 (µ = 2,700) and a reluctance of: • the permeability (µ) of the magnetic circuit or core (multiplying
1 factor).
𝑆= = 0.00037
2700 Therefore:
𝐵 =µ∙𝐻
3.10.1.7.6 Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are divided into ferromagnetic materials and non- The B-H curve of air is linear (a straight line) because the permeability of air is
magnetic materials. 1.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials such as iron, cobalt and nickel. Most of
their alloys which can be magnetized have a high flux concentrating power.
Iron, for example, has a flux-multiplying factor of approximately 5,000.
Non-magnetic materials are those that have no flux-multiplying factor. Their
permeability is around 1. Non-magnetic materials are copper, aluminum,
water and air. Air is a standard and has a permeability of 1.
Increasing H still further from 2 to 3 results in a small increase in B. In fact the

slope of the graph (rate of increase) is about the same as that from 0 to 1
because the ferromagnetic material is fully magnetized, and no flux-
multiplying effects exist. The increase in B only exists due to the air.
The ferromagnetic material has thus reached the saturation point, the
material cannot be magnetized any further and the permeability decreases to
a very low value.
Figure 85: B-H Curve of Air
Figure 86 shows a typical ferromagnetic B-H curve. Increasing H from 0 to 1

results in a small increase in B mostly due to H in air. The ferromagnetic
material has little effect, therefore the permeability of the ferromagnetic
material is very low here.
Increasing H further from 1 to 2 results in a large increase in B because the
ferromagnetic material itself magnetizes, multiplying this increase in B due to
H in air. The ferromagnetic material has a great effect on the increase in B.
Therefore the permeability of the ferromagnetic material rapidly increases to
a large value. Figure 86: B-H Curve of a typical ferromagnetic Material
3.10.1.7.8 Hysteresis
The B-H curve shows the magnetic characteristics of a material when the If the magnetic field strength is increased from zero in a positive direction the
magnetic field strength is increased to eventual saturation. If the magnetizing flux density B rises as in a normal B-H curve.
force is removed some magnetism may remain with the material. This effect
On reduction of the magnetizing force H to zero again, the flux density B does
is known as ’hysteresis’. Hysteresis thus is the lag of flux density (B) behind the
not follow its original path to zero but follows the path Q/R. When the material
magnetic field strength (H).
has reached saturation for the first time the flux density at R is called the
’remanence’ or ’residual magnetism’. If the material has not reached
saturation the flux density at R is called ’remanent flux density’.
Figure 87: B-H Curve
Figure 88: Remanence or Residual Magnetism
The flux density B always lags behind the magnetic field strength H because of 3.10.1.7.9 Retentivity and Remanence
the inertia required to change the magnetism in the material. ’Retentivity’ is a measure of the magnetism retained by a material over a long
period of time. Retentivity must not be confused with remanence since in
some materials remanence is quickly reduced to zero under normal
conditions. The remanence is the magnetization left behind in a ferromagnetic
material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field is removed.
As shown in Figure 90, a negative value of magnetizing force H must be applied
to reduce the flux density B to zero (S).
Figure 89: Hysteresis Loop
Figure 90: Coercive Force
The actual value of negative magnetizing force H necessary to do this is known 3.10.1.7.10 Characteristics of Ferromagnetic Materials
as the ’coercive force’. Ferromagnetic materials are divided into soft or hard magnetic materials.
If the material has reached saturation for the first time this value is termed the ’Soft’ and ’hard’ refer to how easily they magnetize and not to whether they
’coercivity’ of the material. are mechanically hard or soft.
If the negative value of magnetizing force is increased past zero flux density B
the material will eventually reach saturation T. This relationship shows that for
a permanent magnet, a material with a high coercivity is required, i.e. the force
required to ’remove’ the magnetism must be very large.
Figure 92: Hysteresis Loop of Magnetic Materials
Hard Magnetic Materials

A high magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a hard magnetic
material and a high value of coercivity is required to remove the remanence
of the magnet (residual magnetism). Therefore a hard magnetic material has
a good retentivity making it a good permanent magnet.
Because a high magnetic field strength H is necessary to magnetize a hard
material, the area of the loop is large and consequently, the energy (H is
proportional to current) to complete a full cycle or loop, is large. Therefore a
hard material has large hysteresis losses proportional to the hysteresis loop
area and frequency of the magnet field strength H. A typical hard magnetic
material is ’Alnico’ used for permanent magnets. ’Alnico’ alloys consist of
aluminum, cobalt, nickel and iron.
Figure 91: Negative Saturation
Soft Magnetic Materials

A low magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a soft magnetic
material and a low value of coercivity is required to remove the remanence of
the magnet (residual magnetism). Therefore a soft magnetic material has a
low retentivity making it unsuitable for the use as a permanent magnet.
Because a low magnetic field strength is necessary to magnetize a soft
material, the area of the loop is small, and the energy required to complete a
full cycle or loop is small.
A soft material usually has a low hysteresis loss. High permeability values make
it suitable for use when the magnetic field strength is alternating (AC current),
driving the flux density through a complete hysteresis loop as in AC electric
motors, generators and transformers.
Steel alloys, such as permalloy or stalloy, are suitable for AC use. For DC
applications soft iron is used. Soft iron has a high permeability but also a
relatively high hysteresis loss.
As most of the core materials used in electronic equipment are ferromagnetic.
It is important to compare the various characteristics exhibited by the most
commonly used materials. The main characteristics of ferromagnetic materials
can be ascertained by a study of their hysteresis loops as shown in Figure.
Figure 93: Hysteresis Loop of Ferromagnetic Materials
3.10.1.7.11 Applications of Electromagnets

A typical applications of electromagnets is the relay.
The Relay
When a current (control current) is fed to an electromagnet the lever-like
armature is attracted. Depending on the construction the result is either:
• the contact closes (normally-open contact) and an external circuit is
closed (detail a) or
• the contact opens (normally-closed contact) and an external circuit is
interrupted (detail b).
When the control circuit is interrupted the armature returns to its initial
position through the restoring force of a spring. In circuit diagrams of electric
equipment it is necessary to identify individual relays and their contacts by a
numbering system. They are usually annotated as shown in Figure 95.
Figure 94: Construction of a Relay
The relay number is RL 2 and the number below the line - 3 - documents the By means of a relay, a heavy current can be switched on or off by a weak
number of contacts associated with this relay. control current, sometimes over long distances. A distinction can be made
between relays according to the fields of application:
By the use of a relay excessive voltage drop is prevented in the cables. The
electrical equipment can be switched on/off from a remote point by the use • heavy-current relays
of a relay. • light-current relays or according to the duty
When the switch at the remote point is switched on, relay RL 2 becomes • protective relays
energized and contact RL 2/1 closes thereby connecting the equipment to the • indicating relays
supply. There is now only a small voltage drop in the connecting cable. • power relays
• telegraph relays
The current flowing through the relay is small.
Figure 95: Circuit Symbol of a Relay

Figure 96: Remote Switching using a Relay
Induction/Inductor CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.11 Induction/Inductor
3.11.1 Faraday’s Law
Electrical energy is generated in a generator as a result of motion between the
magnetic field and the conductor.
If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field the free electrons in
the conductor are forced to concentrate at the right-hand side, thus producing
a lack of electrons at the left-hand side of the conductor. The result is that a
potential difference (PD) is developed between the two ends of the conductor.
This PD exists only while the conductor is cutting the magnetic flux lines of the
magnet.
When the conductor moves out of the magnetic field the electrons return to
their original position and the PD disappears. The PD also disappears if the
motion of the conductor is stopped in the magnetic field. Thus the conductor
must move with respect to the field before a PD is developed.
Motion or a rate of change is essential to electromagnetic induction. Some
external force must be applied to cause the conductor to move through the
magnetic field. This mechanical force is converted into electromotive force
(EMF) by electromagnetic induction.
The movement of the conductor in a magnetic field ’cuts’ the magnetic flux or
results in a rate of change of magnetic flux (Figure 97).
Figure 97: Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field
Instead of moving the conductor through a static magnetic field (as in a Increasing the angle of the conductor from zero to ninety degrees results in an
generator) the magnetic field can move through a static conductor (as in a increase in the rate of change of flux. Therefore the induced EMF increases
transformer) if the switch in circuit ’A’ is closed and opened. Both methods from minimum at zero degrees to maximum at ninety degrees. Figure 100
generate a rate of change of flux and therefore an EMF is induced in the shows that an amount of EMF is induced in circuit ’B’ when the switch in circuit
conductor of circuit ’B’. ’A’ is closed or opened.
Figure 98: Induction of an EMF
Movement of a conductor in the same direction as the magnetic flux, or

movement of the magnetic flux in the same direction as the conductor, Figure 100: Induction Principle
generates no rate of change in flux, and therefore no EMF is induced in circuit
’B’ (Figure 99).
Figure 99: No Induction of an EMF
3.11.1.1 Rate of Change of Flux 3.11.1.2 Direction of an Induced EMF (Lenz’s Law)
The rate of change of flux and the magnitude of EMF induced in a conductor The induced EMF in a closed circuit sets up a current in the conductor which
are determined by: creates its own magnetic field.
• the speed of motion of the conductor through the field
• the length (proportional to number of turns) of the conductor in the
field
• the strength of the magnetic field
• the angle between conductor and field.
Faraday’s law summarizes these 4 points as follows:

• When a conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic flux an EMF is
induced, which is proportional to the rate at which the flux is cut.
Figure 101: Conductor cutting a magnetic Field
• The induced EMF corresponds to the rate of change of flux divided by
the rate of change of time (speed). The conductor’s magnetic field is:
• Furthermore the EMF corresponds to flux density (B) multiplied by • strengthened in front of the conductor’s motion
the length of conductor (l) and multiplied by the speed (v) of the • weakened behind the conductor’s motion.
conductor through the field at ninety degrees.
• Expressed in a formula:
A mechanical force is therefore required in order to oppose the change of flux
𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝐵 ∙ 𝐼 ∙ 𝑣 (or ’cutting’ the magnetic field) by two interacting fields. The direction of the
opposing force or drag of the conductor’s magnetic field opposes the change
of flux caused by the motion.
Lenz’s Law summarizes this as follows:

• The induced current always opposes the motion or change
generating it.
• In an open conductor circuit an EMF is induced but there is no
opposing force or drag because no current flows in the conductor to
create a magnetic field.
Lenz’s Law can therefore be used to determine the direction of an induced

current.
The direction of current can be determined as follows (Figure 102):
• the field direction of the conductor has to be determined
• the right-hand corkscrew rule should be used in reverse to determine
induced EMF and current direction.
The direction of conductor motion has to be noted.
Figure 102: Application of Lenz´s Law
The right-hand generator rule is another method of determining the direction The magnetic field of parallel conductors carrying current interact with each
of induced EMF current in a conductor moving in a magnetic field (Figure 103). other to either attract or repel each other (Figure 104).
The magnetic flux is from north to south. The lines penetrate the inside of the The magnetic field direction around the conductors is determined using the
hand and come out on the outside of the hand. The direction of conductor right-hand or corkscrew rule. The result is:
movement is indicated by the thumb, and the fingers point in current
• V currents with same direction attract each other (detail a)
direction.
• V currents with opposite direction repel each other (detail b).
Figure 103: Right Hand Generator Rule Figure 104: Field of Parallel Conductors
3.11.1.3 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a

Magnetic Field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field an interaction Another method of determining the direction of force is the left-hand motor
of two fields takes place. The current-carrying conductor’s field is: rule. The magnetic flux is from north to south and the lines penetrate inside of
the hand and come out on the outside of the hand. The fingers point in current
• strengthened on one side where the lines of force are all in the same
direction and the thumb indicates the direction of force.
direction
The magnitude of this force is proportional to:
• weakened on the other side where the lines of force of the two fields
oppose each other. • the flux density of the magnetic field between the poles
A mechanical force moves the conductor from the strengthened field to the • the conductor current (proportional to the current-carrying
weakened field. Electrical energy is thus converted into mechanical energy. conductor’s flux density)
The direction of force can be determined as follows:
• the length of the current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field
• the direction of the magnetic field (north to south) has to be noted between the poles.
• the current direction in the conductor has to be determined This can be expressed as:
• the right-hand corkscrew rule should be used to determine the field 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∙ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
direction of the conductor. 𝐹 = 𝐵∙𝐼∙𝐿
Figure 105: Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
Figure 106: Left hand Motor Rule

3.11.1.4 Back EMF and Inductance

3.11.1.4.1 Back EMF
As the current-carrying conductor moves through the magnetic field between
the two poles of a magnet (main field) it ’cuts’ the magnetic lines of flux of the
main field. The flux in the conductor changes or there is a rate of change of
flux. Therefore an EMF is induced in the current-carrying conductor which
opposes the conductor current; and this, in turn, opposes the motion of the
conductor.
This EMF is called ’back EMF’ (-EMF) because it opposes the applied voltage
and reduces the effective voltage driving the current through the conductor.
For the back EMF is also relevant:
−𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝐵 ∙ 𝐼 ∙ 𝑉
3.11.1.4.2 Inductance
Inductance is the opposite of the change of current or change of flux.
Moving a bar magnet past a coil induces an EMF in the coil. The resulting
current’s flux interacting with the bar magnet causes a drag which is opposite
to the change of flux. The conductor thus has inductance.
Any circuit which has an EMF induced in it by a change of current through that
circuit possesses self-inductance (L).
When the current is changed in the loop, the strength of magnetic lines of flux
are also changed. This change of flux ’cuts’ the loop itself inducing a back EMF Figure 107: Magnetic Lines of Flux around a Loop
in the loop which opposes the change of applied voltage.
When the loop’s applied voltage and current increase, a back EMF in the loop
is induced which opposes the applied voltage increase. Likewise, decreasing
the loop’s applied voltage and current induces a back EMF in the loop which
opposes the applied voltage decrease.
In an inductance (inductive) circuit,

• the circuit stores energy in the magnetic field when current increases In an iron-cored coil, current increase results in relatively linear increase in flux
density (B), permeability and inductance until saturation is reached. Upon
• the magnetic field gives off energy when current decreases.
saturation, current increase results in very small increase in flux density (B),
whereas permeability and inductance decrease rapidly.
The energy stored in a magnetic field depends on the inductance and the coil
current.
All conductors possess self-inductance. But a conductor wound in the form of
a coil has a much greater inductance because the turns ’cut’ each other. A coil
is therefore called an ’inductor’.
Inductance (L) is measured in henrys (H). The unit henry is defined as follows:
1𝑉 ∙ 1𝑠
1𝐻 =
1𝐴
1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 ∙ 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 =
1 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
A circuit has an inductance of one henry when a change of one ampere in one
second causes a -EMF of one volt to be induced in the circuit.
Therefore:
−𝐸𝑀𝐹 (𝑉)
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Figure 108: Induction of a Cored Coil
In a non-magnetic core (air, copper or aluminum), current increase results in

very small increase in flux density (B) and permeability and the core does not
saturate.
Inductance, therefore, remains constant, independent of the value of coil
current.
Inductance is proportional to the back EMF. Back EMF is proportional to the
rate of change of flux or to the number of lines of magnetic force which ’cut’
the conductor. This ’cutting’ depends on the following:
• number of turns (N) squared (more turns, more ’cutting’, and more
induced back EMF) Figure 109: Inductor Symbols
• cross-sectional area (A) of the core (the greater ’A’, the more flux
’cuts’ the conductor)
• permeability (μ) of the core (the greater, the more flux ’cuts’ the
conductor and the greater the induced back EMF)
• length (l) of the core.
Therefore, inductance (L) is expressed as a formula:

𝑁2 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ µ
𝐿= (𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦𝑠 (𝐻))
𝐼
Inductances or inductors are represented in circuit diagrams as shown in

Figure 109.
3.11.1.5 Time Constant

In an inductive circuit a change of current induces a back EMF which is opposed
to the rate of change of current.
Thus current changes are delayed in an inductive circuit. When the switch is
moved to position B as shown in Figure 110, detail a), a high rate of change of
circuit current results as illustrated by the slope of the graph at time t = 0
(detail b)).
A high back EMF is induced in the inductor L which is opposed to the rate of
change of current flow. That means at the instant of closing the switch to
position B:
• the time is nearly zero (t = 0)
• the rate of change of current is maximum
• the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and nearly equal to the
applied voltage
• the voltage drop across the resistor R is minimum.
The current flow increases at a certain rate determined by inductance (L) and
resistance (R).
When the current has risen to 63.2% of its final value the current has reached
its ’time constant’ value (Ʈ) as shown in detail b). The time constant (Ʈ) is given
in seconds and is calculated by:
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦)
𝜏=
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
At the time constant value of 1 𝜏 the current is 63.2% of the final current.
Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is 63.2% of the applied voltage.
The back EMF is 36.8 %. Figure 110: Charging of a Coil
The applied voltage after five tau is 0, 𝐿

At five time constants 5𝜏 = 5 ∙ , the current is approximately zero. All of the
𝑅
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦) energy has been discharged by the resistor.
5𝜏 = 5 ∙
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚) If the current were not discharged by a resistor the rate of change of current
the current has reached its approximate maximum value (100%). would be much greater.
• 5𝜏 = 5 ∙
𝐿 (ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦) A much higher back EMF, which would be many times the applied voltage,
𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚) could release all the stored inductive energy in a destructive arc across the
• back EMF of inductor is minimum opening switch contacts or even break down the insulation. This high back
EMF is also dangerous to servicing personnel.
• rate of change of current is minimum
When the switch is being closed a back EMF not higher than the applied
• current flow is maximum voltage is induced, but when the switch is being opened a dangerously high
• Voltage drop across the resistor R is maximum (applied voltage). back EMF which is many times higher than the value of the applied voltage can
be induced.
When the switch is moved to position A (Figure 111, detail a)) the opposite
sequence of events will result. At the instant of opening the switch:
• the maximum rate of change of current occurs
• the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and tries to keep the
current flowing.
The current flow decreases at a certain rate determined by inductance (L) and
resistance (R). When the current has decreased by 63.2% the current has
reached its time constant value of 1 𝜏 (detail b)).
𝐿
At the time constant value of 1 𝜏 ( 𝜏 = 𝑅 ) the current is 36.8% of its maximum
value.
Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is 36.8% of the applied voltage.
The inductor back EMF is also 36.8%.
Figure 111: Discharging of a Coil
3.11.2 Inductance Circuits

3.11.2.1 Inductances in Series
Inductances in series are calculated like resistors in series because the total
voltage:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
The total inductance LT is therefore:

𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
Example:
𝐿1 = 1 H, 𝐿2 = 0.5 H, 𝐿3 = 0.3 H
𝐿𝑇 = ?
Solution:
Figure 112: Inductors in Series
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
𝐿 𝑇 = 1 𝐻 + 0,5 𝐻 + 0,3 𝐻
𝐿 𝑇 = 1,8 𝐻
3.11.2.2 Inductances in Parallel

Inductances in parallel are calculated like resistors in parallel because the total
current:
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
According to Ohm’s Law:

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅 𝐿
Therefore:
𝑉𝑇 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
= + +
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
V is common to all inductances:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
Figure 113: Inductors in Parallel
3.11.2.3 Inductor Losses

The rate of change of current in an inductor generates a back EMF in
opposition to the change of current. In DC circuits this occurs only when the
supply switch is opened or closed.
In AC circuits, however, the currents always change, the higher the frequency,
the higher the rate of change, the greater the back EMF and the greater the
opposition to the change of current.
The change of current induces a back EMF in the coil and also an EMF in the
inductor core. The core EMF causes a current to circulate in the core, called
’eddy current’.
In solid iron core eddy currents can be very large (detail a)).
Eddy current losses are caused by:
• heat losses in the core
• reduction of main coil flux by the opposition and weakening effect of
the eddy current flux.
Eddy currents can be reduced by using many thin insulated pieces of core
material instead of a solid core.
A core having the same magnetic characteristics can be formed of several thin
sheets, called ’laminations’ as shown in detail b). The sheets are coated with
an insulating varnish so that no current can flow from one sheet to the other.
Thus any eddy current generated is restricted to its particular sheet of
material.
An inductor with an iron core can be used in circuits with frequencies up to 20
kHz (20,000 cycles per second) in power electrics and in audio frequency
ranges.
Above 20kHz, iron core eddy current losses are too high, and iron-dust-cored Figure 114: Eddy Current
inductors are used. Above 60kHz, the iron core eddy current losses are too
high, and air-cored inductors are used.
Direct Current Generators/Motors CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.12 Direct Current Generators/Motors

3.12.1 Theory
A loop of wire rotated in a magnetic field has a continuously changing flux
through it and so long as the rotation continues, an induced voltage will be
maintained in the wire. The magnitude of this induced voltage depends on the
rate at which the flux changes. This principle forms the basis of any rotating
electrical generator, (AC or DC). The method by which the generator electricity
is actually connected into the external circuit will determine the ultimate
generator function. This method will be Commutator (DC generator) and Slip
Rings (AC generator), with ‘collection’ provided by carbon brushes.
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It does this by
producing relative motion between loops of wire and magnetic flux so that an
induced voltage is set up in the loops of wire.
The simplest form of DC generator is shown and consists of a single loop of
wire able to rotate freely between the poles of a permanent magnet.
Connection is made from the loop to the external circuit (or ’load’) by carbon
brushes pressing on a commutator, which is connected to the ends of the loop
and rotates with it.
It should be noted that any generator in the first instance produces AC;
however, it is the method in which the output is picked off that determines
whether it is AC or DC, (i.e. commutator or slip rings).
Figure 115: A Simple DC Generator
3.12.2 Production of Direct Current

Direct current can be obtained in the external circuit by substituting a form of
automatic reversing switch, known as a ‘commutator’, for the slip rings. The
commutator automatically reverses the connection between the loop and the
external circuit as the voltage in the loop reverses, thus maintaining the
direction of current in the load, as shown in Figure 118.
Each end of the loop is connected to a segment of the commutator and the
load is connected to the loop by brushes on opposite sides of the commutator.
• As the loop rotates, an alternating voltage is induced in it, but,
because of the action of the commutator, a ‘rippled DC’ is produced
Figure 116: Multi-Loop DC Generator
as opposed to a genuine AC waveform.
• Because the commutator rotates with the loop, the brushes bear on
opposite segments of it during each half cycle.
• This results in the left-hand brush always being in contact with the
segment that is positive, with the change-over taking place at the
instant when the voltage induced in the loop is zero.
• The current in the external circuit is therefore always in the same
direction and is called a unidirectional current. It is also the first step
towards obtaining a true DC output such as we get from a battery.
Figure 117: Output Waveform of a Multi-loop DC Generator
The voltage at the brushes, and therefore the current in the external circuit of It should also be noted that the number of segments on the commutator is
a simple example single loop DC generator, falls to zero twice during each increased in direct proportion to the number of loops. There are:
complete revolution. As has already been mentioned, this variation of DC is • Two segments for one loop.
called ‘ripple’ and can be reduced by the addition of more loops as shown.
Remember, an operational generator will not return to zero after switch-on • Four segments for two loops.
until it is switched ‘off’. • Eight segments for four loops.
As the number of loops is increased, the variation between maximum and • The loops are not just loops of wire but are made up like coils and so
minimum values of voltage is reduced and the output voltage of the generator the construction of them can be a big determining factor in the
approaches a steady DC value, as can be seen. output obtained.
Figure 118: Production of DC by Commutator Action
The voltage induced in a single-turn loop is quite small, and although an

increase in the number of loops does not increase the maximum value of
generated voltage, an increase in the number of turns in each loop will. Within
narrow limits, the output voltage of a DC generator is determined by the
product of the number of turns per loop, the total flux pair of poles in the
machine and the speed of rotation of the armature.
Whether it is an AC or DC generator, they are identical as far as the method of
generating voltage in the rotating loop is concerned. However, if the current
is taken from the loop by slip rings, it is an alternating current and if it is
collected by a commutator, it is direct current.
The variation in the output of a DC generator is reduced to a very small amount
by having a large number of loops and a commutator with a correspondingly
large number of segments. The construction is such that each loop is
connected between adjacent segments, the end of one loop being connected
to the same segment as the beginning of the next loop, as shown.
With this arrangement, the EMF induced in each loop will reach its maximum
value when the EMF in the preceding loop is already decreasing, and that in
the succeeding loop is still increasing. Thus, the EMF in
• The voltage at the brushes equals the sum of the EMF induced in the
loops connected in series between the brushes.
• The graph shows the resultant voltage between the brushes. Only
three loops need to be considered as the arrangement is symmetrical
and both branches (A, B and C and D, E and F) give the same voltage
at the instant shown. As the number of loops is increased, the ripple
in the brush voltage becomes smaller and the magnitude of the DC
output voltage increases
Figure 119: Connection of Multiple Loops with Commutator Segments and

Resultant Output
3.12.2.1 Construction and Purpose of Components in DC

Generator
In a practical DC generator we obtain high voltage outputs by:
The armature (the rotating part of the machine) is made up of shaft, armature
• Using a large number of coils of many turns instead of single loops. core, armature windings or coils, and commutator. The armature core is
laminated to reduce eddy current losses, and the armature windings rest in
• Rotating the coils at high speed.
slots cut in the core but insulated from it. The commutator is made of copper
• Using electromagnets to provide a strong magnetic field and segments insulated from each other, and from the shaft. The ends of the
mounting the coils in which the voltage is to be induced on a soft armature windings are hard soldered to their appropriate commutator
iron core: the air gap between this core and the electromagnet pole segments.
pieces is very small.
The brushes ride on the commutator and carry the generated voltage to the
The electromagnets used to provide the magnetic field require a DC voltage load. They are usually made of carbon and are held in brush holders in such a
source to pass current through the winding. In small machines such as those way that they can slide up and down against a spring so as to follow the small
used in aircraft, the design of the machine is simplified by using the output irregularities in the surface of the commutator.
voltage of the generator itself to provide this current.
Construction
A DC generator consists of two main assemblies:
• The stator or fixed portion: This carries the field magnet system, the
brush gear and the bearings. The brush gear assembly and end frame
may be considered as a separate major sub assembly.
• The rotor or armature assembly: This carries the coils, commutator
and often cooling fan blades.
Since the generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy,
mechanical energy must be supplied to the generator to turn it. The ‘prime
mover’ used to drive aircraft generators is usually the engine.
The frame or yoke is the main chassis of the generator and it also serves to
complete the magnetic circuit between the pole pieces. The pole pieces are
laminated to reduce eddy current losses, and the field coils or windings are
mounted on the pole pieces. The end housings contain the bearings for the
armature which rotates at high speed, and one of these housings also holds
the brush gear. Figure 120: DC Generator
3.12.2.2 Field Magnet System

Except for very small machines in which permanent magnets are used, the 3.12.2.2.1 Field Assembly
magnetic field is produced by electromagnets in such a way that the armature The heavy iron or steel housing that supports the field poles is called the field
conductors pass under North and South poles alternately. The poles may be frame. It not only supports the field poles but also forms part of the magnetic
salient, in which case the armature EMF wave form has a flat top, or may be circuit of the field. Small generators usually have two to four poles while larger
flush pole, low reluctance which gives an almost sinusoidal wave form. Salient generators can have as many as eight main poles. The pole pieces are
poles are the most common in aircraft DC generators. rectangular and in most instances are laminated to prevent Eddy Current
The salient pole piece may be laminated to prevent eddy current heating, or it losses.
may be solid, with a laminated pole ‘shoe’ fitted to the end. 3.12.2.2.2 The Brush Gear
It will be noted from the diagram that the yoke is an essential part of the Brushes are made of specially treated carbon which is self-lubricating;
magnetic circuit and must therefore combine permeability with structural therefore causing little commutator wear. They are carried in small open
strength. It is normally of cast or rolled steel. ended boxes called brush holders. Brush pressure is maintained on the
commutator by springs. Connection to the external circuit is made by copper
braid.
Electro-graphitic brushes of normal design, although generally reliable in
performance when used in ground equipment and low-altitude aircraft
generators, tend to wear very rapidly at high altitudes. This wear can be of the
order of 12mm per hour and is because of the following factors:
• At ground level and low altitudes the moisture content of the
atmosphere gives a substantial degree of lubrication between the
contact surfaces of the brushes and the commutator or slip rings on
which the brushes are bearing.
• At high altitudes the moisture content of atmospheric air is
negligible, and with little or no lubrication at the ‘rubbing contacts’
there is considerable friction. Rapid wear of the soft electro-graphitic
brushes is, in consequence, inevitable.
Figure 121: Field Magnet Systems
Normally the contact resistance between brush-faces and commutator (or 3.12.2.2.4 Non-Film Forming Brushes
slip-ring) surfaces is fairly high because of the existence of a resistive film Brushes in this category contain a lubricating ingredient such as molybdenum
formed on the metallic surfaces by the electrolytic decomposition of the disulfide. This lubricant is often packed in cores running longitudinally through
moisture content of the atmosphere. At high altitudes this film is removed by the brush.
frictional wear and cannot be made good because of the dryness of the
atmosphere. Hence the contact-resistance between brush surfaces and • Since the brush is itself self-lubricating there is no question of
metallic surfaces becomes small. This reduction in contact resistance, in the preliminary formation of film, hence there is no necessity for running
case of a DC generator, gives rise to heavy reactive sparking which, in turn, generators fitted with these brushes at low altitude before entering
accelerates brush erosion. into high-altitude operation.
Lack of lubrication of the brush-to-commutator contact surfaces at high • Against this advantage of immediate availability for high-altitude
altitudes and the reduction of brush-contact resistance experienced at operation must be set the disadvantage of appreciably shorter life,
increasing altitudes, are largely eliminated by using brushes which have been due to somewhat more rapid wear when compared with film-
especially developed for high-altitude operation. forming brushes.
Two distinct categories of high-altitude brushes are in general use:
• Brushes which form a constant resistance semi-lubricating film on The following precautions MUST be observed when using high-altitude
the commutator or slip-rings. brushes:
• Brushes which are self-lubricating and do not form a film. • Film-forming brushes must not be used at high altitudes until the
generator has been in operation for a specified period after fitting
the brushes to a machine with a ‘clean’ commutator or slip-rings this
3.12.2.2.3 Film Forming Brushes period is essential to allow the film produced by brush action on the
The make-up of these brushes includes such chemicals as barium fluoride commutator or slip ring surface to attain a serviceable thickness.
which builds up, progressively, a constant-resistance semi-lubricating film on • Under no circumstances should non-film forming brushes be run on
the surfaces of the commutator or slip-rings. films created by film-forming brushes, nor should film forming and
• Brushes of this category do not wear abnormally at altitudes of up to non-film-forming brushes be used simultaneously in the same
some 35,000 ft providing that generators to which such brushes are machine. When changing from film-forming to non-film forming
fitted are previously run at low altitude for some hours to allow the brushes the existing film must be completely removed by cleaning
formation of the protective film. the commutator or slip-ring with a rag moistened in lead free
gasoline, or other approved cleaning agent.
• This film, once it has been formed, is very dark in colour and to the
inexperienced eye it may well give the impression of a dirty
commutator or slip-rings.
3.12.2.3 The Armature

The rotor or Armature Assembly consists of the shaft, the iron core, the output 3.12.2.3.1 Wave Winding
windings and the commutator, as shown on the figure. Another feature of multi-pole machines is the manner in which the coils of the
• The iron core provides a low reluctance path between the field pole armature winding are connected together to provide the required output
pieces giving increased flux density, ensuring that the largest EMF conditions. One method, called wave winding, provides increased output
possible is induced into the output windings. voltage by arranging for the voltages induced by each pair of poles to be added
in series.
• The core is constructed as a laminated soft iron drum with
longitudinal slots into which the output windings are fitted. • Therefore, the output voltage is twice (four poles) and three times
(six poles) that of the equivalent two pole machine. With wave
• The core is laminated to reduce eddy currents and thus heat.
winding the output voltage may be obtained across one pair of
• The output windings are placed in longitudinal slots in the iron core brushes.
to reduce the magnetic circuit air gap. The armature and coil
windings are vacuum impregnated with silicone varnish to maintain
insulation resistance under all conditions with the coils also insulated 3.12.2.3.2 Lap Winding
with PTFE [Poly-tetra-fluoro-ethane]. The other armature winding method is called lap winding and this method is
The windings are wedged into the slots with insulating material to prevent most useful when high output current is required.
them from being thrown out by centrifugal force. All coil connections are silver • In lap winding, groups of series connected coils are connected in
soldered to withstand local hot spot temperatures. parallel by the provision of additional brushes at points around the
commutator which are equal in potential.
• In a four-pole machine this results in the provision of four parallel
current paths from the two positive brushes to the two negative
brushes.
• In a six-pole machine there are six parallel current paths from the
three positive brushes to the three negative brushes.
The provision of additional parallel paths makes the lap wound generator
suitable for high output current.
Wave winding is used for DC generators of high output voltage. Lap winding
is used for DC generators of high output current.
Figure 122: A Typical Armature Assembly

3.12.2.3.3 The Commutator 3.12.2.3.5 Electromagnetic Problems

This is a cylinder mounted at one end of the armature and consists of a large In addition to the problems associated with actual collection, two problems
number of copper segments. The segments are wedge-shaped, and a large which are associated with the electromagnetic functions in the generator also
number are assembled side by side to form a ring, each being insulated from exist. Though having similar effects, they are created by different things, may
the other by a mica insulating strip. be compensated for by different design features and should therefore be
understood as separate entities. These are:
Each segment forms the junction between two armature coils, the wires being
soldered into risers at the ends of the segments. • Armature Reaction.
• Reactive Sparking.
3.12.2.3.4 Operations of and Factor Affecting Output and
Direction of Current Flow
The commutator and brush gear of a DC machine have two distinct functions:
• Collection: The transference of current between the moving
armature and the fixed external circuit.
• Commutation: The periodic reversal of current during transfer
between the armature and the external circuit to produce DC.
• These two operations are independent, but faulty collection or
incorrect commutation produce similar results, i.e. the formation of a
destructive spark or arc between the trailing edges of the brushes
and the commutator surface.
3.12.2.3.6 Armature Reaction/Reactive Sparking

Since an armature is wound with coils of wire, a magnetic field is set up in the
armature whenever a current flows in the coils. This is called the armature
flux and its field is right angles to the generator field, (also known as the field
flux). This is called cross magnetization of the armature. The effect of the
armature flux is to distort the field flux and shift the magnetic neutral axis as
illustrated. This effect is known as armature reaction and is proportional to the
current flowing in the armature coils.
• The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is the resultant of the armature flux
and the field flux interacting with one another.
• The Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA) is the axis running through
opposite poles.
The brushes of a generator must be set in the MNA which means that they Figure 124: Armature Flux
must contact segments of the commutator that are connected to armature
coils having no induced EMF. If the brushes were contacting commutator
segments outside the MNA, they would short-circuit ‘live’ coils and cause
arcing and loss of power (reactive sparking).
Figure 125: Resultant Flux

Figure 123: Field Flux
In an ideal machine, the MNA will be equal to the GNA, which means there
would be no distortion of the field flux and so no shifting of the MNA away
from the brushes. This would result in no armature reaction or reactive
sparking. However, the ideal machine has never been invented and armature
reaction is something that has to be accepted and compensated for, and there
are three principle methods with which it is overcome.
• The first method is to shift the position of the brushes so that they
are in the MNA when the generator is producing its normal load
current.
• The second method is by using special field poles, called interpoles.
• The third is by the use of compensating windings, both of which
counteract the effect of armature reaction.
The brush-setting method is only satisfactory in installations in which the

generator operates under a fairly constant load.
If the load varies to a marked degree, the MNA will shift proportionally, and
the brushes will not be in the correct position at all times. This method is most
commonly used in smaller generators (those producing 1kW or less) because
it is less expensive. Larger generators require the use of interpoles.
The use of interpoles is a very efficient way of maintaining a constant MNA in
a generator. The windings of the interpoles are in series with the load, so the
Figure 126: Generator Circuit with Interpoles
effects of the interpoles are proportional to the load. The polarities of the
interpoles are such that their effect is opposite to that of the armature field;
i.e. the interpoles are of the same polarity as the next field pole in the direction
of rotation. With this polarity, the interpoles are said to pull the generator field
back into the correct position. A typical interpoles system is shown.
In many generators, compensating windings are used to overcome the In some machines, interpoles are used to minimize reactive sparking and
problem of armature reaction. These are windings placed in slots in the pole armature reaction. However, for more efficient reduction of both, interpoles
faces. and compensation windings would be used as shown. The compensating
windings are in series with the interpoles and increase their effectiveness.
The spark-less commutation obtained by the use of interpoles and
compensating winding.
• Increases the life of the brushes and commutator.
• Reduces radio interference.
• Greatly improves the efficiency of the generator.
Figure 127: Use of Compensating Windings to

Overcome Armature Reaction
The current flowing in them travels in the opposite direction to that in the
armature conductors, and by connecting them in series with the armature, the
current in the windings is the same as that in the armature. With this method,
the armature flux is cancelled out by the compensating flux under all
conditions of load resulting in the MNA and GNA being equal and
commutation remains static.
Figure 128: Generator with Interpoles and Compensating Winding
3.12.3 DC Motor Principle of Operation

3.12.3.1 Introduction
An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Its function is the reverse of a generator. There is little difference
between the construction of a DC motor and a DC generator. Both have
essentially the same parts and they look alike. In fact, in many cases, a DC
machine can be used either as a motor or a generator.
3.12.3.2 Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
A current flowing through a wire placed in a magnetic field causes the wire to
move; a motor works on this principle. It is the reaction of two magnetic fields
that produces the motion that produces the torque that we see as the output
of the motor.
The force with which the conductor moves is clearly dependent upon the
strengths of the two interacting magnetic field. In turn this force relates to the
speed at which a motor containing the current carrying conductor will turn.
The figures show the magnetic field between the poles of a magnet and the
magnetic field round a wire carrying a current. If the wire is placed in the
magnetic field the overlapping field pattern would seem to be as shown in (c). Figure 129: Effects of a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
Of course, as we have seen earlier, lines of flux cannot cross, and this pattern
cannot exist. The resultant field is as shown in (d). The lines of flux reinforce
each other in the space above the conductor and oppose each other below it.
Lines of flux act as if they are pushing away from each other and also tend to
straighten out. In this way they apply a force to the conductor tending to move
it downwards.
It may therefore be appropriate to remember that the force is directly To change the direction of rotation of a motor having an electro-magnetic field
proportional to the flux density (B) of the major field, the current (I) in the we need to reverse the direction of current in the armature or the direction of
conductor (producing the minor field), and the length of the conductor (L). the current in the field.
This is expressed as: Changing the supply connections to the motor will not have any effect; the
current being reversed in direction in both the armature and the field, the
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐵) ∙ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) ∙ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿)
motor continues to run in the same direction.
𝐹 =𝐵∙𝐼∙𝐿
Permanent magnetic motors are, however, reversible by simply changing over
the supply connections.
The direction in which the conductor moves depends on the direction of the The simplest form of motor has a single loop of wire able to rotate freely
current in the wire and also on the direction of the magnetic field. The between the poles of a permanent magnet. Connection is made from the DC
direction of motion is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule for motors: supply voltage to the loop by brushes bearing on a commutator, the two
‘The first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the left-hand are held at segments of which are connected to the loop, as shown.
right angles to each other’. With the first finger pointing in the direction of the
field (N to S) and the second finger in the direction of conventional current,
the thumb shows the direction of motion of the wire.
Figure 131: Simple DC Motor
The forces acting on the two sides of the loop combine to apply a force, known
as a torque, to turn the loop in an anticlockwise direction.
Figure 130: Fleming’s Left-hand Rule
Figure 132: Action of DC Motor
By applying Fleming’s Left-hand rule it can be clearly seen that when: 3.12.3.3 Operation and Factors Affecting Motor Output
Power Torque
• The loop is in position (A), side ‘P’ of the loop tends to move
downwards and side ‘Q’ upwards. The movement of a conductor in a magnetic field induces in it an EMF, which
we know from Lenz’s Law, will oppose the motion producing it. That is to say,
• As the loop passes through the vertical position (B), the direction of
the induced voltage will oppose the supply voltage. This is called back EMF.
the current flow must be reversed to keep the loop rotating in the
same direction, and it is the action of the commutator that does this. Back EMF will never be as great as the supply input and the difference between
them is always such that current can flow in the conductor and produce
• Because the commutator is two halves of a ring separated by motion. The value of this current is dependent upon the value of the voltage
insulation, the result of the loop rotating is such that as one half of across the conductor. This voltage, often referred to as the effective voltage
the commutator leaves a brush, the other half comes into contact is equal to the difference between the applied voltage and the back EMF.
with it.
Therefore:
• So now, at (C), when we apply Fleming’s rule, side ‘Q’ will move in a
downward direction and side ‘P’ upward, keeping the rotation of the 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐸𝑀𝐹
loop in an anticlockwise direction.
• At position (D), the loop passes through the vertical and the current
reverses direction again until we get to (E) where the loop is back to
where it was at the start (A) and the process goes on.
A single loop DC motor would not be able to turn heavy loads, so to obtain a
large smooth mechanical output; some improvements have to be made. A
laminated iron core carrying a number of armature coils is used together with
a corresponding number of commutator segments. The magnetic field is
produced by an electromagnet and its field coils, with the spacing between the
armature and the pole pieces kept as small as possible.
3.12.4 Series Wound, and Shunt Wound DC Machines

There are three basic types of DC machines, namely series, shunt and The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load. Any change in load
compound and they differ largely in the way in which their field and armature will result in a substantial change in speed, so it will run at high speeds with
coils are connected. light loads and low speeds with heavy loads. If the load is removed entirely,
the motor may operate at such a high speed that the armature will break
apart, so it must never be run under ‘no load’ conditions. So, if a high starting
3.12.4.1 Series DC Motor torque is required under heavy load conditions, a series motor would be the
In the series motor shown below, the field windings, which consist of relatively best application.
few turns of heavy wire, are connected in series with the armature winding. Looking at the characteristic curve of a series DC motor it can be seen that
The same current flowing through the field winding also flows through the when very little load is applied, the speed is very high and as the load is
armature winding. Therefore, any increase in current strengthens the increased the speed decreases.
magnetism of both the field and the armature.
• Because of the low resistance in the windings, the series motor is
able to draw a large current in starting.
• This large starting current, when passing through the field and
armature windings, produces a high starting torque, which is this
type of motor’s principal advantage.
Figure 134: Characteristic Curve of a Series DC Motor
Figure 133: Series Wound DC Motor
3.12.4.2 DC Shunt Generator

As shown in Figure 135, detail a), a shunt generator has its excitation field
connected in shunt, or parallel, with the armature.
A residual magnetism exists in the poles. The flux lines of this residual
magnetism are cut when the rotor of the shunt generator is turned. This
produces an initial low voltage.
Since the fields are connected across or in parallel with the armature, the
initial voltage produced by the residual magnetism causes a current to flow in
the field windings.
This current flow, when it is in the proper direction, adds magnetism to the
residual magnetism in the poles, which further increases the induced voltage.
The voltage continues to increase as the excitation field becomes stronger,
and the field becomes stronger as the voltage increases. This process
continues until the magnetic field in the poles reaches saturation, i.e. the
shunt generator has reached its maximum ’no-load’ or ’open circuit’ voltage.
If the DC shunt generator is loaded the output voltage will decrease as shown
in Figure 135, detail b). Therefore, the following statement is justified:
The shunt generator does not maintain a constant voltage with varying
loads.
The field windings of the DC shunt generator are connected in parallel with the
armature and receive the total armature voltage. Since the load is also
connected in parallel with the armature and also receives the entire armature
voltage the voltage across the field windings will decrease when the load
increases.
This process causes the excitation field to weaken and as a result the output
voltage decreases again.
The shunt generator may be used for excitation supply of AC generators or in
other applications where the distance from the generator to its load is short.
It is also used for charging accumulators. Figure 135: Shunt Wound DC Motor
3.12.4.3 Compound DC Motor

The compound motor is a combination of the series and shunt motors. There The characteristic curve of the compound DC motor clearly shows the effect
are both, a shunt and a series winding in the field. A schematic diagram of a of load against speed, being somewhere between that of series and shunt
compound motor is shown where the shunt winding is composed of many wound motors.
turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with the armature winding and
the series winding consists of a few turns of heavy wire and is connected in
series with it. The starting torque is higher than that of a shunt motor but
lower than in the series motor and any variation of speed with load is less than
in a series motor but more than in a shunt motor.
Figure 137: Characteristic Curve of a Compound DC Motor
Figure 136: Compound Wound DC Motor
3.12.4.4 Starter/Generator Construction

Several types of aircraft are fitted with starter motors which will also function • This will allow the unit to operate as a voltage regulated shunt
as generators. These units will provide the rotary power to turn and start the wound generator. The reverse current relay will operate when the
engine. Instead of being disconnected when the engine is running the unit will generator output drops below a pre-set value. This will prevent
be switched electrically and will then provide electrical power. The units are discharge of the battery through the generator which will also try to
light and less bulky than a separate starter motor and separate generator. motor the generator.
They will also require only one drive from the engine gearbox and will always
In some circuits the start selection will be spring loaded to generator ‘on’.
remain directly connected to the engine.
Other circuits will lock in the start selection until a speed switch will de-
The basic construction is similar to a compound wound motor, but the fields energize it when the engine reaches self-sustaining speed.
can be switched separately. As a starter it will operate as a series wound
motor. When operating as a generator the series winding will be disconnected
and only the shunt winding will be energized and controlled by the voltage
regulator.
There are many different means of connections, circuits and operation and
one simple circuit is illustrated.
3.12.4.4.1 Operation
• When start is selected the starter relay will be energized, supplying
power to the starter to operate it as a series-wound motor. An
electrical supply will also be connected to the ignition through the
ignition cut-off switch.
• When the engine is running, and generator switched ‘on’ the starter
relay will be de-energized. This will also de-energize the changeover
relay disconnecting the series field and connecting the armature to
the voltage regulator.
• The armature will also be connected to the bus bar through the
reverse current relay. The energized field relay will connect the shunt
field to the voltage regulator.
3.12.4.4.2 Starter/Generator Circuit
Figure 138: Starter/Generator Circuit
Alternating Current CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.13 Alternating Current

3.13.1 The Sine Wave
When a load is connected to a direct current (DC) source current (I) always The voltage polarities at the AC source are, of course, constantly changing in
flows in one direction e.g. (the diagram is shown using electron flow) sympathy with the changing current direction. These changing current and
voltage waveforms take the form of a sine wave.
Figure 139: Direct current

Figure 141: Sine Wave
However if the DC source is replaced with an alternating current (ac) source

then for half of the time the current flows in one direction and for the other Before we can study the behavior of components in AC circuits, we must learn
half, it flows in the opposite direction i.e. the terms used to describe a sine wave, and a few mathematical rules which
are necessary to understand the meaning of ‘phase’.
Figure 140: Alternating current
3.13.1.1 Instantaneous Value

This is the term used to describe any spot value i.e. a value of voltage or NOTE
current at any one instant.
The SI unit of angular measure is the radian where 360° is equal to 2π
A sine wave can be obtained from a circle as shown in the diagram below. A radians; the axis in the diagram is also marked in radians.
circle is drawn of radius 360° where 90° is the maximum voltage reached by
the sine wave. A horizontal line AO is drawn to the right (by convention) A radius AB is then drawn at an angle from the reference radius of the circle,
through the center of the circle to act as the zero or reference position. An and a horizontal line is drawn to the right from B. A vertical line is also drawn
extension of this line is then drawn to act as the zero (X) axis of the sine wave at the position (‘B’) on the sine wave axis, and the point of intersection of these
and is graduated in degrees from 0° to 360°. 2 lines is marked with a cross.
Figure 142: Sinewave Angular Diagram
3.13.1.2 Period and Frequency

We can see from the diagram that an alternating voltage sine wave passes
through a definite sequence; it rises from zero to maximum in one direction
and falls to zero; it then reverses and rises to maximum in the other direction
and falls again to zero. This complete process is called one cycle and it is
repetitive.
A cycle can take a long time or a very short time, but in all cases the time taken
for one complete sequence is known as the period and is given the symbol T.
The number of cycles which occur in one second is called the frequency of the
cycle and is given a symbol f. Frequency used to be expressed in cycles/second,
but this unit is now called the Hertz (Hz). The diagram below shows 2
waveforms of frequencies 1Hz and 2Hz respectively.
Multiple units for frequency are often used, particularly in radio work:
• 1 kilohertz (kHz) = 103Hz
• 1 megahertz (MHz) = 106Hz
• 1 gigahertz (GHz) = 109Hz
• 1 terahertz (THz) = 1012Hz
When either the period or the frequency is known and the other has to be
calculated:
1
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑇) = (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓)
1
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) = (ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑇)
Figure 143: Frequency
3.13.1.3 Peak / Peak to Peak Value

This is the maximum value Vm or Im. For example, specifying that a sine wave
has a peak value of 340V states the highest value the sine wave reaches. All
other values during the cycle follow a sine wave. The peak value applies to
either the positive or the negative peak.
In order to include both peak amplitudes, the peak-to-peak (p-p) value may be
specified. For the same example, the peak-to-peak value is 680V, double the
peak value of 340V, since the positive and negative peaks are symmetrical. It
should be noted, though, that the 2 opposite peak values cannot occur at the
same time. Furthermore, in some waveforms the 2 peaks are not equal.
The peak value may also be referred to as Maximum, or Amplitude.
Figure 144: Peak / Peak to Peak Value
3.13.1.3.1 Root-Mean-Square, or Effective Value

The most common method of specifying the amount of a sine wave of voltage The advantage of the rms value derived in terms of the squares of the voltage
or current is by relating it to DC voltage and current that will produce the same or current values is that it provides a measure based on the ability of the sine
heating effect. This is called its root-mean-square value, abbreviated rms. The wave to produce power. As a result, the rms value of an alternating sine wave
formula is: corresponds to the same amount of direct current or voltage in heating power.
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 ∙ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 An alternating voltage with an rms value of 240V, for instance, is just as
effective in heating the filament of a light bulb as 240V from a steady DC
Or voltage source. For this reason, the rms value is also called the effective value.
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 0.707 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 0.707 Unless indicated otherwise, all sine-wave AC measurements are in rms values.
The capital letters V and I are used, corresponding to the symbols for DC
values. As an example, V = 240V for the AC power-line voltage.
With a peak of 340V, for example, the rms value is. This is the voltage of the
domestic AC power supply, which is always given in rms value. Note that sine waves can have different amplitudes but still follow the
sinusoidal waveform. The diagram below compares a low-amplitude voltage
It is often necessary to convert from rms to peak value. This can be done as with a high amplitude voltage. Although different in amplitude, they are both
follows: sine waves. In each wave, the rms value = 0.707 · peak value.
For example, the domestic power-line voltage with an rms value of 240V has
a peak value of, which equals 340V, approximately. Its peak-to-peak value is
680V, which is double the peak value. As a formula:
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1.414 ∙ 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 2.828 ∙ 𝑟𝑚𝑠
The factor 0.707 for rms value is derived as the square root of the average
(mean) of all the squares of the sine values.
Figure 145: Sine wave different amplitudes
3.13.1.3.2 Phase
When both alternating quantities of the same frequency pass through
corresponding points in a cycle at the same instant of time they are said to be
in phase with each other (Figure 146). If they pass through corresponding
points at different instants of time they are said to be out of phase and there
is a phase difference between them (Figure 147) which may be expressed as a
time but is more usually expressed in angular measure. This phase difference
is then often called the phase angle.
Figure 147: Phase Shift in Degrees
Figure 146: Amplitude versus Time
3.13.1.4 Power in AC Circuits

The power dissipated in an AC circuit is the average value of all the The average power over a complete cycle is the average value of the power
instantaneous values of power for a complete cycle. To find the instantaneous curve and this is represented by a line halfway between the maximum and
power at any moment, the instantaneous values of voltage and current at that minimum values of the curve, since the shaded areas above and below this
moment are multiplied together. Thus at the moment X shown in Figure line are equal (Figure below). Thus in the diagram the instantaneous power
below, the voltage is A volts and the current is B amperes. The power at this fluctuates rapidly (at twice the supply frequency) between the maximum and
moment is therefore A·B watts and is represented by the point C. If this minimum values of the curve, but over a complete cycle or number of cycles
process is carried out over a complete cycle, the curve shown in the diagram the average power is half the maximum power.
below will be obtained. It is always above the axis, i.e. the power is always
positive, because the current and voltage are in phase and when the voltage
and current are both positive their product is positive; when they are both
negative their product is still positive.
Figure 149: Peak- Average Power
Figure 148: Instantaneous voltage, current, power
We are only interested in average power, since the frequency of an AC supply Electrical Rating
is usually so high that during the normal lengths of time for which a device is
Many electrical types of equipment have a small plate similar to that shown in
switched on, a large number of cycles will occur. The average power (usually
the diagram below. The voltage (or current) shown on these plates is the rms
referred to simply as power) is thus half the peak power value in a resistive
value. The power is the average power. The current needed to operate can be
circuit; and this peak value is the maximum voltage multiplied by the
calculated from the figures given on the plate, e.g. for example in the diagram
maximum current. Thus:
the rms current will be approximately 15 amperes, however this is not taking
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 into consideration the power factor.
It is customary when talking of AC to quote power in volt amperes VA,
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = ∙ = 0.707𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 0.707𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 √2 √2
= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∙ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
The average power in a resistive circuit is therefore the product of the rms
values of voltage and current. It is usually given in the form 𝑃 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑉, where
I and V are rms values. The other power equations also apply, so:
𝑃 =𝑉∙𝐼
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼2 ∙ 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑃=
𝑅
Figure 150: Electrical Rating Label

NOTE
As the rms values of voltage and current have the same heating effect as
equal values of DC voltage and current they are sometimes called
'effective' values.
3.13.1.5 Other waveforms

In many electronic applications, other wave shapes are important. Any Peak amplitude is measured from the zero axis to the maximum positive or
waveform that is not a sine or cosine wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform. negative value. However, peak-to-peak amplitude, measured from maximum
Common examples are the square wave and sawtooth wave. negative value to maximum positive value, is better for measuring non-
sinusoidal wave shapes because they can have unsymmetrical peaks.
With non-sinusoidal waveforms, for either voltage or current, there are
important differences and similarities to consider. Note the following The rms value 0.707 of maximum applies only to sine waves, as this factor is
comparisons with sine waves. derived from the sine values in the angular measure used only for the sine
waveform.
In all cases, the cycle is measured between 2 points having the same amplitude
and varying in the same direction. The period is the time (T) for one cycle T for Phase angles apply only to sine waves, as angular measure is used only for sine
any of the waveforms is 4µs and the corresponding frequency is equal to ¼ waves.
MHz, or 0.25MHz.
All the waveforms represent AC voltages. Positive values are shown above the
zero axis, with negative values below the axis.
The sawtooth wave in represents a voltage that slowly increases, with a
uniform or linear rate of change, to its peak value, and then drops sharply to
its starting value. This waveform is also called a ramp voltage. It is also known
as a time base because of its constant rate of change.
Figure 151: Non-sinusoidal Waveforms
3.13.2 Three - Phase AC

3.13.2.1 Symmetry and Balance 3.13.2.1.4 Phasor Representation – Voltage
Symmetry and balance are 2 important terms in the generation and Typical voltage waveforms of a voltage symmetrical 3-phase system are
distribution of electrical energy by 3 phase AC systems. illustrated below. The individual phases are distinguished by the letters a, b, c,
or by the colours red, green, blue.
3.13.2.1.1 Symmetry
Convention requires that for a voltage symmetrical system the following
The normal arrangement is to generate and distribute electrical energy by a
conditions apply:
voltage symmetrical 3 phase AC system. The waveforms are symmetrical
because the voltage waveforms are of equal magnitude, of the same • The red voltage phase is taken as the reference phase.
frequency and there is equal phase displacement between waveforms.
• The green voltage phase leads the red by 120°.
3.13.2.1.2 Balance
• The blue voltage phase lags the yellow by 120°.
A 3 phase system is said to be balanced when the currents in the line
conductors are equal in magnitude and their phasor sum is zero. • All voltage phasors are of the same magnitude.
Balance is achieved when the phases of a voltage symmetrical 3 phase AC

system are equally loaded. The generation and distribution of 3 phase AC is If the individual phase voltages attain their maximum positive or negative
most efficient when the system is operating in the balanced condition. values in the order red, green, blue, then they are in positive phase-sequence.
To achieve balance it is necessary to equally load the individual phases and for A negative phase-sequence exists when the order is red, blue, and green.
the phase voltages to be sinusoidal. The frequency of 50Hz has been adopted
by the electricity supply industry in the United Kingdom. Other frequencies are
in use by foreign countries, such as 60Hz in the United States of America.
Careful construction of generators is required if third harmonic distortion of
the output sinusoid is to be minimized. (See later notes).
3.13.2.1.3 Aircraft Installations
Three-phase generators are also to be found on aircraft because of their
robust construction and favorable output-power to weight ratio. Again the
voltage symmetrical 3-phase system is preferred, but the frequency most used
is 400Hz.
Figure 152: Waveforms and Phasors

3.13.3 Three Phase Interconnections

Although it is possible to run a 3 phase system with the phases completely 3.13.3.1 Star Connection
separate, using 2 conductors for each phase, it is unusual to do so since A star connection is an arrangement in which the corresponding ends of
interconnection makes possible considerable savings in line conductor phases, either start or finish, are connected to a common terminal known as
materials. The terms star and delta are the general terms applied to the the star point. The other end of each phase is connected to a separate
interconnection of 3 phase AC phases. terminal.
Phase Line
The phase lines of a 3 phase AC system are those conductors which connect
the source of electrical energy to the load. In the star connection, a phase line
is required from each terminal other than the terminal for the star point. In
the delta connection, a phase line exists for each terminal which connects the
finish of one phase to the start of the next in sequence. Phase lines are
identified either by letters a, b, c etc., or by colours.
Neutral Line
When loads of equal impedance are star-connected to a voltage symmetrical
3 phase system, then the artificial point of reference given by the star point of
the load is termed the neutral point. The conductor which connects the star
points of generator and load is called the neutral line. Figure 153: Star Connection
3.13.3.1.1 Star Point

The circuit symbol for the star-connection of windings in a generator or
transformer is shown in below, this symbol is rearranged to show the position
of the star point. Since 3 of the phase winding ends are joined at the star point,
then only one terminal (n) is required for these ends. Thus a star connected 3-
phase system requires a maximum number of 4 conductors to transfer energy
from source to load.
Figure 154: Star Point
3.13.3.1.2 Balance Condition 3.13.3.2 Delta Connection

In the balance condition, no current flows in the neutral line. In practice, a From the 2 methods of connection above, it would make sense to connect all
degree of unbalance must be tolerated, so a small current is to be expected. cells in a battery in a series/parallel configuration, this would provide the
Many equipment’s require only a single phase supply, so to avoid unbalance, battery with a high voltage and also a high current capacity with an overall
single phase loads are equally shared among the 3 phases. lower internal resistance. In this arrangement the power obtained from the
Severe unbalance occurs if one phase is disconnected, but unbalance is battery would be at its maximum.
greatest if full load is applied to only one phase. In the latter case, the neutral A delta connection is an arrangement in which the finish of each phase is
line current equals the full load current. The neutral conductor must, connected to the start of the next in sequence. Phases connected in this
therefore, be capable of carrying the full load current in a simple distribution manner form a ring and each point of connection is connected to a separate
network. If the distribution network operates at near balance, it is possible to terminal.
reduce the current rating of the neutral conductor. This technique involves
devices to disconnect the phase lines when the current in the neutral line
exceeds a predetermined value.
3.13.3.1.3 Line and Phase Voltages
It is possible to provide a choice of voltage to the consumer if 4 conductors, 3
phase and one neutral, are used for 3-phase distribution. The 2 voltages
available are phase voltage (line-to-neutral) and line voltage (line-to-line). The
phase voltage is measured between the phase line and the neutral line; it is
the voltage induced in the particular phase winding. The line voltage is Figure 155: Delta Connection
measured between 2 phase lines and is the phasor sum of the voltages induced
in the 2 phase windings involved. The magnitude of the line voltage is 1.73 (√3)
times the magnitude of the phase voltage. 3.13.3.2.1 Circuit Connections
3.13.3.1.4 Practical Values of Phase and Line Voltages This symbol is rearranged in figure to demonstrate the delta-connection. Since
the phase ends are paired from start to finish, then only 3 terminals are
From the previous paragraphs it is seen that a star-connected voltage
required. Thus a delta-connected 3-phase system requires only 3 conductors
symmetrical 3-phase system with a phase voltage of 230 volts can also provide
to transfer energy from source to load.
a line voltage of 230𝑉 ∙ √3 = 400𝑉.
For standardisation, as laid down in ATA (Airline Transport Association)
These values, 230 volts and 400 volts, are the normal voltages available to the Specification 100, line ‘b’ is always used as the return line.
consumer from the electricity supply industry in the United Kingdom. The most
common voltages in use on aircraft are 115 volts for phase voltage and 200
volts for line voltage.
3.13.3.2.2 Line Voltage

The voltages induced in the phase windings of a delta-connected system are
the line voltages.
NOTE
That only line voltage is available from delta-connected generators and
transformers.
In a delta-connected system the magnitude of the line current is √𝟑 times

the magnitude of the phase current.
This effect can be used to advantage in high current power supplies by
reducing the current carrying capacity requirement of the generator or
transformer windings.
3.13.3.2.3 Summary
In a balanced symmetrical 3-phase system the total power is 3 times the power
in one phase. This is a special case of the general statement which is – in a
balanced symmetrical N-phase system the total power is N times the power in
one phase. In a balanced star-connected system:
Figure 156: Delta Connection
• Line current equals phase current.
o 𝐼𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 = 𝐼𝑃𝐻𝐴𝑆𝐸
• Line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage.
Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive (L) Circuits CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive (L)

Circuits
3.14.1 R, C and L in AC Circuits
Introduction
Resistors, capacitors and inductors (coils) are important components in When resistances and reactance’s are connected in series, the same current I
electrical engineering and electronics. They occur in a wide variety of flows through all the components. The total voltage V is divided into
combinations and circuit variants, particularly in electronic circuits. component voltages VR and VC , and VR and VL.
However, many electrical devices and appliances behave as a load, which can Because of the phase shift, the resistive (active) voltage VR is always at right
be simulated by an equivalent circuit with resistors, capacitors and coils. The angles to reactive voltages VC and VL in the phasor diagram. Their geometrical
behavior of these components and their interaction is particularly important addition then gives the total voltage V across the circuit.
in operation with sinusoidal voltages:
When the resistances and reactance’s are connected in parallel, on the other
• with a resistor : the current and voltage are always in phase hand, the same voltage V is applied to all the components. The total current I
is divided into component currents IR and IC, and IR and IL.
• with a capacitor: the voltage lags the current by 90°
Because of the phase shift, resistive current IR and reactive currents IC and IL,
• with a coil : the voltage leads the current by 90°
are always at right angles to each other in the phasor diagram. The total
current I flowing in the circuit is consequently only obtained by geometrical
The phase shifts which occur can both be represented in graphs and in phasor addition of resistive current and reactive current.
diagrams. Phasor diagrams of voltages, currents, impedances and powers are Because the proportions are the same, the impedance, admittance and power
of particular importance in describing the interaction between resistances and triangles can directly be derived from:
reactance’s.
• the phasor diagram of voltages for series connection
In this case, a right-angled triangle occurs in every phasor diagram, so that the
mathematical relationships can be derived using Pythagorean theorem, which • the phasor diagram of currents for parallel connection.
states that, in a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares on the other two sides. The hypotenuse in a right-
The power consumed in the resistor is referred to as ’active’ (or ’resistive’)
angled triangle is always the side opposite the right angle while the other two
power P. On the other hand, capacitive reactive power QC occurs within the
sides enclose the right angle.
capacitor, and inductive reactive power QL in the coil.
The mathematical relationships in phasor diagrams, and consequently in AC
circuits, can also be described using sine, cosine and tangent trigonometric
functions.
Only the active (resistive) power can be used directly or is converted into heat Regardless of whether one is dealing with a series connection or a parallel
as a power loss. The capacitive or inductive reactive power which occurs, on connection, the following formulas hold good for the cut-off frequency:
the other hand, is required to build up the electric or magnetic field and is fed 1
back to the voltage source when these fields collapse. 𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝐶
The resultant of the active power P and the reactive power Q is the apparent or
power S. This is the product of total voltage V and total current I:
𝑅
𝑆 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼 𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋 ∙ 𝐿
The component of the apparent power S which can be used in practice is the Circuits in which resistances R, capacitive reactance XC and inductive reactance
resistive power P. This can be determined from the apparent power, using the XL are present at the same time are referred to as ’R C L circuits’.
power factor cos φ :
𝑃 = 𝑆 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
In RCL circuits, two special cases arise, when
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿
Series RC or RL circuits can be used as frequency-dependent voltage dividers. A
special case exists when, in such a circuit, the reactance XC or XL is of exactly
the same magnitude as the resistance R. at a particular frequency. The frequency at which this situation occurs is
The frequency at which this case occurs is referred to as the ’cut-off frequency’ referred to as the ’resonant frequency’ fr. At this resonant frequency fr, from
fc of the voltage divider. This cut-off frequency is of particular importance in an external point of view, the effects of the reactive components are cancelled
electronics in evaluating circuit properties. out, because VL numerically equals VC and they are 180° out of phase.
Parallel RC or RL circuits, on the other hand, can be used as frequency- Consequently, the behavior is determined only by the resistance. The energy
dependent current dividers. Here again, a special case can occur, where the stored in the reactance shuttles backwards and forwards between the coil and
resistive and reactive components have the same magnitude. The capacitor and is used for alternately building up the electric or magnetic field.
characteristic frequency at which this case occurs is also referred to as the cut- For this reason, RCL circuits may also be referred to as ’series oscillating
off frequency fc. circuits’ or ’parallel oscillating circuits’, depending on the construction of the
circuit.
The following holds true for the resonant frequency for both types of 3.14.2 Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in
oscillating circuit: AC Circuits
1 3.14.2.1 Pure Resistance in AC Circuits
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 When purely resistive components are used in an alternating current circuit,
Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws and the usual circuit rules of voltage and current
can be equally applied as in direct current circuits to both all instantaneous
This formula is known as Thomson’s oscillation formula. Resonant circuits
values and RMS values.
(circuits consisting of an inductor and a capacitor in series or parallel) are of
particular significance in electronics and in communications engineering. In the following, ideal conditions are considered and a circuit with pure
resistance is assumed.
A further practical application of RCL circuits is reactance compensation. Many
devices and installations operated with the AC mains show a behavior which
is referred to as ’mixed inductive’.
In this case, an inductive reactive component occurs in addition to the resistive
component. This results in an additional current load on the leads, stemming
from the reactive power shuttling backwards and forwards between the load
and voltage source, without performing useful work. For this reason, a
capacitor is connected in series or in parallel with the mixed-inductive load.
The existing capacitive reactance compensates the undesired inductive
reactive power, thereby reducing the current in the leads. Generally no
complete compensation is carried out, because of the peculiarities with
resonance. Improving the power factor to cos φ 0.8 to 0.9 is consequently a
good compromise between technical improvement and cost.
A further example of the interconnection between resistances and reactances
is the RC phase shifter, with which a phase shift φ can be set between 0° and
90°. If a phase shift φ of 0° to 180° is required, this will be possible with a phase Figure 157: Resistor in an AC circuit
shift bridge circuit. These phase shifters are both required and particularly
used in measuring instrumentation.
In the circuit shown in Figure 157 the sinusoidal voltage

𝑣 = 𝑉 · 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔 𝑡) is applied to the resistance R. At any instant, Ohm’s Law is
applicable in the circuit.
Therefore, current I can be determined from the expression:
𝑣
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 ∙ 𝑡
𝐼=
𝑅
Figure 158 shows that current and voltage rise and fall together - they are in
phase.
Since voltage and current in a pure resistive alternating circuit are in phase,
any similar measurement of V and I can be used to calculate R.
Therefore:
𝑉 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝑅=
𝐼 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Figure 158: V and I on a Resistor connected to AC
3.14.2.2 Pure Inductance in AC Circuits

If in an AC circuit only a pure inductance is arranged, the current does not rise Figure 159 shows an inductor connected to a sine wave source which causes a
or fall at exactly the same time as the voltage. The maximum current is current i to flow.
reached a quarter of a cycle later than the voltage, and it remains a quarter of
a cycle behind at all points in the cycle.
Although there is no such device as a pure inductance, the ideal is assumed for
the purpose of better understanding.
When the current through an inductance (inductor) changes, the following
effects will result:
• the magnetic field surrounding the inductor changes
• the changing magnetic field causes the lines of flux to cut the
inductor
• when the lines of flux cut the inductor a voltage is induced
• by Lenz’s Law this induced voltage opposes the applied voltage (back
EMF) Figure 159: Inductance in an AC circuit
• the magnitude of the induced voltage (back EMF) is proportional to

the rate at which the current changes (∆𝑖) in conjunction with time Figure 160 shows the rate of change of current i in relation to the sinusoidal
changes (∆𝑡): lapse. When the current waveform passes through the zero axis the rate of
∆𝑖 change is greatest, while at the peak values (both maximum and minimum)
𝑣 = −𝐿 the rate of change is zero.
∆𝑡
Figure 161 shows that the back EMF is proportional to the rate of change of
current, and hence has the same shape as the rate of current. However it is
reversed in sign because it always opposes the rate of change of current
(Lenz’s Law).
As the inductor is the only component in the circuit, the back EMF must be
exactly equal to the applied voltage. The waveform of the applied voltage is
thus equal, but opposite to the back EMF.
Figure 160: Rate of change of current Figure 161: Back EMF
When the current and the applied voltage waveforms are superimposed, it can This opposition to current flow is known as ’inductive reactance’ and the
be noticed that the voltage leads the current by 90° in a pure inductive circuit. symbol is XL. Like resistance, reactance is equal to the ratio of voltage to
current. The value of XL can also be calculated from the expression:
Inductance affects current flow only while the current is changing. In an AC
circuit the current changes continuously and the induced back EMF provides 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝐿 (𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠)
continuous opposition to current flow. Inductive reactance (XL) is proportional to frequency. Thus a graph of XL against
f must be a straight line, as shown in Figure 163.
This results in the following conclusions:
• for a given applied voltage, if frequency increases, reactance
increases and therefore current decreases
• at a given frequency, if inductance increases, reactance increases and
therefore current decreases
• at zero frequency (i.e. direct current) reactance is zero. An ideal
inductance offers no opposition to the flow of direct current.
Thus it follows: the reactance of an inductor increases as the frequency
increases and the provided inductance and supply sources remain constant.
Figure 162: Phase shift V and I on a Coil
Figure 163: Graph XL-f
3.14.2.3 Pure Capacitance in AC Circuits

In practice it is impossible to have a pure capacitive circuit because the As already mentioned, VC is proportional to the charge on the capacitor,
connecting leads and dielectrics inevitably have some resistance. This therefore changes in VC can only be brought about by a current i, which
resistance in relation to the reactance of the capacitor can be made so small removes electrons from one plate and deposits them on the other.
that this resistance can be ignored. ∆𝑉𝑐
Consequently i must be proportional to the rate of change of VC, i.e. ∆𝑡
When a DC voltage is applied across a capacitor, a current flow removes
electrons from one plate of the capacitor and deposits them on the other via At point A in Figure 165, VC is changing at maximum rate and therefore i must
the external circuit. A voltage VC across the capacitor and an electric field, be at maximum as shown at point B. At point C the rate of change of VC is
which stores the energy, are generated by the current flow (charge). momentarily zero and consequently the corresponding value of i is zero.
Superimposing of V on the graph i shows that the voltage lags the current by
When the resistance of the circuit is negligible, as shown in Figure 164, the
90° in a pure capacitive circuit, i.e. the phase angle φ is equal to 90°.
voltage V will appear only across the capacitor, and VC will be equal to u. Thus,
as u changes VC will also change. Current flows in a pure capacitive circuit while the applied voltage is changing.
Even then, the size of the current is only sufficient to adjust the charge on the
The voltage across the capacitor changes with the change of the supply source
capacitor so that the voltage across it remains equal to the applied voltage.
voltage, so if e.g. u is a sine wave, VC will also be a sine wave of the same
amplitude.
Figure 164: Capacitor connected to AC

Figure 165: Phase shift on a Capacitor
Since i is directly proportional to f and C, it follows that the resistance to The phase relationships in inductive and capacitive circuits are as follows:
current flow, known as ’capacitive reactance’ (XC), must be inversely
• in an inductor, voltage leads current
proportional to these quantities.
• in a capacitor, current leads voltage.
Therefore:
1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝐶
Capacitive reactance is equal to the ratio of voltage to current, in the same

manner as resistance and inductive reactance:
𝑉
𝑋𝑐 =
𝐼
Since capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, a graph of XC

against f will be as shown in Figure 166.
This results in the following conclusions:

• as frequency increases, reactance decreases and therefore current
increases
• as frequency decreases, reactance increases and therefore current
decreases
• at zero frequency (DC), reactance is infinite, i.e. a capacitor acts as a
’block’ to DC. Figure 166: XC graph
3.14.3 Resistances and Reactances in Single-Phase AC

Circuits
3.14.3.1 Series Connection of Resistor and Capacitor
3.14.3.1.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages
In the AC circuit in the electrical quantities which occur are the total voltage V,
Figure 168 shows the phasor diagram of the voltages with a resistor and a
the component voltages VR and VC, the total current I, the resistance R and the
capacitor connected in series.
reactance of capacitor C.
Current I is usually selected as a reference quantity. Voltage VR across the
Also of significance in this AC circuit is the phase shift angle, which describes
resistor is directly proportional to the current, and according to Ohm’s Law:
the phase shift between current I and voltage V.
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅
The relationship can be represented both mathematically and graphically. In
graphical representation, phasor diagrams or waveform diagrams are used. It
is absolutely essential to ensure that the quantities to be determined or
represented are always phasor quantities. A phasor, like a vector, has a
magnitude and a direction. The phasor properties of electrical quantities of an
AC circuit can be particularly well illustrated in a phasor diagram.
NOTE
The reactance of capacitor C is designated XC ; the phase-shift angle
between I and V is designated φ.
Figure 168: Phasor Diagram
Figure 167: RC Series circuit
Since, with a resistor, current I and voltage drop VR across it are in phase, in Waveform Diagram of an RC Series Circuit
the phasor diagram the voltage value is represented as a voltage phasor VR in
The relationship between current I and voltage V and component voltages VR
the same direction as current I.
and VC can also be represented in a waveform diagram.
It only differs in its length from the current phasor, because of the scale
Refer to Figure 167 again.
chosen.
Figure 169 shows the waveform diagram of an RC series circuit corresponding
The voltage across the capacitor VC can also be calculated with Ohm’s Law:
to Figure 167.
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑋𝑐
Voltage VC across the capacitor lags current I by 90°. Voltage VR across resistor
R, on the other hand, is in phase with current I, and the phase shift angle
1 between total voltage V and current I is between φ = 0° and –φ = -90°.
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 ∙
2𝜋 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝐶
The voltage across the capacitor lags current I by 90°. This phase shift is taken
into consideration accordingly in the phasor diagrams in Figure 168.
By parallel displacement of voltage phasor VC, so as to connect the starting
point of voltage phasor VC to the end point of voltage phasor VR, a right-angled
triangle is produced.
One of the sides enclosing the right angle of this voltage triangle is component
voltage VR. It is referred to as the ’resistive’ or ’active’ voltage.
The other side enclosing the right angle is component voltage VC, which is
called the ’reactive voltage’. The total voltage V is the hypotenuse of the
voltage triangle.
It is obtained from the geometrical addition of component voltages VR and VC.
It is referred to as the ’apparent voltage’ V.
Between current I and total voltage V there is a phase shift, whose angle is less
Figure 169: Waveform diagram
than 90° and whose sign is negative. Accordingly, the following applies to the
phase shift angle when a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series:
0° > 𝜑 > −90°
3.14.3.1.2 Mathematical Relationships between Voltages

Mathematical relationships between voltages can be determined by using the
phasor diagrams shown in Figure 168.
Geometrical addition of voltages produces a right-angled triangle, to which
both the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometry functions can be applied.
Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the voltages:
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 ⟹ 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2
3.14.3.1.3 Impedance Triangles

Ohm’s Law applies to AC circuits, as it does to DC circuits. The following
relationships therefore apply to a resistor and capacitor connected in series:
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐶
𝑅= , 𝑋𝐶 = Figure 170: Phasor diagram resistances
𝐼 𝐼
The voltages are thus proportional to the associated resistance or reactance, It can be seen from the impedance triangle that geometrical addition of
with the current which flows through both components acting as a resistance R and reactance XC produces an impedance which is proportional to
proportionality factor. the total voltage V. Impedance is the total opposition a circuit offers to current
flow, and is denoted by the symbol Z. On the basis of Ohm’s Law, the following
On the basis of this relationship, the phasor diagram of the voltages, which is holds true for the impedance Z:
shown in Figure 170.
𝑉
𝑉 =𝐼∙𝑍 ⟹𝑍 =
𝐼
3.14.3.1.4 Mathematical Relationships between Impedances

The Pythagorean Theorem and trigonometry functions can also be applied to
the impedance triangle. This gives the relationship:
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2
3.14.3.2 Series Connection of Resistor and Coil

3.14.3.2.1 Phasor Diagram of Voltages
When a resistor and a coil are connected in series, similar relationships as The phasor diagram of an RL series circuit is reproduced in Figure 172. Current
those obtained by connecting a resistor and a capacitor in series will occur. I is again chosen as the reference phasor. Component voltage VR is in phase
Thus, current I and voltage VR across resistor R in the circuit are always in with current I, whereas a phase shift angle φ = +90° exists between current I
phase. On the other hand, a phase shift angle φ = 90° between current I and and component voltage VL.
component voltage VL across the coil occurs again. In this case, the voltage
Displacing voltage phasor VL in parallel, so as to connect the starting point of
leads the current.
voltage phasor VL to the end point of voltage phasor VR, a right-angled triangle
will be produced.
Figure 171: RL series circuit
Figure 172: Phasor diagram voltages
The component voltages can again be determined using Ohm’s Law: Waveform Diagram of RL Series Circuit
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅 The time-dependent electrical quantities current I, resistive voltage VR,
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑋𝐿 reactive voltage VL and total voltage V are plotted together in Figure 173. It
can be seen that voltage VL leads current I by 90°, that voltage VR is in phase
with current I, and that a phase shift angle between 0° and 90° occurs between
The magnitude of the resistive (active) voltage VR only depends on: total voltage V and current I.
• the magnitude of current I

• the resistance value R
The magnitude of the inductive reactive voltage VL depends on:

• current I
• inductance L
• frequency f
Total voltage V is obtained by geometric addition of component voltages VR

and VL. Depending on the frequency, a phase shift angle between 0° and +90°
occurs between current I and voltage V. Therefore the following applies to the
series connection of a resistor and a coil:
0° < 𝜑 < +90°
Figure 173: Waveform Diagram of RL Series Circuit
3.14.3.2.2 Mathematical Relationships between Voltages 3.14.3.2.4 Mathematical Relationships between Impedances
In precisely the same way as in RC series circuits, the component voltages VR Following relationships apply:
and VL in RL series circuits must be geometrically added to obtain the total
(apparent) voltage. According to the Pythagorean Theorem: 𝑉 =𝐼∙𝑍 , 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2 ⟹ 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐿 2
3.14.3.2.3 Impedance Triangles

Proportionality between the voltages and their associated resistance or
reactance exists in RL series circuits, too:
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝐿
𝑅= , 𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼 𝐼
Consequently the phasor diagram of the voltages can be converted directly
into an impedance triangle. Figure 174, shows the phasor diagram of the
impedance triangle.
Figure 174: Phasor diagram of impedance triangle
3.14.4 Power in RC and RL Series Circuits

Current I flowing in a circuit generates a power in the components. This power In the RC series circuit (detail a)), the capacitive reactive power QC lags the
is independent of time, since it is based on the effective value of the sinusoidal resistive power P by 90°. An apparent power S is obtained, which consequently
alternating current. lags the resistive power P with a phase shift angle between 0° and -90°.
On the other hand, the product of the instantaneous values of current and In the RL series circuit (detail b)), the inductive reactive power QL leads the
voltage give the instantaneous power. The work done is the product of power resistive power P by 90°. An apparent power S is obtained, which consequently
and time. leads the resistive power P with a phase shift angle between 0° and +90°.
When power and work are considered in an AC circuit,
• in reactances : only a reactive power Q exists, and
• in resistances : only a resistive power P exists.
Taking the phase shift into consideration, a total power will be obtained, which
is referred to as the ’apparent power’ S.
3.14.4.1 Power Triangle and Waveform Diagrams

The following relationships apply to the power in an RC series circuit and to an
RL series circuit:
• P = 𝑉𝑅 ∙ 𝐼 resistive (active or true) power in W
• QC = 𝑉𝐶 ∙ 𝐼 capacitive reactive power in W or var
• QL = 𝑉𝐿 ∙ 𝐼 inductive reactive power in W or var
• S = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼 apparent power in W or VA.
The power is directly proportional to the voltages, so that triangles are

obtained for the powers corresponding to Figure 175.
Figure 175: Phasor diagrams of power
Current I, voltage V and instantaneous power P are reproduced in the

waveform diagrams shown in Figure 176.
Detail a) represents the waveform diagram of an RC series circuit and detail b)

documents the waveform diagram of an RL series circuit.
It can be seen from the representation that only a small proportion of the
instantaneous power P lies under the time axis t, i.e. is negative. This means
that the reactive power returned to the voltage source during one half of the
cycle (i.e. it is negative for half a cycle) has not been entirely cancelled out by
the resistive power, which is always positive.
Figure 176: Waveform diagrams
3.14.4.1.1 Mathematical Relationships between Powers

The formal relationships between the powers can be derived from the power
triangles in Figure 175. Moreover, the formulas which have so far been used
to calculate power from current, voltage and resistance/reactance remain
valid.
The apparent power S of a circuit (or load with similar properties), connected
to an AC voltage, governs the current absorbed by the load and consequently
also flowing in the leads.
The resistive power P is an important component, since only this component
can be converted into other useful energy or generate heat losses.
Consequently the following relationship is particularly significant:
𝑃 = 𝑆 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
The factor 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 is referred to as the ’power factor’ and is a measure of the
proportion of the apparent power S which can directly be used. The greater
the power factor 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑, the greater also the proportion of resistive power P
to apparent power S. When 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 1, then P = S, and only resistive power
will be generated.
When reactive power is generated, it cannot be converted into usable power.
It will be absorbed when building up an electric or magnetic field and will be
fed back again into the supply source when the field collapses.
Since the reactive current increases the load through the supply leads, the
reactive power component should always be kept as small as possible.
Transformers CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.15 Transformers
3.15.1 Principle of Operation and Construction
3.15.1.1 Principle of Operation
As has been explained earlier EMF is induced in a conductor if the conductor The device which makes use of the effect that EMF is induced by an alternating
is moved through a magnetic field in such a way that magnetic flux lines are flux is called a ’transformer’. A transformer in its basic form consists of two
cut. Since this effect is reversible, EMF is also induced in a conductor if the coils fitted to a magnetic iron core, as shown in Figure 178.
conductor is fixed and the magnetic flux is alternating. These two coils are located so that one coil is cut by the magnetic flux lines of
the other. The windings connected to the source, are called primary windings
and those in which EMF is induced are called secondary windings.
Figure 178: Basic Transformer function
Figure 177: Transformer principle
The supplied voltage ’Vp’ (primary voltage) causes current to flow through the
primary windings thus producing magnetic flux lines in the iron core. The flux
linkage induces voltage ’Vs’ (secondary voltage) in the secondary coil.
If the secondary circuit is closed, that means a load is connected to the
secondary windings, current ’Is’ (secondary current) caused by the secondary
voltage ’Us’ flows through the secondary circuit.
Therefore, energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit without any electrical connection between the circuits.
Figure 179: Transformer symbols
The ability of a transformer to transfer energy from its primary circuit to its
secondary circuit by flux linkage is a function of inductive coupling or high
mutual inductance. This means that the inductance of each winding should be
as great as possible.
Figure 179, shows two symbols which are used in circuit diagrams to represent
a transformer.
The phase relationship between primary AC voltage and secondary AC voltage
depends on the direction of the windings with reference to one another. The
secondary voltage may be in phase with the primary voltage or both voltages
may be 180° out of phase with reference to one another as shown in Figure
180, detail a).
This is explained by Lenz’s Law:
The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the change causing it.
In some applications, this phase shift is of no consequence while in other
applications it is extremely important. Therefore the phase relationship
between AC voltages of different windings is sometimes indicated on circuit
diagrams by dots ’•’ as shown in Figure 180, details b) and c).
Figure 180: Phase-shift on a Transformer
3.15.1.2 Construction
3.15.1.2.1 Transformer Core
For maximum transfer of power from the primary to the secondary of the Since the reluctance of air is very great and its permeability small, the
transformer the flux linkage must be complete; that means, all lines of force installation of a soft steel core of high permeability into the transformer
set up by the primary winding must be linked to the secondary winding. increases the flux linkage between the coils and facilitates a high percentage
For this reason, the secondary is often wound directly on the primary as shown of power transfer.
in Figure 181. A protective insulation separates the two windings. Even with the use of cores of high permeability, some of the flux lines will fail
to link the secondary winding and are effectively lost, constituting a flux
leakage which prevents the transformer from being a perfect conductor of
power between primary and secondary winding.
A well-designed iron-core transformer may affect 98% flux linkage, i.e. the
coupling coefficient between primary and secondary winding is 0.98.
Magnetic cores in large and most small transformers are made from steel
laminations, normally in the shapes shown in Figure 182, details a) and b).
Steels used for transformer cores are special alloys of iron and carbon with the
addition of a small percentage of silicon, or in some special cases, of nickel.
Typically a cold-rolled carbon steel containing up to 3% silicon is used.
NOTE
Silicon steels are used for reducing the hysteresis component of total
core loss, and a laminated structure is employed to reduce the eddy
current component.
The lamination thickness is dependent on the power supply frequency, for

50Hz or 60Hz applications this would typically be 0.3mm. Each lamination has
an insulating coating applied to one surface.
Lamination stacks for large transformers are held rigid by insulated bolts which
pass through the core and an additional insulated clamping frame. In smaller
transformers the core is riveted or simply held together by an insulated clamp.
Figure 181: Transformer core
Figure 182: Different Core forms
3.15.1.2.2 Forms of Construction

There are three principal forms of construction which cover all transformers
except for very specialized ones.
These are:
• the core types (Figure 183, detail a))
• the shell types (detail b))
• the toroidal types (detail c)).
The Single-Phase Core Transformer

The single-phase core type is an arrangement of U- and I-shaped steel
laminations. These are built up to form a rectangular core with the windings
wound around its limbs.
The Single-Phase Shell Transformer

The single-phase shell type has a laminated magnetic core which has a central
limb supporting all the windings and two outer limbs completing the flux path.
The Single-Phase Toroidal Transformer

The single-phase toroidal type has a ring-shaped core, often formed by Figure 183: Principle of Transformer construction
helically wound steel strip, resin-bonded to form a rigid structure. The whole
3.15.1.2.3 Application of Transformers
ring surface is wound by the primary and secondary winding with the low-
voltage winding nearer to the core. Transformers are widely used in electricity and electronics. For this reason
transformers have been designed to operate at voltages of 10,000V and more,
but they also operate at very small voltages, e.g. 2.4V.
3.15.2 Characteristics
3.15.2.1 Turns Ratio
In theory the voltage induced in the secondary winding of a transformer is It should be noted that the terms ’step-up’ and ’step-down’ applied to
proportional to the number of turns of the secondary winding compared to transformers always refer to the voltage level, never to the current level, nor
the number of turns in the primary winding. This is described by the formula: are they ever applied to power, which in any carefully designed transformer is
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝 taken to be practically the same in both primary and secondary windings.
=
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑝 Figure 185 shows an example of a transformer. In this case it is a multi-winding
transformer, i.e. the secondary consists of more than one winding and each
This equation may be written: winding provides a separate voltage.
𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝑁𝑝 The windings carry the designations s1 to s4 and for calculation of the individual
secondary voltage the formula explained before is valid.
Example: If 250 V AC is applied to the primary winding, the voltage induced in
the secondary winding is assumed to be:
𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝑁𝑠 250𝑉 ∙ 1000
𝑉𝑠 = = = 1000𝑉
𝑁𝑝 250
The expression Ns/Np or Vs/Vp is called the ’turns ratio’ of a transformer and
may be expressed as a single factor. In the example shown in Figure 184 the
transformer has 250 turns in the primary winding and 1,000 turns in the
secondary winding.
Thus, the turns ratio is 4 : 1 or 4.
A transformer in which the voltage induced in the secondary winding is greater
than the voltage supplied to the primary winding is called a step-up
transformer. A step-down transformer is one in which the voltage induced in
the secondary winding is less than the voltage supplied to the primary winding.
Figure 184: Transformer ratio
Figure 185: Multi winding transformer
In the transfer of electrical power across an ideal transformer, the power As the ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the turns ratio:
absorbed by the primary winding is equal to the power delivered by the 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
secondary winding. =
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
Hence:
the ratio of current in the primary winding to current in the secondary winding
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃𝑠 is equal to
Where: 𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝
=
𝑃𝑝 = primary power 𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠
𝑃𝑠 = secondary power. This means a transformer which steps up voltage, must at the same time step
down current, and vice versa. This indicates that the current ratio is inversely
proportional to the turns ratio.
In an ideal transfer of energy from generator to load (primary to secondary 𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
winding), the load appears as a pure resistance to the generator, and the = =
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝
apparent power is equal to the true power. Therefore, the power factor of the
transformer is 1 and the phase angle is 0°. Thus, the power on either side of
the transformer is equal to the volt-amperes, or:
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝐼𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝐼𝑠
Figure 186: Power on a Transformer
3.15.2.2 Losses and Efficiency

Losses occur because of hysteresis loss, core saturation, eddy currents and Eddy currents can be reduced by using many sheets of metal for the core
copper loss. rather than using a solid block of metal.
3.15.2.2.1 Hysteresis Loss 3.15.2.2.4 Copper Loss
When iron is not magnetized, its magnetic domains are arranged in a random Another type of loss present in all transformers is called ’copper loss’. This loss
pattern. However, if a magnetizing force is applied, the domains line up with is caused by the DC resistance of the copper wire in the primary and secondary
the magnetic field. When the magnetic field reverses, the domains must windings. A transformer winding can consist of hundreds of turns of fine
reverse their direction also. copper wire.
In a transformer, the magnetic field reverses direction many times each Because of the length of the wire and its tiny cross-sectional area, the DC
second in step with the applied AC signal. Thus, the domains must reverse their resistance can be quite high. As current flows through this resistance, some
direction many times each second. When reversing direction, the domains power is dissipated in the form of heat.
must overcome friction and inertia. In doing this, a certain amount of power is
The amount of power can be determined by the formula:
dissipated in the form of heat. This power loss is referred to as a hysteresis
loss. 𝑃 = 𝐼2 ∙ 𝑅
In some materials, the hysteresis loss is quite high. Soft iron normally has a For this reason, another name for copper loss is: Thermal looses
high hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loss in steel is generally lower. Some large
power transformers use a special type of metal called ’silicon steel’ because it
has a low hysteresis loss. 3.15.2.2.5 Efficiency
3.15.2.2.2 Core Saturation Every transformer has a certain power loss. Due to this fact, the amount of
power applied to the primary of the transformer must be greater than the
Soft iron cores exhibit losses due to saturation, that is, the number of flux lines power which is necessary at the secondary. Thus, the efficiency of a
in the core reaches a point at which an increase in current causes no additional transformer is always less than 100% but greater than 95%.
magnetization.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of output power to input power:
3.15.2.2.3 Eddy Currents
𝑃𝑠
The cores of power transformers are generally made of soft iron or steel. 𝜂(%) = ∙ 100
𝑃𝑝
Because iron and steel are good conductors, a current is induced in the core
when the core is subjected to a moving magnetic field. As stated already, a
moving magnetic field is a requirement in all transformers. Thus, unless special
precautions are taken, large circulating currents are induced in the core of the
transformer. These currents are called eddy currents.
3.15.2.3 The Autotransformer

In some transformer applications no separate primary and secondary windings
are provided. A single-tapped winding is used which acts as the equivalent of
a double-wound transformer.
In such special types of transformers or ’autotransformers’, as they are called,
there is no isolation between primary and secondary. A single continuous coil
is wound around the core. In the step-up transformer, represented in Figure
187, detail a), the primary winding Np is formed by one part of the entire
winding whereas the secondary winding Ns is formed by the complete coil.
In detail b), a step-down transformer is shown whose primary winding Np is
formed by the complete winding whereas one part of the whole coil serves as
secondary winding Ns.
When an autotransformer is used as step-up transformer, all primary windings
form part of the secondary windings, and when an autotransformer is used as
step-down transformer, all secondary windings form part of the primary
windings.
Voltages across the individual windings follow the turns ratios, as stated
already when explaining transformers in general. Regarding autotransformers
it must be considered that there are parts of the whole winding through which
both currents, the primary as well as the secondary, are flowing. Since both
currents flow in opposite directions through this common part, this portion
only carries the difference between both these currents.
This autotransformer characteristic provides substantial saving in copper,
leading to a reduction in cost and weight.
A disadvantage of this type of transformer is that the secondary circuit is not
electrically isolated from the primary circuit. In a normal transformer, the only
connection between source and load is the magnetic coupling.
Figure 187: Autotransformer
Filters CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.16 Filters
3.16.1 Introduction 3.16.2 Types of Filter
A filter is a network of inductors and capacitors, which attenuates different There are 4 types of filter, classified according to the function they perform,
frequencies by different amounts. The networks are therefore reactive, i.e. as follows:
frequency dependent. They are designed to give the required attenuation and • Low-pass
also form a correct impedance match between the source and load.
• High-pass
3.16.1.1 Pass-band
• Band-pass
This is the range of frequencies over which the attenuation is ideally zero.
• Band-stop
3.16.1.2 Stop-band
This is the range of frequencies over which the attenuation is a maximum
(ideally infinite), i.e. the filter presents high impedance. It is sometimes known 3.16.2.1 Low-Pass Filters
as the attenuation-band.
A low-pass filter attenuates signals higher than a specified frequency (fc) and
3.16.1.3 Cut-off Frequency passes signals lower than a specified frequency. The diagram below show a
simple, low-pass filter (called a half-section) and the ideal characteristic.
The cut-off frequency (fc) is the frequency which separates a pass-band from
a stop band.
Figure 188: Low-Pass Filter characteristic
3.16.2.1.1 RC Low Pass Filter 3.16.2.2 High Pass Filters

1 High-pass filters attenuate signals lower than a specified frequency and pass
At low frequencies 𝑋𝐶 = is high.
2𝜋∙𝑓∙𝐶
signals higher than a specified frequency. The diagram shows a half section
The output voltage Vout taken across C is therefore high. and the ideal characteristic.
At high frequencies XC is small, hence VC is small. Therefore, the output across With the reactive components swapped around the circuit behaves in an
C is also small. opposite sense to a low pass filter.
Figure 189: RC-Low-Pass Filter
3.16.2.1.2 RL Low Pass Filter

At low frequencies 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝐿 is small.
The output voltage Vout taken across R is therefore high.
At high frequencies XL is large, hence VL is small. Therefore, the output across
R is also small.
Figure 191: High Pass filter characteristics
Figure 190: RL-Low-Pass Filter
3.16.2.2.1 RC High Pass Filter 3.16.2.3 Band Pass Filters

As shown in the diagram a band pass filter attenuates all frequencies except a
specified band.
Figure 192: RC High Pass Filter
Figure 194: Band Pass Filters characteristics

3.16.2.2.2 RL High Pass Filter
3.16.2.3.1 RCL Series Band Pass Filter
R, C and L are connected in series. The output voltage is connected parallel to
the resistor. At resonance-frequency, the complete voltage will drop the
resistor, hence the circuit will have no voltage drop over C-L.
Figure 193: RL-High-Pass Filter
Figure 195: RCL Series Band Pass Filters
3.16.2.4 Band- Stop Filters

As shown in the diagram below, a band-stop filter attenuates all frequencies With the reactive components swapped around the circuit behaves in an
within a specified band only and passes all other frequencies. opposite sense to a band pass filter.
Figure 197: Band- Stop RCL series
3.16.3 Circuit Symbols
Figure 196: Band- Stop Filter characteristic
Figure 198: Symbols for Filter Circuits
AC Generators CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.17 AC Generators
3.17.1 Types of AC Generators
3.17.1.1 Principle of Operation
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field as shown in Figure 199,
the lines of magnetic force are cut, and voltage is generated (induced) in the
conductor. This induced voltage is called ’electromotive force’ (EMF). EMF is
the name of the force which maintains a potential difference between the
terminals of batteries or electric generators.
When the conductor is moved through the field in reverse direction, EMF is
produced in opposite direction. Because EMF is produced only when a
conductor is moved through the magnetic field, that means, only when field
lines are cut, hence the following basic rule can be stated:
If lines of magnetic force are cut by a conductor, a voltage is induced in this
conductor.
The induced voltage produces a current. The direction of this current depends
on the direction of the conductor’s motion through the magnetic field and can
be determined using the right-hand rule.
Figure 199: AC Generator principle of Operation
To continuously generate EMF a loop of wire rotates around an axis within a The voltage at the slip rings is the sum of the two voltages which are induced
magnetic field. The loop is turned around an imaginary axis and provides a in the two parts of the loop and are represented in Figure 201 by the two
continuously changing induced voltage. This is the basic principle of EMF arrows V1 and V2. The reason for the addition of the two voltages V1 and V2 is
generation by a generator. the fact that the two parts of the loop move through the magnetic field in
opposite directions. Thus the two voltages which are generated have opposite
The method of producing electrical energy by voltage induction is shown in
directions.
Figure 200. The loop rotates in a magnetic field. The ends of the loop are
connected to two slip rings which are insulated from each other. Two brushes
on the slip rings allow the voltage to be fed to the voltmeter and any load.
Figure 200: Basic Principle of EMF Generation
Figure 201: Simple AC Generator
When a conducting loop is moved through a magnetic field as shown in Figure

201, a voltage is generated in the conductor. The amount of the generated
voltage depends on the magnitude of the magnetic flux ’Φ’ which is cut by the
conducting loop, the velocity ’v’ of the loop moving through the magnetic field
and the number of windings (loops) of which the conductor is composed.
The instantaneous amount of EMF induced in each winding depends on the
angle at which the field lines are cut by the conducting loop. If the conductor
moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic lines of force (0° position) no
voltage will be induced since no cutting of flux occurs under these conditions.
If the conductor moves at right angles to the direction of the lines of magnetic
force (90° position) the maximum value of voltage will be induced.
Since the conducting loops rotate within the magnetic field the angle at which
the lines of force are cut increases from 0° to 90°. Thus the induced voltage
increases from 0V to its maximum value. If the loop has passed the 90° position
the induced voltage will decrease because the angle at which the field lines
are cut is decreasing. The value of the induced voltage will be zero when the
loops have turned about 180° (180° position).
If the windings turn from 180° to 360° (0°) the induced voltage will have
opposite direction because the field lines will now be cut in opposite direction
(right-hand rule).
Figure 202: Generation of AC voltage
3.17.1.2 AC Generators (Alternators)

An AC generator consists of two main components:
• The ’rotor’ is the rotating part which is turned by mechanical energy
(Figure 203, detail a))
• The ’stator’ is the fixed part of the generator (detail b)).
In practice electromagnets are employed in order to produce the magnetic

field. The advantage of using electromagnets in order to produce a magnetic
flux is that the EMF can be controlled by variation of the field strength. More
current flowing through the field windings increases the magnetic field;
therefore the EMF increases, too.
In AC generators, usually the magnetic field rotates and the component in
which the alternating voltage is induced stands still. The advantage of this
construction is that alternating current, which may be large, can be drawn
from fixed terminals and need not be collected from brushes. In order to
produce the rotating magnetic field a relatively small exciting current must be
fed to the electromagnet via the sliprings.
Figure 203: AC Generator construction
Figure 204: AC Generator Working Principle
Normally, the practical application of an AC generator is the three-phase Figure 206 shows the arrangement of a ’three-phase synchronous generator’.
generator. As shown in Figure 205 a, three identical windings are arranged in This is the most important type of AC generator. Three windings spaced at 120
the stator at an angle of 120° to each other. During rotation of the rotor its N degrees are accommodated in the stator. The rotor, often driven by a turbine,
and S poles pass the stator windings 1, 2 and 3. This causes an alternating is fitted with an excitation winding, which is powered by a DC source via the
voltage to be induced in each winding. The time pattern of these three slip rings.
alternating voltages is shown in Figure 205 b. The voltages are 120° apart (one
The DC source normally is obtained from a small DC generator, mounted on
third of a revolution) and thus not in phase.
the same shaft as the synchronous generator. When the excitation winding is
rotated, a voltage is induced in the stator windings as previously explained.
The three-phase AC voltage is provided at the terminal connections U, V, W
which are contained within a terminal box. The machine shown in Figure 206
is equipped with a rotor which has one north pole and one south pole when
the DC source is connected.
This type of machine is termed ’two-pole machine’, which means it has one
pair of poles. The number of pole pairs determines the frequency of the AC
voltage supplied to the terminal box. The frequency of an AC generator is
proportional to the number of revolutions per minute of the rotor.
If the rotor is equipped with a magnet system consisting of two pole pairs (two
north poles and two south poles) two induction periods occur during each
revolution. Consequently, two periods of AC are produced during one
complete revolution.
Machines which are equipped with more than one pole pair on their rotor are
called 4-pole, 8-pole or 16-pole machines according to the number of pole
pairs established. The number of pole pairs and the number of revolutions
determine the output frequency of the AC waveform. The frequency can be
calculated by the formula:
𝑛∙𝑝
𝑓(𝐻𝑧) =
60
where:
𝑛 = revolutions/minute
Figure 205: Principle of a Three-Phase Generator 𝑝 = pair of poles.
Figure 206: Three-Phase Synchronous Generator
Since the frequency is a fixed nominal value the revolution must be constant.
Consequently the amplitude of the generated voltage can only be changed by
increasing or decreasing the excitation current.
As shown in Figure 207 the ends of the three stator windings are identified by
the letters U, u; V, v; W, w. Terminal connectors u, v and w are connected
together whereas U, V and W are connected to the terminal box.
Figure 207, details a) and b) show the connections u, v and w at a point which
is called the ’star point’ or ’neutral’ which is normally connected to ground or
earth, as shown in detail b). Detail c) shows the standard circuit symbol of a
synchronous generator.
Figure 207: Synchronous Generator Circuit Diagrams
3.17.1.3 AC- Brushless Generators

Brushless generators were developed for the purpose of eliminating some of
the problems of generators that employ slip-rings and brushes to carry exciter
current to the rotating field.
The advantages of a brushless generators are:
• Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or slip ring wear.
• High stability and consistency of output, because variations of
resistance and conductivity at the brushes and slip rings are
eliminated.
• Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at the brushes
is eliminated.
The brushless generator’s operation is to use electromagnetic induction to
transfer current from the stationary components of the generator to the
rotating components and use a three-phase star connected armature. The
Figure shows a schematic of a brushless generator
Figure 208: Brushless generator function diagram
The permanent magnet, which is connected to the rotor, is used to induce an
alternating current into the stationary PMG three-phase armature winding.
The Generator Control Unit (GCU) rectifies the AC armature current to DC
voltage, which is applied to the exciter filed winding. The exciter field induces
an AC into the exciter armature. The exciter armature is connected to the
rotating rectifier, which changes the AC to DC for the main generator field
winding. The main field induces an AC voltage into the main generator stator
fields. The stator fields are induced with 115V phase voltage giving the 200V
between two phases.
AC Motors CAT B1&B2 – Module 3
3.18 AC Motors
3.18.1 Types of AC Motors
3.18.1.1 Description of AC Motors 3.18.1.3 Three-Phase Motor
The basic principles of magnetism and electromagnetic induction are the same 3.18.1.3.1 Major Parts
for AC and DC motors, but AC motors do not require any commutator for
supplying the rotor with energy, because alternating current changes its The major parts of such a type of motor are the stator and the rotor. The stator
direction rapidly and thus the direction of the produced magnetic flux is also (Figure 209, detail a)) is the stationary part of the machine. It carries the
changed. windings which are responsible for producing a rotating magnetic field. The
windings are placed in slots around the pole shoes.
There are three principal types of AC motors:
The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. In the example shown in detail
• induction motor (asynchronous motor) b) it consists of an iron core with longitudinal slots around its circumference in
• synchronous motor which copper or aluminum bars are embedded. These bars are shorted on
both ends by short-circuit rings, thus a current is able to flow through the bars.
• universal motor
Because the rotor looks like a squirrel cage this type of rotor is called ’squirrel-
cage rotor’ and the motor can also be called ’squirrel-cage
3.18.1.2 Induction Motor (Asynchronous Motor)
The induction motor, sometimes called ’asynchronous motor’, is the most
widely used AC motor. The induction motor can be designed as three-phase
motor or single-phase motor.
Both types of induction motors are built in such a way, that a rotating magnetic
field is produced by stator windings. The windings of the rotor are cut by this
rotating magnetic field and a torque is produced. The advantage of the
induction motor is that it does not require a commutator, thus most of the
troubles encountered in the operation of DC motors are eliminated.
Another typical feature is that this type of motor is particularly suited for
constant speed applications.
Figure 209: Major Parts of an Induction Motor
3.18.1.3.2 Principle of Operation

The generation of the rotating magnetic field can be explained using Figure The rotor rotates at nearly the same speed as the rotating field. The difference
210. Detail a) shows the structure of a three-phase induction motor including in speed is called ’slip’ and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous
the pole shoes which are labelled 1 to 6. Two pole shoes each form a pair of speed.
poles whose windings are supplied by one of the three phases marked a, b and
c.
Example: If the rotor turns at 1,750 rpm and the synchronous speed is 1,800
As shown in detail b), the three voltages are equal in amplitude but out of
rpm, the difference in speed is 50 rpm.
phase. At the instant of time shown as time ’0’, the resultant magnetic field
produced by the application of the three voltages has its greatest intensity in The slip then is:
the direction extending from pole 1 to pole 4. Under this condition, pole 1 can 50 𝑟𝑝𝑚 ∙ 100%
be regarded as north pole and pole 4 as south pole. = 2,78%
1800 𝑟𝑝𝑚
At the instant of time shown as time ’1’, the resultant magnetic field will have
its greatest intensity in the direction from pole 2 to pole 5 and, in this case,
pole 2 can be regarded as a north pole and pole 5 as a south pole. Thus, If the rotor rotated at the same speed as the magnetic field, no field lines
between instant ’0’ and instant ’1’, the magnetic field has rotated clockwise. would be cut by the conductors of the rotor, no EMF would be induced, no
current could flow and there would be no torque. The rotor would then slow
At time ’2’, the resultant magnetic field has its greatest intensity in the
down. The difference in speed just being sufficient to induce enough current
direction from pole 3 to pole 6 and it is apparent that the resultant magnetic
in the rotor is the result of mechanical and electrical losses in the rotor. When
field has continued to rotate clockwise. At instant ’3’, poles 4 and 1 can be
the motor is loaded the slip increases.
regarded as north and south poles, respectively, and the field has rotated still
farther.
At later instants of time, the resultant magnetic field rotates to other positions
while travelling in clockwise direction, a single revolution of the field occurring
in 1 cycle. This speed is known as the ’synchronous speed’ of the rotating field.
The rotating magnetic field generated by the stator windings induces a voltage
in the longitudinal bars of the rotor. This induced voltage causes a current to
flow through the bars.
The direction of the current flowing through the rotor bars produces its own
magnetic field whose direction depends on the direction of the flowing
current. The forces resulting from the reaction of the two magnetic fields
produce a torque which turns the rotor.
Figure 210: Principle of a Three-Phase Induction Motor
3.18.1.4 Single-Phase Motor

The usual voltage of 240 V is called a single-phase voltage (phase-to-neutral
wire). Therefore, motors which are commonly used in household appliances,
such as washing machines, refrigerators, pumps, kitchen machines and also
fan motors must be designed for single-phase operation.
These types of motors are called ’single-phase’ motors. Single-phase motors
are asynchronous motors and equipped with squirrel-cage rotors similar to
those used in three-phase motors.
The function of a single-phase motor may be compared with that of a three-
phase squirrel-age motor, if one of the three phases (L1, L2 or L3) is not
connected to the three-phase motor.
In consequence of the fact that one phase is missing, the motor is not able to
start by itself and a starting aid is necessary. After the motor has been started,
the rotor keeps on rotating. Refer to Figure 211.
A starting aid for self-starting of a three-phase motor, which is only connected
to two phases (producing a rotating field), is given by connecting one phase
via a capacitor C.
Figure 211: Single Phase Motor with Starting Capacitor
The single-phase motor is constructed with a main winding connected to
terminals U and V and an auxiliary winding connected to terminals W and Z.
The starting capacitor is switched on in order to produce a starting torque.
After the starting period of the motor the capacitor is switched off either by a
time relay R or by a centrifugal contact.
3.18.1.5 Shaded-Pole Motor

An important single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor. This type of single-
phase motor is used in applications in which power consumption is low. The
rotor is constructed as a squirrel-cage rotor.
The stator has salient poles which carry the main winding. A short-circuit
copper band is placed around a shaded portion of each pole, forming the
auxiliary winding for the starting period.
Together with the stator winding the short-circuit copper band forms a
transformer. The stator winding forms the primary winding and the copper
band the short-circuit secondary winding.
A part of the flux of the stator winding penetrates the copper loop and a
voltage is induced which drives a current through the loop. The current flowing
through the stator winding and the current of the copper loop are phase-
shifted. The two magnetic fluxes created by the two currents are equally
phase-shifted resulting in a common rotary field which enables the rotor to
turn. A single-phase motor which operates in a similar way is known as ’split-
phase motor’. Figure 212: Shaded-Pole Motor Principle
3.18.2 Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors, as the name implies, rotate at a speed which is
synchronized with the applied alternating current frequency.
3.18.2.1 Three-Phase Motor

The three-phase synchronous motor has three separate windings in the stator
which produce a rotating field like the stator of an induction motor. In a very
small synchronous motor the rotor may be a permanent magnet, but in larger
motors the rotor is an electromagnet excited by an external source of direct
current.
Figure 213 shows a synchronous motor which is excited by an external source
of direct current. The stator of a synchronous motor has the same general
form as the equivalent induction motor. It consists of a laminated soft-iron
shell with coils wound through slots on the inner surface.
The rotor of a synchronous motor consists of one or more pairs of poles with
concentrated or distributed windings supplied through sliprings and brushes
from a DC source. The rotor of the synchronous motor represented in Figure
213 consists of two pole pairs.
The magnetic field produced by the current flowing through the rotor windings
causes the rotor to run at the same speed at which the stator field revolves. In
other words, the rotor runs synchronously with the rotating stator field.
A synchronous motor is not able to run up by itself because it has zero starting Figure 213: Synchronous Motor exited by an Eternal Source
torque. Hence, this machine must be run up to operating speed by an external
drive.
When the rotor poles are almost in synchronism with the rotating field
produced by the stator they pull into step and the rotor runs at synchronous
speed. Since the motor turns at a precisely constant speed, it can be used to
drive an alternator through a differential gear system and thus to provide an
exact frequency of any desired value. For that reason, synchronous motors are
also used to change the frequency of alternating current.
3.18.2.1.1 Single-Phase Motor

Single-phase synchronous motors are available in miniature sizes and with
fractional horsepower. They are employed for driving low-torque paper
drivers, clocks and gramophone turn-tables.
3.18.2.1.2 Universal Motor

The universal motor is so named because it is a type of electric motor that can
operate on AC or DC power. It is a commutated series-wound motor where
the stator's field coils are connected in series with the rotor windings through
a commutator. It is often referred to as an AC series motor. The universal
motor is very similar to a DC series motor in construction but is modified
slightly to allow the motor to operate properly on AC power. This type of
electric motor can operate well on AC because the current in both the field
coils and the armature (and the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate
(reverse polarity) synchronously with the supply. Hence the resulting Figure 214: Universal motor diagram
mechanical force will occur in a consistent direction of rotation, independent
of the direction of applied voltage, but determined by the commutator and
polarity of the field coils
Universal motors have high starting torque, can run at high speed and are
lightweight and compact. They are commonly used in portable power tools
and equipment, as well as many household appliances. They're also relatively
easy to control, electromechanically using tapped coils, or electronically.
However, the commutator has brushes that wear, so they are much less often
used for equipment that is in continuous use. In addition, partly because of
the commutator, universal motors are typically very noisy, both acoustically
and electromagnetically
3.18.3 AC Motor Control

AC motors operate from AC power sources. The magnetic fields typically are
generated using coils on the rotor and stator, and the field movement occurs
naturally in the stator due to the alternating nature of the input power. These
motors are inexpensive to build and operate, reliable, and usually run from
standard line power.
The power supply frequency determines the speed of an AC motor, so if
operated from line power, the speed of rotation is always the same. Variable
frequency power drives control the speed of AC motors, but such drives are
expensive.
The rotation direction is controlled on the order of the phases applied to the
motor. If the order of two phase wires is changed, the rotation direction is
changed.
An AC induction motor consists of two basic assemblies - stator and rotor - and
is analogous to an AC transformer with a rotating secondary.
Induction motors are practically fixed speed devices. There is practically only
two methods to change the rotation speed of an AC induction motor:
• use frequency converter or
• use motor with separate winding for different speeds.
In some applications motors with dual speed winging are used. The
applications where accurate speed control is necessary, a frequency converter
is needed. A frequency converter can run a three phase AC motor at very wide
speed range quite well (the performance of motor is usually reduced outside
it’s optimal operation speed).
Frequency converter does not work with AC induction motors that are run
from single phase power source, because the operation of the needed motor
phase conversion capacitor is very frequency sensitive (works as expected only
at normal mains frequency).
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Tel.: +49 (0) 8105 77849 – 0
Fax: +49 (0) 8105 77849 – 13
Mail: [email protected]
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May 2021

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Training Manual

PART 66 Basic Training

Introduction to the Training Manual

Version : May 2021

AERO - Bildungs GmbH

3.7.1.4 Resistor Types and Identification ........................................... 47 3.10.1.2 Permanent Magnets.............................................................. 72

3.10 Magnetism .................................................................................. 72 3.12.2.2 Field Magnet System ........................................................... 110

3.10.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 72 3.12.2.3 The Armature ...................................................................... 112

3.17.1 Types of AC Generators ............................................................. 175

EASA Part-66 Knowledge Requirements

License M3.5 DC Sources of Electricity

M3.8 Power M3.11 Inductance/Inductor

M3.13 AC Theory M3.17 AC Generators

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

3.1 Electron Theory

Figure 2: Electron Shells (1) Figure 3: Electron Shells (2)

Ions 3.1.2 Electric current

Figure 5: Free Electrons

External Charge 3.1.3 Nonmetallic insulators

Figure 7: Insulators ( 5-8 electrons in outer ring)

Figure 6: External Charge

3.1.4 Semiconductors 3.2 Static Electricity

Figure 8: Semiconductors (4 electrons in outer ring)

Figure 9: Static Electricity

We can write this in equation form.:

Thus 1 ampere of current flowing in a conductor for 1 hour is equivalent to

3.2.3 Electron Theory

Figure 12: Conventional flow of current

Figure 11: Direction of electron flow

3.3 Electrical terminology

3.3.6 Specific Resistance 3.3.8 Charge

3.4 Generation of electricity

3.5.1.1 Primary Cell

3.5.1.2 Secondary Cells

Figure 14: Lead acid battery

3.5.1.3.5 Voltage and Specific Gravity Relation

Figure 15: Charge / discharge voltage versus time

Figure 16: Charge / discharge gravity versus time

3.5.1.4 Alkaline Batteries

3.5.1.4.3 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline

Figure 17: Liquid NC Battery Plate

3.5.1.5 Connection of Cells

3.5.1.5.3 Series/Parallel 3.5.1.5.4 EMF (Terminal Voltage) and internal Resistance

Figure 21: Series Parallel Connection of Cells

Figure 22: EMF / PD

3.5.2 Thermoelectricity Thermocouples

Figure 24: Thermocouple Measurement

Figure 25: Thermocouple Correction

3.5.2.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of

3.5.2.3 Thermocouple Construction

3.5.2.3.2 Sealed and Grounded to Sheath

3.5.3 Photocells / Photovoltaic Cells

Figure 28: Solar Cell P/N- Junction

Figure 29: Solar Cell Electron Flow

Figure 31: Voltage Drop at a Resistor

Figure 33: Voltage Measurement

3.6.1.2.2 Voltage Units 3.6.1.3 Resistance

Pronounced millivolt Volt Kilovolt

Multiplier 0.001 1 1,000