Ministry of Education

Psychological Foundations of Learning &

Development: Child and Adolescent

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 December 2013

Addis Ababa
Ministry of Education
Module Title: Psychological Foundations of
Learning & Development: Child and
Adolescent
Prepared by: Mekelle University
Module Writers: Nigusse W/Mariam, Tsegay Girmay,
& Getachew Teferi (PhD)
Technical Advisor: PRIN International Consultancy &
Research Services PLC

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 Course Title: Psychological foundations of learning and development

Course code:

Credit hours: 3cr. hrs

Contact hours: 4 hours a week for 3 months

Contents
UNIT ONE: DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF LEARNERS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE............................2
Physical Development.............................................................................................................................3
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.....................................................................................................................9
Moral Development..............................................................................................................................13
Gender Development............................................................................................................................18
Unit Two: Learning and Behavior Development........................................................................................19
Introduction:......................................................................................................................................19
Unit Learning Outcome......................................................................................................................19

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 Instructional Resources.....................................................................................................................20
Approaches and Modalities of Unit Delivery.....................................................................................20
Unit Assessment Techniques.............................................................................................................21
Section 2.1: Behaviorist learning theories (design instruction, teaching, classroom management and
behavior modification)......................................................................................................................22
Lesson 2.1.1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING...............................................................................................22
Lesson 2.1.2: Operant Conditioning...................................................................................................24
Section 2.2: Cognitive learning theories................................................................................................25
Section 2.3: Learning in school settings: aids, gains and losses.........................................................37
Lesson 2.3.1: Behaviorism in the classroom..........................................................................................38
Procedural memory............................................................................................................................46
Declarative memory..........................................................................................................................46
• Demonstrations of student’s declarative memory such as describing a basic principle of math....46
Episodic.............................................................................................................................................46
• Information encoded in our episodic memory is in the form of images.........................................46
Semantic memories............................................................................................................................46
Semantic memories are our memories for general facts and concepts. Most of what we learned in
school (instructional content) is stored in our semantic memories...................................................46
Unit Summary....................................................................................................................................48
Reference..........................................................................................................................................48
Unit Three..................................................................................................................................................50
Student Support: Guidance and Counseling..............................................................................................50
Guidance and Counseling in Schools.....................................................................................................54
Types of Guidance and Counseling in schools...................................................................................57
Techniques............................................................................................................................................67

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 UNIT ONE: DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF LEARNERS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR PRACTICE

Introduction:

This unit deals with concept of growth and development, stages of development, determinants of,
dimensions of development in general and relates these with the developmental profiles of the
students and their implications for learning. The major domains of development we need to study
as secondary school teachers are changes of the body and its different parts (i.e. physical
development), the growth of the mind (i.e. cognitive development), improvement of relations
with others (i.e. social development), changes in emotional control (i.e. emotional development),
understanding and acceptance of moral values (i.e. moral development), and changes in identity
(i.e. personality development). As high school teachers, we need to develop grasp of the salient
features of these changes, how they affect students’ learning, and how we can facilitate learning
to occur in a better way.

Objectives: Upon completion of this unit, the students shall


 Understand concepts of growth and development, dimensions, stages, and determinants of
development
 Understand major developmental changes, factors affecting these changes
 Explain the implications of these changes for classroom teaching and learning
 Appreciate the importance of developmental changes in structuring the teaching act
 Use these changes as a foundation to design, plan , and conduct the teaching and learning act

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 Unit Contents and sub-contents:
.1.1. Physical development
.1.2. Cognitive development
.1.3. Social development
.1.4. Gender development
.1.5. Moral development

The Adolescent Period (short preview)

Adolescent is a period of transitions from childhood to early adult hood, starting at the
approximately,10 to 12 years of age and ending at about 18 to 22 years of age. Adolescence
begins with rapid physical changes–dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body
counter and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of breast,
development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. At this point in development,
the pursuit of independence and identify are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and
idealistic. More time is spent on outside of the family.

Physical Development
Activity 1.2

Brainstorming

 What is physical development?

One of the distinguishing developments experienced at the adolescent period is related to

physical development. Physical development,as you might have seen in your previous courses,is
a development related the changes in height,weight, body muscles and other body changes. The
changes could be explained either quantitatively like in terms of changes in weight (kilograms)
or qualitatively such as the changes in the strengths of body muscles. However compared to
other developmental aspects, the physical development is easily measured with simple tools such
as a scale or a tape measure, other developmental dimensions are more difficult to
quantify.During adolescent growth spurts, the arms and legs also lengthen and eventually

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become proportional to the rest of their body.However, teens may suddenly feel awkward and
uncoordinated during this time because growth does not always occur at a perfectly proportional
rate. And, there seems to be differences in the physical development among the male and female
children.

1.1. Differences in the Physical developments male and female adolescents

Research evidenced that, the body mass of boysgreatly increased during adolescence due to the
rising levels of male hormones, such as testosterone, that cause an increase in muscle mass. In
general, boys' straight-lined, square bodies become broader at the shoulders and more tapered at
the waist, forming the familiar triangular shape of adult males. Particularly, the arms and the
legs of the body become strong and bulkier. However, this is not always true. Heredity, nutrition,
and muscle-building exercise can influence muscular development of the children which
ultimately lead the differences in body development among male children. For example,
adolescents that play sports, lift weights, or routinely workout in other ways are likely to gain
muscle mass.

What do you think is the consequences of the differences in physical development among
the boys?

Like what the male counter parts, teen girls continue to develop muscle mass while also adding
body fat. During adolescence, it is consistently confirmed that girls' percentage of body fat will
increase, relative to muscle mass. This additional fat is deposited in their body's midsection
(hips, buttocks, and chest). Girls' straight-lined, square bodies become wider and broader at the
hips, buttocks, and chest, forming the familiar hour-glass shape of adult females. The emergence
of such manifestations in the female body has many implications. Often, it is consistently
confirmed that teen girls feel uncomfortable or upset during this growth phase because of the
increase in body fat. Girls should be encouraged to view this change to their body composition in
a positive light: as yet another indication they are becoming young women. While girls may feel

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"fat" during this maturation process, it may be helpful for them to understand that some
additional body fat is necessary for women to have healthy pregnancies and in order to nurse
babies.

1.2. Some manifestations of physical developments in the Adolescent

period
1.2.1. Improved motor skills

As adolescents continue to mature they become better able to move their bodies with greater skill
and precision. And, the development of the motor skills could be either gross motor skills or fine
motor skills. The difference between the gross and fine motor skills is that in the gross motor
skills there is large muscle movements of the body (e.g. muscles used while running), where as
in the fine motor skills there is a development in the tiny and precise muscle movements (e.g.
muscles used while keyboarding or texting). Relative to boys, adolescent girls make only modest
gains in their gross and fine motor skills until approximately 14 years of age. After this point,
they generally do not experience any additional improvement in their motor skills unless they are
specifically training for a sport or hobby which requires these skills. In contrast to girls, the
motor skills of adolescent boys continue to improve, particularly gross motor skills. Adolescent
boys rapidly gain physical speed, jumping strength, throwing strength, and endurance throughout
the entire period of adolescence, even into their early 20's.

1.2.2. Primary sexual characteristics

The development in the sexual characteristics is one of the physical developments observed in
the adolescents. Particularly, the change in height, body composition, and motor skills, the sexual
reproductive system triggers many changes during the transition from childhood to adulthood.
Young teens develop both primary and secondary sexual characteristics that are brought about by
hormonal changes. Primary sexual characteristics refer to the reproductive organs themselves;
e.g., the ovaries and testes. Secondary sexual characteristics refer to other characteristic

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indicators of adult male and female bodies (e.g., body hair). The development of primary sexual
characteristics indicates youth have become capable of adult reproductive functioning (i.e., the
ability to make babies).

The development of both primary and secondary sexual characteristics begins during late
childhood and continues throughout early adolescence. However, it is important to remember
that youth experience these changes at different rates and times. For more information about the
biological and hormonal changes that trigger these changes, and for suggestions about guiding
young teens through this process, please refer to the article on Puberty in the Middle Childhood
series.

For females, the most significant primary sexual characteristic is the first menarche, or first
menstrual period. The first menarche indicates girls have begun to ovulate; i.e., to release mature
eggs that can become fertilized by male sperm through sexual intercourse. The average age for
the first menstrual period is 12 years, but girls can reach menarche at any age from 10 to 15 years
old and still be considered "normal."

For males, the primary sexual characteristics include an enlargement of the penis and testes, and
the first spermarche; i.e., the first ejaculation of mature sperm capable of fertilizing female eggs
through sexual intercourse. The average age of first spermarche is 13 years, but it can occur
anytime between the ages of 12 and 16 years. On average, the testes will begin to enlarge at
about 11 years of age, but this growth can occur anytime between 9 and 13 years. On average,
the penis begins to enlarge around age 12, but this growth can begin at any age between 10 and
14 years. The penis reaches its adult size at about age 14, but this can occur anytime between the
ages 12 and 16.

1.2.3. Secondary sexual characteristics

Like primary sexual characteristics, secondary sexual characteristics are brought about by the
hormonal changes associated with the maturing reproductive system and include changes in body
hair and changes in voice quality. Young adolescents will notice hair growing in new places on
their bodies, such as their underarms and groins. While this process began during late childhood,
this hair continues to thicken and darken during the teen years. Teen guys will notice their facial

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hair continues to grow more quickly and more thickly, and they may notice hair growing on their
chest and stomach. This hair may continue to grow thicker until middle or late adolescence.

Teen guys will also notice their voices begin to deepen between ages 12 to 15 years. This
happens as their vocal cords grow longer, and their larynxes, or voice boxes, grow larger. The
enlarged voice organs cause deeper voice tones. Adolescent guys will notice their "Adam's
apples," grows larger during this period. This is because the enlarged larynxes push out the piece
of cartilage in front of the larynx. Everyone has this piece of cartilage, but it's not noticeable in
females because of their smaller voice boxes. This change can be unnerving for many guys
because at the beginning of this change, their voices may crack, or unexpectedly squeak during
speech. This can cause unwanted attention and can be embarrassing. Male adolescent voices can
continue to gradually deepen well into late adolescence.

1.2.4. Perspiration

As mentioned, the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics begins during
Puberty and is brought about by the increase of certain hormones. This hormonal increase
triggers many other changes as well. For instance, most teens will notice that their perspiration
becomes more odoriferous which can be quite unpleasant. While most people believe that the
perspiration itself is the cause of this unpleasant odor, it's actually bacteria feeding on the
perspiration that create the unpleasant odor.

Interestingly, perspiration arises from two different types of glands: the eccrine glands and the
apocrine glands. When most people think of perspiration, they typically think of a hot summer
day, or a strenuous workout. This type of perspiration is caused by the body becoming too warm.
To correct for this, the body begins to perspire to cool down. Perspiration coats the skin with
moisture and creates a cooling effect. This enables the body to maintain a safe, core body
temperature (approximately 98.6 degree Fahrenheit). This type of perspiration is produced by the
eccrine glands. These sweat glands are found all over the body and open directly onto the skin's
surface. The sweat that is produced from these glands is composed of mostly water and salts.
Bacteria don't grow very well in this type of sweat because salt inhibits the growth of bacteria.
Therefore the sweat that comes from these glands is odorless. Since this protective cooling

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function is essential regardless of size or age, both children and adults produce this type of odor-
free perspiration.

However, during puberty teens also begin to perspire from the apocrine glands. Unlike the
eccrine glands which are found all over the body, these glands are found within hair follicles, so
there are more of these sweat glands in places like the scalp, underarms, and groin, where hair
follicles are grouped more closely together. These glands become activated during emotional
responses such as excitement, happiness, fear, worry, and anger. The sweat produced by the
apocrine glands is milky in appearance, and is loaded with many different substances that
provide food for bacteria to grow. In addition to food, bacteria need a dark, moist climate in
order to survive. Therefore, the underarms, groin, and scalp where hair is concentrated, provide
the ideal climate for the growth of bacteria. It is these bacteria that put off the offensive odor that
people associate with perspiration. Daily bathing removes both the bacteria and its food source.

Implications for Teaching

What do you think are the implications of physical development of the adolescents to the teaching and
learning?

 Because the rate of physical development is so varied during adolescence, it often

becomes a source of difficulty and discomfort for youth
 And there could be children whose physical development is delayed due to some reasons.
And this is usually the source of frustrations for the children.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

What do you think is cognitive development?

Cognitive development, unlike the physical development, mainly emphasis the development in
thinking, reasoning, language and other cognitive processes of the human being. Particularly, the
cognitive developmental approaches place a special emphasis on how individuals actively

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construct their thinking. They also focus heavily on how thinking changes from one point in
development to another. There are many theoreticians that explain the cognitive development of
human beings. Jean Piaget is amongst others. Therefore, the section below discusses the stages
of cognitive development of the adolescent period.

1.3. Jean Piaget stages of cognitive development

Piaget's identified five characteristic indicators of adolescent cognitive development. These are:
1) formal operations, 2) hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 3) propositional thought, 4) the
imaginary audience, and 5) the personal fable. Therefore, the section below goes though these
stages and ultimately attempt is done to see the implications of these stages in to teaching
learning processes.

1.3.1. Formal operations

This stage is shortly termed as the ‘ what if ….’ . According to Piaget it is used to describe the
mental ability to imagine a hypothetical situation and to be able to determine a likely outcome,
without needing to actually observe or enact the scenario.

For instance, suppose a 7-10 year old child is asked, "What if there was a hungry dog in the
kitchen and Mother dropped a hotdog on the floor. What do you think would happen?" Most
children at this age will correctly guess that the dog ate the hotdog, particularly if they have any
experience with dogs. Piaget called this type of mental operation a "concrete operation" because
the mental operation represents a tangible, concrete circumstance that the child can easily
imagine since it is anchored to things that can be seen and touched in the real world: It is
concrete.

According to Piaget, the adolescent years are remarkable because youth move beyond the
limitations of concrete mental operations and develop the ability to think in a more abstract
manner. Piaget used the term "formal operations" to describe this new ability. Formal operations
refer to the ability to perform mental operations with abstract, intangible concepts such as
"justice" or "poverty" and to be able to estimate or describe the effect of these intangible
concepts.

1.3.2. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought

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In addition to the ability to perform abstract mental operations, teens become more scientific and
logical in the way they approach problems. Piaget called this methodical, scientific approach to
problem-solving, "hypothetico-deductive reasoning." Youth can now consider a problem, or
situation, and can identify the many variables that may influence or affect the outcome. They can
also estimate the most likely outcome if one or more variables are changed or manipulated. This
ability has very practical applications because it enables youth to select the most logical or
sensible solution to a problem.

To illustrate the value of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, consider the following example: A

teenage boy, Aaron, decided he'd like to surprise his Mom and bake her some cookies.
Unfortunately, the first batch didn't turn out so well- the cookies were burnt. In order to solve
this problem Aaron will mentally review the ingredients he used, and the steps he took to bake
the cookies. Aaron will consider the variables that typically cause burnt cookies such as omitting
a key ingredient, an improper oven temperature, or leaving the cookies in the oven too long.
Next, Aaron will imagine changing each individual variable in order to determine the most likely
cause of the burnt cookies, and he will subsequently decide what he needs to do differently. For
instance, Aaron may decide that the most likely cause of the burnt cookies was that he left them
in the oven too long. So, for the next batch of cookies Aaron will set the timer for a shorter
period of time. After the second batch is finished, he will then evaluate if this solved the problem
or whether he needs to change a different variable. However, if Aaron's younger brother James
were to try and solve the burnt cookie problem, James would try to change several variables all
at once, by adding more milk, changing the baking time, and changing the oven temperature.
This is because younger children cannot think about possible solutions to the problem without
trying out the solutions, and younger children do not know how to solve problems in a logical
and methodical manner by changing one variable at a time.

1.3.3. The imaginary audience and the personal fable

Not only do adolescents become more scientific and logical, but they also become better students
of observation and interpretation. By observing other people's behavior, expressions, comments,
and appearance they can interpret this information and make reasonable guesses about what
another person may be thinking, wanting, needing, or feeling.

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Unfortunately, these new cognitive abilities appear at the same time that younger adolescents are
struggling with insecurities about their changing appearance, changing identity, and changing
life experiences. All of these factors combine to create what Piaget called the "imaginary
audience." Teens may mistakenly believe that everyone around them is watching and judging
them, scrutinizing their every move, and can become painfully self-conscious as a result. The
concept of an imaginary audience helps parents to understand why their teenagers spend eons in
front of the bathroom mirror just to run to the store for a short task, or become incredibly
embarrassed over a seemingly minor mistake. Therefore, the imaginary audience provides an
example of the inter-relationship between cognitive, emotional, and social development.

While the ability to use abstract thought and keen observational skills enables youth to become
more attuned to others and more sensitive to people's needs, it can also lead to some new social
and emotional difficulties when youth use their new cognitive abilities to compare themselves to
others. Youth may feel exceptionally unique and different from other people, including their own
peers. Piaget called this the "personal fable." Many teens believe they have unique abilities, or
conversely, unique problems, different from anyone else in the world. Some youth feel as though
they are better, smarter, or stronger than others. This personal fable can lead to some devastating
consequences because these youth may take dangerous risks when they over-estimate their
abilities and believe they can "handle it," or mistakenly believe they are supreme and that bad
things cannot happen to them. This is why it is important for adult caregivers to continue to
monitor youths' behavior, choices, and decisions.

Conversely, other youth may feel as though they are dumber, weaker, and inferior to others. This
kind of personal fable can lead to feelings of sadness, frustration, and loneliness. If these
negative thoughts and feelings continue to strengthen, youth can become depressed or hopeless,
which can lead to other dangerous behaviors such as drug use, unsafe sexual activity, or even
suicide. Once again, these youth need their caregivers love, guidance, and support to help them
through these difficult circumstances. More specific information about emotional development
can be found later in this article.

From birth onward, the human brain continues to develop and mature. For adolescents, the
amount of information they can process continues to increase, but the rate of increase is not as

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great as it once was during the middle childhood years. Likewise, their overall fund of
information continues to build.

Memorization capabilities further expand. Youth can now recall a large amount of detailed
information such as lengthy, complicated, driving directions. Likewise, they can remember and
apply patterns or formulas such as when solving a complex calculus problem. Youth also use
sophisticated memorization strategies such as mnemonics to remember dates (e.g., "Columbus
sailed the ocean blue in fourteen hundred and ninety two"), or a musical tune or rhyme to help
them to remember lengthy lists (e.g., singing the names of 50 states). Furthermore, as youths'
capacity for memorization increases, the brain develops more efficient methods of organizing
information allowing for more rapid and accurate information storage, and subsequent retrieval.
This enables youth to recall information more easily, and to apply the information in useful
ways.

Piaget and Education

What are some applications of Piaget cognitive development to education

Indeed, Piaget was not an educator, but has contributed many works that enhance the
development of education. Therefore, this section will try to elucidate some of the applications of
the cognitive development to teaching and learning.

Take a constructivist approach: Piaget believed that children learn more when they active
and seek solutions for themselves.He opposed teaching methods that treat children as passive
receptors. Instead students learn better by discovering, reflecting on them, discussing on
them, rather than blindly imitating the teacher or doing things by rote.

Facilitate rather than direct learning: effective teachers design situations that allow
students to learn by doing. These situations promote students’ thinking and discovery.

Turn the classroom in to a setting of explorations and discovery:

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Moral Development
Moral development is another perspectives used to describe human development. Accordingly, it
has been the interest of psychologists and educationists.And, although there are many scholars
interested on the area, it seems that Lawrence Kohlberg and Jean Piaget are the prominent ones.
Lawrence Kohlberghas modified and expanded Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that
explained the development of moral reasoning.

Jean Piaget, after making an extensive study on children aged from 4 to 12, concluded that
children go through two distinct stages of moral development. These include

 From 4 to 7 years of age, children display heteronymousmorality, the first stage of moral
development in Piaget’s theory. Children think of justices and rules as unchangeable
properties of the world, removed from the control of the people.
 From 7 to 10 years age,children are in transition, showing some features of the first
stage of moral reasoning and some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and
some stages of the second stage.
 From about 10 years age and older, children show autonomous morality, the second
stage of moral development. They become aware that rules and laws are created by
people, and in judging an action, they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the
consequences.

LawrenceKolhober, against of the stages mentioned by the Jean Piaget, come to outline six
stages of moraldevelopment. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. In his Stages of Moral
Development, Kohlberg states that human beings progress from a Preconventional Level of
moral development (in which they refer to rules imposed by others) to a Postconventional Level
of moral development (in which they refer to rules imposed from within them).

Focus

"The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series of moral dilemmas were
presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario. The following is one example of the dilemmas Kohlberg presented"

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 Heinz Steals the Drug

"In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the
druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small
dose of the drug.The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper
or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong or right, but in the reasoning
for each participant's decision. The responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral
development

1. Preconventional Morality

Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are
also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and
absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge
actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the
best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at
this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

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Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making
judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty
and respecting authority.

Level 3.Postconventional Morality

Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other
people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should
agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 - Universal Principles

Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they
conflict with laws and rules.

Identification with Role Models that affects moral development of adolescents:

1. The first positive role model that any child should have is a parent. Nevertheless, many
parents fail to realize the value of modeling positive behavior to their children. They may try to
instill certain standards of behavior in their children, but children are more likely to imitate the
behavior they observe in a parent than to listen to any regulations that a parent hopes to impose
(see Reference 2). As a child grows into adolescence, his role models may be as diverse as
musicians, friends or even politicians. While his choice of role models may appear to be reckless
or misguided, he is likely to seek role models who demonstrate behavior that is consistent with
the types of behavior modeled by his parents or caregivers.

Peer Pressure

2. Peer pressure is often considered to be a negative force in the life of a teen. Indeed, most
teens will not choose to engage in negative behaviors such as smoking or premarital sex unless
coaxed to do so by her peers. Still, peer pressure often exerts a positive influence on the life of a

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teen. Often, teens will provide support to one another in times of stress. For example, if a teen is
considering committing suicide, her friends will usually be the first to tell her that life is worth
living.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned
with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do
versus our actual actions.
 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out
that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when
making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal
feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.
 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures
emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and
community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory
does not account for.

Gender Development
Some Basic Concepts

1. Gender Stereotyping: are general impressions and beliefs about females and males. For example,
men are powerful; women are weak. Men are good at mechanics; women are good nurses.
2. Masculinity and Femininity: Masculinity is a set of qualities, characteristics or roles generally
considered typical of or appropriate to a man.Whereas Femininityis a set of qualities, characteristics
or roles generally considered typical of or appropriate to a female/women.

Early adolescence is another transitional point that seems to be especially important in gender
development. Young adolescents have to cope with the enormous changes of puberty. These
changes are intensified by their expanding cognitive abilities, which make them acutely aware of
how they appear to others. Relations with others change extensively as dating relationships begin

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and sexuality experienced. As female and male experiences the physical and social changes of
earlyadolescence, they must come to terms with new definitions of their gender roles. During the
early adolescence, individuals develop the adult physical aspects of sex.

Unit Two: Learning and Behavior Development

Outline of the Unit
Unit introduction
Unit learning Outcome
Instructional Resources
Approaches and Modalities of Delivery
Unit Assessment Techniques and Strategies
Section 2.1: Behaviorist learning theories
Section 2.2: cognitive Learning Theories
Section 2.3: Learning in a School: settings, aids, gains, and loss
Unit Summary
Reference

Introduction:

Learning is an important dimension of development. This sub-topic deals with the meaning,
principles, outcome, and implications of learning employing a variety of theories including
behavioral and cognitive theories. It is expected that the way we teachers understand what
learning implies, affect our teaching approaches. And as we know, choice of teaching approaches
has effects on the quality of learning. Thus, you have to understand clearly from the different
theories what teaching implies, design and try out different teaching approaches and evaluate
how they facilitate effective learning.

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 Unit Learning Outcome

Upon completion of this unit, students shall be able to:

 Explain the general features (meaning, types, and factors) of learning

 Appreciate the importance of learning in shaping students’ development
 Use the behaviorist and cognitive theories to explain how learning occurs
 Design techniques to motivate and reinforce behavior, improve memory, and transfer of
training

Instructional Resources
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and slides for projection
 Communication flip chart to show concept mapping ,
 Handouts, professional articles, and Ministry of Education (MoE) directives
 Video or Compact Disc (CD) presentation devices,
 White board, Over Head Projector (OHP) or Chalkboard summaries.
 Printed materials or any available but relevant to the unit

Approaches and Modalities of Unit Delivery

 The general approach that will be used throughout the course time will be 'Experiential
Learning Cycle' where the trainee will be active participant in gathering, processing,
reacting or reflecting and transforming information into usable knowledge. Thus
interactive methods like brainstorming, question and answer, small group discussion,
demonstration, role play, independent reading and presentation by students, micro-
teaching with emphasis on media utilization will be used. There will be gapped lecture
with intermittent question and answer time.

Learners’ activities
 Actively participate in class room brainstorming and discussion sessions on various
learning theories and its favorable implication to classroom settings.
 Student will do document search and library reading on topics ‘how a learner can use
these learning perspectives into his leaning preferences individually and in groups to be
presented in class and discussed.
 Small group discussions and presentations

21
  Individually reflect on the types of learning theories (Behaviorists and cognivisits
conceptions and perspectives) by giving examples from their own experience.
 Argue on the psychological foundations for learning theories and its implication for
school settings and contexts
 Arrive at general agreement at the concepts, principles and classroom implications of
human learning and development theories.

Facilitators’ activities
 Prepare clear instruction for students on topics for reading and presentation
 Facilitate brainstorming, presentations, role plays and discussion sessions
 Present summary of basic understandings of brainstorming, presentations and discussion
sessions using available media materials like power point, overhead projection, white
board, chart or chalkboard presentations
 Organize different groupings with gender impartialities both in membership and
chairmanship of the team works.
 Show chart or diagram on topics that need to display the mind map and rational
structuring
 Keeping following of students learning progress in each sections/lesson

Unit Assessment Techniques

 Observation of classroom participation with check list of student activities like: asking
questions, giving comments, suggestions, errors made;
 Correction of papers presented;
 Correction result of short quiz at the end of the unit.
 Self, peer and group evaluation of presentations and assignments

Section 2.1: Behaviorist learning theories (design instruction,

teaching, classroom management and behavior modification)
Overview: You are to develop an understanding of the behaviorist theories, particularly classical
and operant conditioning, and use this understanding to analyze teaching. In your analysis, you
are also to consider the quality of learning that is facilitated by this teaching approach.

22
 Learning Outcome
After studying this section, you will be able to:

 Discerning elements of behavioral learning,
 Analyzing teaching using these elements,
 Identifying teaching techniques originating from the behaviorist approach (particularly
from classical and operant conditioning theories), and
 Evaluating how these techniques contribute in facilitating effective learning.

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Lesson 2.1.1: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
The concept of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936). According to Papalia, Feldman, & Olds, they define the classical conditioning as:

Classical conditioning is a type of learning which based on the association of a stimulus that does
not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does not elicits the response.

From the definition above, we understand that the key element in classical conditioning is
association. It means that if two stimuli repeatedly experienced together, they will become
associated. For example, if a student frequently encounters unpleasant stimuli in Mathematics
class such as unfriendly teachers, difficult questions, and a lot of homework, he may learn to
dislike Mathematics.

Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by accident. Originally, he wanted to study the
role of salivation indigestion. He measured how much saliva dogs produce when given meat.
After a few days in the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his laboratory started
salivating when the lab attendant entered the room with the meat dish, before meat was placed in
their mouth

This aroused Pavlov’s curiosity and he pursued the issue with more experiments. For example,
he sounded a bell just before presenting his dogs with food. After hearing the bell many times
right before getting fed, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. In other word, the
dogs had been conditioned to salivate in response to a new stimulus (the bell) that normally
would not produce salivation. The dogs had learned to associate the bell with food.

Types of Stimulus and Response

Stimulus is an observable environmental event that has a potential to exert control over a
behavioral response. A response is an over behaviour by a learner. Put it in a simpler way, a
stimulus is anything that can directly influence behaviour and the stimulus produces a response.
In classical conditioning, there are 2 types of stimulus and 2 types of response. They are
unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response
as explained in figure 4.1.

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 Classical Conditioning

Stimulus Response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) • This Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) • this

is a stimulus that can produce the is a stimulus that can produce the
response without any learning. • response without any learning. •
Example: Meat. Example: Meat.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) • Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus acquired the • When a response is produced by
ability to produce the response the conditioned stimulus, it is
because it was paired (associated) referred to as the conditioned
with the unconditioned stimulus. response. • Example: Salivation.
• Example: Bell.

Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning

There are 3 common phenomena in classical conditioning; they are generalization, discrimination,
and extinction. The descriptions for these phenomena are explained below.

Generalization Generalization occurs when similar stimuli to a CS produce the CR.

A student may generalize his fear to physics and chemistry tests
although he had performed poorly only on mathematics test. In
this case, the physics and chemistry tests were similar stimuli to
the mathematics test and they produced the CR by themselves.
Discrimination Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It refers to the abil-
ity to differentiate between similar stimuli. For example, a student
may feel fear during mathematics test but not during physics or
chemistry tests. This shows that the student is able to discriminate
between appropriate and in appropriate situations for a response.
Extinction Extinction is the process of unlearning a learned response because
of the removal of the original source of learning. In classical
conditioning, extinction is done by repeatedly presenting the CS
without the US. This action will decrease the frequency of
previously CR. Eventually, the CR disappears. In the example
mentioned above, if the student repeatedly passes the mathematics
tests, his fear of mathematics tests will disappear.

25
Lesson 2.1.2:Operant Conditioning

Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour

lead to changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur. Thondike (1874- 1949) was the
pioneer in studying this kind of learning. His famous formulation of Law of Effect lies at the heart of
the operant conditioning. The Law of Effect states that:

“Behavior that brings about a satisfying effect (reinforcement) is apt to be performed again, whereas
behavior that brings about negative effect (punishment) is apt to be suppressed.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the probability that behaviour will occur. On the
other hand, punishment is a consequence that decreases the probability behaviour will occur. Put it
another way, reinforcement will strengthen a behaviour while punishment will weaken a behaviour.
There are 2 forms of reinforcement and punishment as shown in figure 4.3.

Reinforcement
Reinforcement

Positive
Positive Negative Negative
Reinforcem
Reinforcement Reinforcement ent Reinforc

Section 2.2: Cognitive learning theories

Overview: It is true that some behaviors are acquired through classical and/ or operant
conditioning. But, there are aspects of our psychological makeup that can also be acquired
through cognitive learning. Cognitive learning theories expound the holistic nature of learning
rather than the reductionist approach. The four major theories are Bandura, Piaget, and
Vygotsky, and Bruner.

In this sub-topic, you are to revisit and sharpen your understanding about cognitive learning
theories, especially ideas by Albert Bandura, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Brunner; and use this
understanding to design teaching activities that enhance active learning in your class. In thinking
about the quality of the activities you design, you should consider concept such as active
learning, cooperative learning, peer tutoring, apprenticeship, contextual and situated learning

26
 Learning Outcome
After studying this section, you will be able to:

  Designing learning activities basing on the cognitive learning theories

 Assessing their effectiveness in facilitating active learning

Cognitive Psychology focuses on the study of how people think, understand, and know. They
emphasizes on learning how people comprehend and represent the outside world within
themselves and how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behaviour.

From a cognitive learning perspective, learning involves the transformation of information in the
environment into knowledge that is stored in the mind. Learning occurs when new knowledge is
acquired or existing knowledge is modified by experience. Among the main issues studied and
discussed by cognitive psychologists are:
• The cognitive theories present a positive view of development, emphasizing conscious thinking.
• The cognitive theories (especially Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s) emphasize on the individual’s active
construction of understanding.
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories underscore the importance of examining developmental changes
in children’s thinking.
• The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of cognitive processes.


In-text questions:

What are the differences between Behavioral and Cognitive perspective pertaining to human
learning.

2.2.1: The Theory of Bandura and Observational Learning Theory

Social learning theory extends behaviorism. Both behaviorism and social learning theory agree that
experience is an important cause of learning. They also include the concepts of reinforcement and
punishment in their explanation of behaviour. Furthermore, they agree that feedback is important
in promoting learning (Eggen and Kaucak, 2007).

Observational Learning
Most of the principles of the social learning theory were developed by Bandura (Papalia, Olds &
Feldman, 2007). Social learning theory believes that students learn by observing or watching and
imitating other people. This process is called modelling or observational learning.
According to Hinrichs, Observational learning is so common and so powerful” Hinrichs, 2004.

27
One of the most important examples is the effect of watching violent media and its effect on
developing aggressive behaviour in children.

The newer version of social learning theory is called the social cognitive theory. The change is due to
a greater emphasis on cognitive processes in learning. According to Bandura; “Both social and
cognitive factors play important roles in learning.” Bandura (1989).
There are 4 processes involved in observational learning. These include attention, retention,
production, and motivation.

Process 1- Attention: Before students can imitate a model’s behavior, they must pay attention to what
the model is doing or saying. For example, seeing a teacher writing from the same perspective as the
student see their own makes observational learning easier.

Process 2- Retention: To produce a model’s action, students must be able to store the model’s action in
their memory for future retrieval. Students’ retention will be improved when a teacher gives vivid,
logical, and clear demonstrations.

Process 3- Production To attending and remembering, students must be physically capable of

reproducing the model’s action. Here, the students need a lot of practice, feedback, and coaching before
they can reproduce the model’s action.

Process 4 - MotivationThe students must be motivated to demonstrate the model’s action.

Reinforcement can be use to encourage observational learning. For example, a teacher can use direct
reinforcement such as saying “Good work!” Alternatively, a teacher may want to use vicarious
reinforcement. In this case, a student may simply see other students being reinforced for a particular
behavior and then he increases his own production of that behavior.

Reciprocal Determination Model

Bandura developed a reciprocal determination model that comprises 3 factors. The factors are
behaviour, person, and environment as shown on Figure 4.7.

28
Figure 2.2.1: Interactions of 3 factors in reciprocal determination model

Behaviour, environment and person factors interact to influence learning. They influence and are
influenced by each other. For example, a teacher’s feedback (environment) can lead students to set
higher goals(person/cognitive) and these goals will motivate students to put more efforts
(behaviour) in their studies.

Activity

1. How would observational learning be useful to you as a teacher?

2. What are some contributions and criticism of the social learning theory?

2.2.2: The Theory of Piaget

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a biologist who originally studied molluscs (publishing twenty
scientific papers on them by the time he was 21) but moved into the study of the development of
children's understanding, through observing them and talking and listening to them while they
worked on exercises he set.

His view of how children's minds work and develop has been enormously influential,
particularly in educational theory. His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply
growing up) in children's increasing capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake
certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. His research has spawned a
great deal more, much of which has undermined the detail of his own, but like many other
original investigators, his importance comes from his overall vision.

29
He proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are
certain points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities. He
saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has
been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of
understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the school
curriculum. Whether or not should be the case is a different matter.

Piaget's Key Ideas

Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation

Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment,
which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.

Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.
Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without
the other.

Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.

Class Inclusion The understanding, more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or
sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called
dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of
animals includes that of dogs)

Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are
changed about or made to look different.

Decentration The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as
appropriate.
Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around
you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to
it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development.

Operation The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the
sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real
world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and adults can do
more in their heads.

Schema (or The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which
scheme) go together.

30
Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Characterised by
Sensori-motor Differentiates self from objects
(Birth-2 yrs)
Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a
string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise

Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to exist even when no
longer present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley)
Pre-operational Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words
(2-7 years)
Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others

Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks
regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour
Concrete operational Can think logically about objects and events
(7-11 years)
Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along
a single dimension such as size.
Formal operational Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systemtically
(11 years and up)
Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

The accumulating evidence is that this scheme is too rigid: many children manage concrete
operations earlier than he thought, and some people never attain formal operations (or at least are
not called upon to use them).

Piaget's approach is central to the school of cognitive theory known as "cognitive

constructivism": other scholars, known as "social constructivists", such as Vygotsky and Bruner,
have laid more emphasis on the part played by language and other people in enabling children to
learn.

And the combination of neuroscience and evolutionary psychology is beginning to suggest that
the overall developmental model is based on dubious premises. (It's too early to give)

2.2.3: GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt is a perspective focuses on the belief that human consciousness cannot be broken down
into its elements. This approach to psychology was founded on the concept of the gestalt, or whole.
Gestalt psychologists originated from the work of Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), and his students
Wolfgang Kohler (1887 – 1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886 – 1941) who have made substantial
contributions to our understanding of perception. Gestaltists pointed out that perception has
meaning only when it is seen as a whole.

31
(Plural „Gestalten”) is German for “pattern”, “figure”, “shape”, or “form”. It is used to refer to
wholes, systems and complete structures rather than the reductionist approach of seeking ever
smaller components of a phenomenon. In learning, opposed to the reductionism of behaviorism,
it concentrates on the way in which the mind insists on finding patterns in things, and how this
contributes to learning, especially the development of “insight”.

Figure 2.2.1 illustrated the gestalt perception which saw that the whole is different from the sum of
the parts.

Figure 2.2.1: Gestalt saw that the whole is different from the sum of the parts

Gestalt psychology is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the
brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies, or that the whole is different
from the sum of its parts. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses,
particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a
collection of simple lines and curves. Figure 5.4 shows an example of picture that contains the gestalt
theory.
The word Gestalt in German literally means “shape” or “figure”. Gestaltists performed many
researches on perception and human learning. They believed learning is the result from good
perception, which enable an individual to form correct concept in their mind. Later on they
proposed the principles or law for perceptual organization. Henceforth, we will discuss these
principles, which consisted of six principles, which are good form, figure or ground, similarity,
proximity, closure, and continuity.

i) The Law of Good form or Pragnanz

The word ‘Gestalt’ means ‘form’ or ‘shape’. Gestalt psychologists were of the view that
psychological organization will always be as ‘good’ as prevailing conditions allow. For Gestalt
psychologists, form is the primitive unit of perception. When we perceive, we will always pick out
form. Our perceptions are influenced by our past experiences. This principle is also called Pragnanz
Law. (Tan OonSeng et al., 2003).
ii) The Law of Figure – Ground Discrimination
The Rubin vase shown in Figure 2.2.1 is an example of this tendency to pick out form. We do not
simply see black and white shapes; we also see two faces and a vase.

32
Figure 2.2.1: Two faces or a vase? (From Spooncer, 1992 p.35)
What about Figure 2.2.2 Do you see a young lady or an old lady?

Figure 2.2.2: Young Lady or Old Lady? (From Spooncer, 1992 p.35)

iii) The Law of Proximity

Figure 2.2.3: Two men and the table

 When you look at “A” you see (a man + a man) + a table.

 When you look at “B” you see (a man + a table) + a man.

33
Things, which are close together in space or time, tend to be perceived as grouped together. Thus, if
you want your audience to associate the product with the presenter, put them close together; if
you want them to perceive two ideas as associated, present them in close proximity.

iv) The Law of Similarity

Figure 2.2.3: Trees in different shapes

Things that are similar are likely to form ‘Gestalten’ as groups. So, in the graphic labeled with A (on
the left), you probably see an X of fir trees against a background of the others. In the graphic
labeled with B (on the right), you may see a square of the other trees, partly surrounded by fir
trees. The fact that, in picture labeled with A, we see an X while in the picture labeled with B, and
we can see a square, incidentally, an example of good form or Prägnanz.

V) The Law of Closure

Figure 2.2.3: Words and shape

34
Perceptually, we have the tendency to fill in the gaps. In other words, we can still read WASHO, see
the square and read ‘perception’ despite the missing information. You probably know that
redundancy can be deliberately added into messages to increase the likely fidelity of reception, but
the Gestalt psychologists’ law of closure suggests that it certainly is not always necessary.

vi)The Law of Continuity

When you see figure 5.10(1), you are much more likely to see it as consisting of two lines like
5.10(1a), rather than of the two shapes 5.10(1b).This is the Gestalt principle of continuity which saw
a single unbroken line is likely to be seen as an entity.

Activity

 According to Gestalt psychology perceptual organization influence good learning. Explain

the five perceptual law regarding human perception by Gestaltists.

35
2.2.4: Vygotsky and cognitive development

Vygotsky believed that we encoded and represent our world through language, and our thoughts are based on
language-“inner speech.” Social interaction plays an important role in the transformation and interpretation
process. Vygotsky argued that development first takes place on a social plane. The child observes the parents’
behavior, listens to the parents’ speech, and tries to imitate. The parent’s guide the child in his/her efforts, making
connections when needed and providing greater challenges when appropriate. Development is the conversion of
social relationships into mental functions.

Basic concepts of Vygotsky

 Zone of proximal development-is a distance between the actual developmental level as

determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined
through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more capable peer. In
other words, it is the difference between what children can do independently and what they can do
with help.
 Scaffolding- the process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be
known. This occurs into the ZPD. The more competent person supports the learner in their
endeavor to reach the new level of development.

Some differences between Piaget and Vygotsky

36
  Piaget believed that development proceeds from the individual to the social
world whereas Vygotsky believed that development begins at the social level
and moves towards individual internalization.
 Piaget maintains that development precedes learning; in contrast, instruction
precedes development according to Vygotsky.

2.2.5: Bruner and Learning via Insight

Jerome Bruner (1978) proposed learning via insight. Learning via insight theory highlights the
influence of our motivations on our selected perceptions and learning. Bruner presented teachers
with a developmental model suggesting that our motivation changes developmentally. There are 3
stages of motivation. They are enactive, iconic, and symbolic. The descriptions for these stages are
explained below.

Enactive
When we are very young, our motivation to perceive and learn is “enactive”, meaning that when
we are motivated to perceive things that we can manipulate physically via our overt hands-on
experiences.
Iconic When we reach school age, our motivation to perceive is “iconic”, meaning that we are
motivated to perceive things that are tied less to the physical manipulation. We are motivated to
perceive and learn from pictures and visual aids or memories from familiar experiences.
Symbolic: In adolescent as in adulthood, our motivation to perceive is “symbolic”, meaning that we
learn what is presented neither enactively or iconically. We can understand and utilize abstract
concepts without having to handle them or having them represented concretely.

Bruner concluded that: “At any age we learn best when we are motivated to
perceive by insightful experiences.”

Insightful experiences evoke our powers of induction. We seek answers to questions, we solve
problems and we make connections between clues because we want to answer, solve, and make those
connections. He translated his ideas of learning via insight through discovery learning.

Example:
Teacher asked her class a problem:
Question-1: Mulu is two years older than Rishan and one year younger than Abraha. Who are the
youngest of them all?

Question-1: Solomn is shorter than Feyissa and is taller than Jula. Who is the tallest?

37
 She directed her class’s attention to the problem and let them try to solve it, piece by piece; she was
encouraging their learning through insight.

Section 2.3: Learning in school settings: aids, gains and losses

Overview: In this topic, you have to revisit and sharpen your understanding about motivation,
memory and transfer of learning. The aim is to make you improve your competencies in
motivating your students, helping them to improve their memory and making them able to learn
better in different situations.

Learning Outcome
 After studying this section, you will be able to:

 Designing simple strategies for motivating and reinforcing students’ behaviors and
achievement at school
 Assessing the effects of negative reinforcement on learning;
 Advising parents on how best to motivate and reinforce their children’s behaviors.
 Designing teaching activities that enhance deep understanding and long-term memory among
students
 Evaluating the effectiveness of such activities in learning.
 Organizing learning insuch a way that it enhances positive transfer of learning.

Lesson 2.3.1: Behaviorism in the classroom

This section describes how teachers can apply the principles of behaviorism in the classroom. It is
divided into three subsections according to the perspectives discussed earlier that are classical
conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory.

Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

The key element in classical conditioning is association. Therefore, teachers are encouraged to
associate variety of positive and pleasant events with learning and classroom activities. For
example, a teacher may:

 Use attractive learning aids.

 Decorate the classrooms.
 Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks.
 Greet the students and smile at them when he comes to the classroom.
 Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and
examinations.
 Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms.
 Give ample time for students to prepare for and complete the learning tasks.

38
Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

In operant conditioning, the consequences of behaviour produce changes in the probability that the
behaviour will occur. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main concepts in operant
conditioning. The following are some examples on how operant conditioning can be applied in the
classrooms.

 Recognize and reinforce positive behaviors and genuine task

accomplishments.
 Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher approval (praise, smiles,
attention, and pats on the shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies,
candies, and stationeries) and privileges (longer recess time and more time
with friends).
 Reinforce good behaviors and punish bad ones consistently.
 Use schedule of reinforcement, such as surprise rewards, to encourage
persistence.
 Use positive punishment as the last option. Use negative punishment, such as
detention class, instead.
 Punish students’ behavior, not their personal qualities.
 Tell the students which behavior is being punished.

Applying the Social Learning Theory in the Classroom

The social learning theory focuses on how people learn by observing and imitating others. To
motivate learning using this approach, a teacher may:

 Use high-achieving and successful peers as models.

 Model positive behaviors himself.
 Use vicarious reinforcement, that is, make sure students see that positive
behaviors will lead to positive consequences.
 Demonstrate and teach good behaviors.

2.2.2: cognitive theory in the classroom

Teachers can apply concepts from cognitivists in the classroom to enhance their students
understanding. The steps taken are discussed below.

39
Meaningful learning • Teachers need to promote more effective
learning, the teacher need to link new
information to familiar information.
• Example: If teacher want to teach about rice
plantation, it is advisable for him to organize
trip to SabakBernam where rice are planted or
show them video showing rice plantation in
SabakBernam.
Dual coding theory • Guide students to process information using
dual coding theory.
• Dual coding theory suggests that we
remember better when two processes are
engage: visual learning and verbal learning.
Schema theory • Engage student in schema theory while
teaching.
• This theory suggested that our prior
knowledge can facilitate or enhance transfer
of learning.
• Example: In teaching account, teacher may
use prior knowledge or formula they have
learned earlier in mathematics.
Phases of learning
• Gagne (1985) translated the information-processing model into an instructional model called
“phases of learning.”
• As detailed in Table 5.1 Gagne (1985) parallels information processing with instructional
events.
Internal Process Instructional Event Action Example
Reception Expectancy 1. Gaining attention Use abrupt stimulus change.
2. Informing learners of the Tell learners what they will
objective. be able to do after learning.
Retrieval to Working memory 3. Stimulating recall of prior Ask for recall of previously
learning. learned knowledge or skills.
Selective perception 4. Presenting the stimulus. Display the content with
distinctive features.
Semantic encoding 5. Providing “learning Suggest meaningful learning.
guidance”.
Responding 6. Eliciting performance. Require additional learner
Reinforcement Retrieval 7. Providing feedback. performance, with feed-
& reinforcement 8. Assessing performance. back.
9. Enhancing retention and Provide varied practice and
Retrieval and transfer. space reviews.
Generalization.

40
2.2.3: Information Processing Model (IPM):

The Information Processing Theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of
the American experimental tradition in psychology. Information processing theorists proposed that
like a computer, a human mind is a system that processes information through the application of
logical rules and strategies. The mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the
information it can process.

Figure 2.3.2.1: Information processing model

The terminology of the Information Processing Model as illustrated in Figure 5.12 emphasizing the
significance of “encoding” (input) of information, the “storage” of information, and the “retrieval”
(access) of information. The language and the metaphor often used is one of the minds of as
computer. IPM theorist, U.Neisser, maintains that the correlation between cognition and computers is
a powerful one (Benjafeld, 1992 in Tan, 2003). Most IPM theorists see the computer as only a
metaphor for human mental activity.
Finally, just as the computer can be made into a better information processor by changing its
hardware and its software (programming), so do children who become more sophisticated thinkers
through changes in their brains and sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules and strategies
(software) that they learn.

41
 Activity

 Describe the features of three stages of memory storage in Information

Processing model.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The dominant view is
labelled the “stage theory” and is based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The Atkinson-
Shiffrinmodel(also known as the Multi-store model, Multi-memory model and the Modal model) is
a psychological model proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin as a proposal for
the structure of memory. It proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three stages,
which are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory as shown in Figure 2.3.2.2 .

Figure 2.3.2.2: Multi-store model of memory (also known as the, Multi-memory model and the Modal model)

The multi-store model is a very common model of memory assuming that there are different types
of memory used for different tasks. It is an explanation of how memory processes work. You hear,
see and feel many things, but you can only remember a few. These link together in an effective
sequence as explained below.

42
a) Sensory Memory
The first stage is sensory memory, which contains receptors that briefly hold on to only that
information that enters through our senses. Sensory memory is affiliated with the transudation of
energy(change from one form of energy to another). The environment makes a variety of sources
of information(light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.) available, but the brain only understands
electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transducer (change from one
form of energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the
process of transudation, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for
vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).

Figure 2.3.2.3: Sense organ

The sense organs have a limited ability to store information about the world in a fairly
unprocessed way for less than a second. Example:
• The visual system possesses iconic memory for visual stimuli such as shape, size, colour and
location (but not meaning)
• The hearing system has echoic memory for auditory stimuli.

Coltheart et al (1974) have argued that the momentary freezing of visual input allows us to select
which aspect of the input should go on for further memory processing. The existence of sensory
memory has been experimentally demonstrated by Sperling(1960) using a tachistoscope.
b) Short-term memory
The second stage is short-term memory, a temporary storage facility. Short-term memory is also
called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time.
According to Freudian:

“Short term memory is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external
stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds
unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up to
20 minutes”. Freudian

43
Figure 2.3.2.4: The frontal lobe, the structure associated with working memory.

The hypothalamus is a brain structure thought to be involved in this shallow processing of information.
While the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex as labeled in Figure 5.15 is the structure associated with
working memory.For Example,you are processing the words you read on the screen in your frontal
lobes. However, if I ask, “What is your telephone number?” Your brain immediately calls that from long-
term memory and replaces what was previously there.

Another process that is sometimes used to expand the capacity of short-term memory is called
chunking. Chunking is a process by which we group individual bits of information into some
types of large, more meaningful unit.

c) Long-term memory
The third stage is long-term memory (LTM). LTM provides the lasting retention of information,
from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory appears to have an almost limitless capacity to
retain information, but it could never be measured, as it would take too long.
Contemporary psychologists agree that long-term memory can be divided into subtypes of declarative
and procedural memory (Santrock, 2008). Declarative memory is subdivided into episodic memory and
semantic memory.

44
 • Procedural memory is nondeclarative knowledge
Procedural memory in the form of skills and cognitive operations.
• Procedural memory cannot be consciously
recollected, at least not in the form of specific
events or facts.
• Procedural memory is sometimes called
“knowing how,” and recently it also has been
described as “implicit memory.”
• When students apply their abilities to perform a
dance, their procedural memory is at work.
• Declarative memory is the conscious recollection
Declarative memory of information, such as specific facts or events
that can be verbally communicated.
• Declarative memory has been called “knowing
that” and more recently has been labelled
“explicit memory.”

• Demonstrations of student’s declarative memory

such as describing a basic principle of math.
• Episodic memories are the memories we have for
Episodic times and places (like first day Aidilfitri
celebration).

• Information encoded in our episodic memory is in

the form of images.

Semantic memories Semantic memories are our memories for general

facts and concepts. Most of what we learned in
school (instructional content) is stored in our
semantic memories.
Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory in Freudian terms.
• Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take
several minutes or even hours) while
• Unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness.

45
It is the preconscious memory that is the focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to the long-term
memory. The levels of processing theory, however, has provided some researches that attest to the fact
that we “know” more than we can easily recall.

According to Brynes,

There are two process in appear in facilitating our efforts, they are rehearsal (practice) and elaboration
(Byrnes, 1996). Elaboration of information processing strategy emphasizes links between the
information stored in the long-term memory and the new information. When we talk about
information processing model, we cannot avoid discussing memory and forgetting, how to enhance
student’s long-term memory and what factors contribute to forgetting. We will discuss it later in the
next chapter.

Steps To Enhance Long-Term Memory

According to Santrock, “Long term memory meaning information is retained in the long term memory
over time”. (Santrock, 2007)

storage, and retrieval. Teacher can help students store the information in the long-term memory
using methods such as positive transfer, dual coding theory, rehearsal, instructional strategies,
mnemonics, and memory gadgets or devices. Descriptions of these methods are explained in Figure
2.3.2.5.

Table 2.3.1: List of methods to help students store the information, in the long-term memory

Positive transfer
 Teacher may transfer learning using appropriate strategies or activities.
 Schema theory suggest teacher to activate prior knowledge and make connection with
new knowledge to enhance student’s learning.

Dual coding theory

 In dual coding theory, theorists suggest that we remember better when two processes
are engage such as visual learning and verbal learning.
 For example, a teacher guide young children to write the digit “8” may provide verbal
instruction as well as visual presentation. She may begin with pencil on the chil’s paper
saying, “Let’s start by writing the letter S and then curving back to join the open end
joining something like that looks like two circles touching each other on the side.”

Rehearsal
 Student may use two types of rehearsal that is maintenance and elaborative.
- Maintenance rehearsal is rote repetition of the information in STM, like
repeating phone number a few dozen times.
- - Elaborative rehearsal is not based on mere repetition but occurs when the
information is expanded, embellished on, and related to other concepts

46
 already in LTM.

Instructional strategies
Teacher may use instructional strategies that actively involved students in learning such as
group discussion, singing and reading aloud, cooperative learning, inquiry, discovery,
experimenting or leaning by doing.
Mnemonics
- Teacher may use mnemonic devices such as acronyms whilst teaching important facts.
- Example of acronym is SMS for short messages service or FELDA for Federal Land
Development Aothority.
• Another type of mnemonic such as peg word..
• - Example of pegword is “EmakSuka Pizza” for types of memory in long term memory
that is Episodic, Semantic, and Procedural.

Memory gadgets or devices

• Students may use memory device such as mind mapping, graphic organizer, fish – bone
diagram, tree diagram, etc to enhance their understanding and good memory.

Reference

Reading Materials for the unit:

Elliott, S.N., Kratochwill, T.R., Cook, J.L., and Travers, J.F. (2000). Educational psychology:
Effective teaching, effective learning. Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DONALDSON M (1984) Children's Minds London Fontana (readable and critical)

SATTERLY D (1987) "Piaget and Education" in R L Gregory (ed.) The Oxford Companion to
the Mind Oxford, Oxford University Press [back]

WOOD D (1998) How Children Think and Learn (2nd edition) Oxford; Blackwell Publishing.

Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory.In Vasta, R. (Ed.) Annals of child development.
Greenwich: JAI.
Eggen, P &Kauchak, D. 2007.Educational psychology windows on classrooms. 7th ed. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Feldman, R. S. 2005. Understanding psychology.7th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Hinrichs, B. H. 2004. Psychology: the essence of a science. Boston: Pearson.
Morris, C. G. &Maisto, A. 2001.Understanding psychology.5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. 2007. Human development.10th ed. Boston:
McGraw Hill.

47
Santrock, J. W. 2008. Educational psychology. 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
itscontrol processes. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds) The psychology of kearning
and motivation (Vol 2). London: Academic Press.
Bloom, B. (1984).The Search for methods of group instructions as effective asone-to-one
tutoring.Educational Leadership.
James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology, New York: Holt.
Gagne, R (1970). The Conditions of Learning (Second Edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart,
& Winston Holt.
Tan OonSeng, Richard D. Parson, Stephanie lewis Hinson, Deborah Sardo-Brown (2003).
Educational Psychology.Singapore : Thomson Learning.
Gagne, E.D., Yekovich, C. W., &Yekovich, F.R (1993).The Cognitive Psychology of School
Learning.
Lahey, B. B. 2004. Psychology: an introduction. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.

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 Unit Three

Student Support: Guidance and Counseling

Introduction: In this topic, you have to revise and deepen your understanding about guidance
and counseling and use this understanding to assist your students to solve their academic and
social problems in the school. The aim is to provide guidance and counseling services to students
to make their school and future lives healthy, comfortable and productive.

Learning Objectives:

After you have completed this unit, you should be able:


 to define the terms guidance, and counseling
 to identify the aims and objectives of guidance and counseling in schools
 to identify the needs for guidance and counseling
 to identify the characteristics of effective guidance and counselors.

 to demonstrate knowledge of the importance of guidance and counseling to teachers and

students

 to critically analyze the concepts, scope, and theories that govern the process of guidance
and counseling
 to use the principles and functions of guidance and counseling to ensure a safe learning
environment in school
 to identify and apply different tools of data collection in different situations
select and apply appropriate counseling techniques to solve students’ problems
 to coordinate and communicate with various stakeholders in the process of guidance and
counseling.

Concept of Guidance and Counseling

Activity 1: Dear students, what is guidance and counseling? Discuss with your peers to
answer the question for about 15 minutes.

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The terms guidance and counseling have been loosely or interchangeably used. Guidance is a
term which is broader than counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter
makes a logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i) adjustive and (ii) distributive phase.
In the adjustive phase, the emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the
individual, in the distributive phase the focus is upon educational, vocational and occupational
problems. The distributive phase‘can be most aptly described as guidance‘while the
adjustive‘phase can be considered as description of counseling‘.

Guidance and counseling are two sides of the same coin. The goal in both cases is to give an
opportunity for an individual to see a variety of available options and thereafter, assist the person
in making a wise choice. Guidance is the process that is put in place at a time a choice is to be
made. Counseling on the other hand i) helps with considering all sides of a potential choice even
before the choice is made; ii) takes place when a choice has been made and there is a need to
modify, reinforce or abandon such a choice.

The basic purpose of a guidance and counseling program is to ensure the physical, emotional,
social, and educational development of learners. Since primary school students spend most of the
school day with just a few teachers, these teachers are in a favorable position to perform their
role as a counselor for their students. They can assume their counseling role at two levels –
school and classroom. At school level, their role as counselor will be oriented towards the more
general and common problems of primary schoolchildren. In contrast, their role as classroom
counselor will be slanted towards the more specific and individual problems of their students.

Definitions:

Guidance is a broad term that is applied to a school’s program of activities and services that are
aimed at assisting students to make and carry out adequate plans and to achieve satisfactory
adjustment in life. Guidance can be defined as a process, developmental in nature, by which an
individual is assisted to understand, accept and utilize his/her abilities, aptitudes and interests and
attitudinal patterns in relation to his/her aspirations. Guidance as an educational construct
involves those experiences, which assist each learner to understand him/herself, accept
him/herself and live effectively in his/her society. This is in addition to the learner having
learning experiences about the world of work and people therein.

Guidance can also be looked at as a program of services to people based upon the need of each
individual, an understanding of his/her immediate environment, the influence of environmental
factors on the individual and the unique features of each school. Guidance is designed to help
each person adjust to his/her environment, develop the ability to set realistic goals for
him/herself, and improve his/her total educational program. As a process, guidance is not a
simple event but it involves a series of actions or steps progressively moving towards a goal. As
a service, we can isolate three major services, that of educational, vocational,

50
personal and social guidance.

1. Educational Guidance

Educational guidance is so far as it can be distinguished from any other from of guidance, is
concerned with the provision of assistance to pupils in their choices in and adjustment to the
schools’ curriculum and school life in general. Educational guidance is therefore essential in
counseling service. Guiding young people to pursue the right type of education in which, for
example the right balance is met for accommodating the human resource needs of a nation.

2. Vocational Guidance

Vocational guidance is a process of helping individuals to choose an occupation, prepare for,

enter into and progress in it. Vocational happiness requires that a person’s interests, aptitudes and
personality be suitable for his/her work. It plays its part by providing individuals with a
comprehension of the world of work and essential human needs, thus familiarizing individuals
with such terms as `dignity of labor’ and `work value’.

3. Personal and Social Guidance

Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual on how to behave with
consideration to other people. Primarily, personal and social guidance helps the individual to
understand oneself, how to get along with others, manners and etiquette, leisure time activities,
social skills, family and family relationships and understanding masculine and feminine roles.

Counseling is usually viewed as one part of guidance services; it is subsumed by the general
term, guidance, in that it is one service within guidance rather than a synonym. It is difficult to
think of one definition of counseling. This is because definitions of counseling depend on the
theoretical orientation of the person defining it. Let us examine some of these definitions.

Counseling is learning-oriented process which usually occurs in an interactive relationship with

the aim of helping the person learn more: about the self; about others, and about situations and
events related to given issues and conditions and also to learn to put such understanding to being
an effective member of the society.

Counseling is a process in which the helper expresses care and concern towards the person with a
problem to facilitate that person’s personal growth and positive change through self-
understanding. Counseling denotes a relationship between a concernedperson and a person with
a need. This relationship is usually person-to-person,although sometimes it may involve more
than two people. It is designed to helppeople understand and clarify their views of their life-

51
 space, and to learn to reachtheir self-determined goals through meaningful, well-informed,
choices andthrough resolution of problems of an emotional or interpersonal nature. It can
be seen from these definitions that counselling may have different meanings.

Activity 2: a)List any four activities you have carried out in your department within the last
one year that are (a) guidance and (b) counseling in nature. b)From your list, indicate the
elements which distinguish each activity as either guidance or counseling.

In fact, counseling is provided under a variety of different labels. For example, there are
instances where counseling is offered in the context of a relationship which is primarily focused
on other, non-counseling concerns. For example, a student may see a teacher as a person with
whom it is safe to share worries and anxieties. In such a situation it seems appropriate to see
what is happening as being a teacher using counseling skills rather than engaging in an actual
counseling relationship. The teacher is counseling but not being a counselor.

Guidance programs and the counseling service within them, usually deal with situational and
environmental conditions. Counseling is often seen as assistance given individuals to attain a
clear sense of identity. Counseling, as well as the total guidance program, stressed rational
planning, problem-solving, and support in the face of situational pressures. The counseling
relationship is usually characterized by much less intensity of emotional expression than that
found in the therapeutic relationship. Counseling services are usually located in schools,
universities, community service agencies, and pastoral organizations, while psychotherapeutic
services are usually found in clinics, hospitals, and private practice. The recipients of counseling
are `normal’ individuals rather than those who exhibit abnormal or extreme modes of adjustment.
Psychotherapy exists for individuals with psychological disorders. Counseling helps the
essentially normal individual remove frustrations and obstacles that interfere with development,
while psychotherapy attempts to deal with disabling or disintegrating conflicts.

Counseling focuses upon helping the individual to cope with development tasks such as self-
definition, independence, and the like. Attention is given to clarifying the individual’s assets,
skills, strengths, and personal resources in terms of role development. Counseling approaches,
are based more upon emphasizing present conscious material (material available within the
individual’s awareness) while psychotherapeutic approaches tend to emphasize historic and
symbolic materials, relying heavily upon reactivation and consideration of unconscious
processes.

Activity 3: Go through the statement of views on the meanings of guidance and of counseling.Review
these views with your peer in the class. Agree on a meaningfor each of the two terms (guidance;
counseling). What are the commonalities in your meanings (or definitions) and those listed above?

52
Guidance and Counseling in Schools
The basic aim of a guidance and counseling program is to help student teachers identify
problems or issues in schools, and then to develop a rationale for a guidance and counseling
program in a school setting. This unit will provide comprehensive knowledge about school-wide
guidance and counseling programs, which will encourage Student Teachers to use their creativity
and fresh ideas to conceptualize their own guidance and counseling programs in school. It will
also develop their ability to perceive, respond to, and manage the whole spectrum of guidance
and counseling in schools through an action plan.

The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school guidance and
counseling program includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to
render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and
adjustment. The fundamental aim of guidance and counseling program being the maximum
development of the child, all guidance counseling program must be geared toward attainment of
the goal. Guidance and counseling services can assist the pupils in knowing themselves-their
potentialities and limitations, making appropriate choices in educational, vocational and other
fields. Some of the important guidance services are:

 The orientation services

 Student inventory services
 Career Information services
 Counseling services
 Group guidance services
 Placement services
 Research and evaluation services

Learners in the school systems come in with a wide variety of backgrounds. There is diversity in
their entry socio-economic and academic profiles. This diversity translates into a differential in
their behavior patterns. Yet our desire is to ensure that all are found worthy in learning

In institutions of learning (schools), guidance and counseling should address learners’

difficulties. These difficulties encompass the whole spectrum of student life in institutions of
higher learning. A number of them may have negative impact on the teaching/learning process.
Counseling should probe what students’ difficulties are and then approach them systematically.
For example, in diagnosing learning difficulties the lecturer should focus on the following
aspects:

53
Difficulties that arise during instruction: these may be related to the content, the lecturer or the
way of presentation.

Difficulties after instruction: these may be related to social activities of the student or they may
be related to the facilities themselves. In such cases where should the information come from?
The sources of relevant information about learners can be found or gleaned through the
following:

Individual observation.This requires that individual lecturers are keen in noting any strange
things thathappen to the students or with the students. The observation should arise out ofa
genuine desire to help and get involved with the students.

Student statements

Students invariably make statements and comments which are indicative of the struggles that
they may face. The lecturers should be prepared to note these comments and statements which
are indicative of or are symptoms of other things that may appear later.

The Goal of Guidance and Counseling

The goal of guidance and counseling is to make it possible for an individual to see and explore
his or her unlimited endowed options Odeck, 1999). Educationally, guidance should involve
those experiences which assisteach learner to understand and accept oneself so as to live
effectively in society.

Major Service Areas

The major service areas of guidance and counseling in schools include: Educational guidance
and counseling. This aspect of counseling should concern itself with assisting the students in
theircurriculum and school life choices. Students need assistance in subject they learn
andplanning for the subjects that they take at the institutions of learning.All teachers could be
involved in this without any need for specialized trainingin counseling.

Vocational guidance and counseling

This aspect of counseling addresses the learners’ problems as regards to vocational choices.
Again here the lecturers are best placed to give relevant advice to learnerssince they know their
academic strengths and weaknesses in areas that may pertainto specific vocations, occupations or
jobs. The fact that the lecturers know theinterests and aptitudes of most of their students makes
them the best persons toassist their students in areas that are related to their vocations.

54
Personal and social guidance and counseling

This aspect of counseling refers to the very personal problems that students meet. These
problems may range from financial needs to interpersonal relationships.Although the lecturers
may help to reduce these pressures, there is need for morespecialized assistance from
professionally trained hands. The fact that the lecturersmay have an upper hand in interaction
with the students only goes to showhow crucial it is that they should get involved. As role
models to the majorityof students it is important the lectures are made aware of their crucial role
insocial guidance.

Student records and follow up

These usually yield information that would facilitate a lecturer to assist a student whose problem
may have been ignored or brushed aside for along time.

The major service areas of guidance and counseling in schools are:

Educational guidance and counselingis thatwhich assists students in their curriculum and
school life choices.

Vocational guidance which assists the individual to choose and prepare for an occupation that is
compatible with his interests and aptitudes.

Personal and social guidance which assists the individual to behave appropriately in relation to
other members of the society.

Counseling could be conceived as an interactive relationship between two or more persons that
can take a variety of forms. It may address non-educational issues or even non counseling
concerns. Counseling should be seen as a service provided to normal individuals to assist them
remove or cope with frustrations and obstacles that interfere with their development.

Activity 4:
Comment on the view that teachers are best placed to give relevant advice to learners since they
know their academic strengths and weaknesses. The fact that the teachers know the interests and
aptitudes of most of their students makes them the best persons to assist their students in their
learning. How are you as a teacher in a school fitted to play these roles?

55
Types of Guidance and Counseling in schools

Types of guidance and counseling include: Individual and Group - Individual guidance, Group
Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance, Organization of Group Guidance activities,
Techniques of Group Guidance, Advantages of Group Guidance, Limitations of Group Guidance

Individual guidance and counseling:

Individual guidance and counseling is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or planning

designed for a singular person or thing and their unique situation. This is in contrast to general
guidance which is frequently based on demographic information such as age or income or meant
for the general population. The most common reference to individual guidance and counseling is
in reference to children or students.

This is ideally the role of guidance and counseling, educational or career

http://www.ehow.com/careers/ counselors. Individual guidance and counseling can be used to
refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their unique
circumstances. This could include legal services, career counseling, financial planning, medical
or psychological advice or a number of other areas where a trained professional is looked to for
direction/support in a given area.

Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance: Group refers to collection of people,
interaction between individuals, development of shared perceptions, the development of affective
ties and the development of interdependence of roles. For example many students and /teachers
at one school may gather together to form a group.

Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are carried on in a group
situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable or even necessary for making
appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the
individual in a group situation. Group could be of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group
should have a common goal. Just collection of individual may not be called a group for
organizing guidance activities. Selection of group members will have to depend on sharing a
common problem, volunteering to be members and willingness to group activities.

Jones, A.J (1951) defines group guidance ‗as any group enterprise or activity in which the
primary purpose is to assist each individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his
adjustment‘. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group
consisting of a number of students to implement program that would benefit them at all time.
Students in group with common problems and concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large.
In other words, if guidance is to be available to all, it should be planned in groups.

56
Some of the objectives of group guidance are:

1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyze them and find relevant solutions
2. To place a wide range of information before people with common problems which could be
useful for them for finding solutions?
3. To provide a platform where people with common problems could interact with each other and
could be benefited by each other‘s perspectives, ideas and experiences
4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an opportunity to express
themselves and in the process analyze themselves.

Organization of Group Guidance Activities: Planning of group guidance activity may focus
the following points.

1. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to find out the common problems of
individuals in the group. This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists and
interview.
2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities: Depending upon the
group activity the size of the group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and
manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to account the group selected for activity.
3. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants selection for group guidance
activity is also very important. The students for example should be communicated about their
roles in group activities.

4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It should be stated in clear,
objective and measurable terms.
5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want to conduct the activities
purposefully, it should be properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback about
activity needs to be collected from participants.
Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk, displays and
exhibitions.

Techniques of Group Guidance: A number of techniques are used in organizing group

guidance. Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should have
knowledge about different career. A group discussion may be organized in the school. For
organization of the group discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and
expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion will be useful only if the
members participate effectively without the fear and all the members have the opportunity to

57
participate. But the effectiveness of the group discussion depends upon the facilitator and the
group selected.

Problem solving: For solving individual as well as common problems, problem solving can be
applied as a technique. It comprises of the following steps;
 Existence of common problem

 Focused description of the problem

 Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts

 Analysis of problem in the light of data collected

 Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them

 Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group

Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of guidance. Role playing is
a method where real life situations are simulated by group members/participants. This provide
new insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing viewpoints. The role playing may
comprise of the following steps;

 Existence of common problem

 Orientation of group to role playing and the problem

 Assigning of roles
 Preparation of other members/audience to observe intelligently
 Assessing the role play
 Concluding session and feedback
Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can be used as group guidance
technique.

Advantages of Group guidance:

We have discussed about different activities and approaches of group guidance. Some of the
advantages of group guidance are as follows:

Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting inspires learning and
understanding of students. The student learns from other member of group.

58
Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and effort of both the counselor
and students. The time saved can be used for the more difficult and complex problems of
students.
Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior
Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of unrecognized needs and problems of
student/s

Limitations of Group Guidance:

Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they cannot be taken as a substitute for
individual counseling. Group activities serve many of the objectives of the school guidance
program, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant to come out with their personal
problems in the group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of help. Group guidance
activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time and effort. While organizing these
activities, some problems that a counselor may face are mentioned below: A rigid type of
administration is often a major cause of trouble. Generally, when the counselor asks for time in
the time table for conducting these guidance activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the
time table is already full. No periods are free. So the counselor is left with no other choice than
to take the substitute management period.

Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members may also create
problems in organizing such activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of
adequate funds is another problem.

Summarizing exercise
Exercise 5: What is individual guidance and counseling? What is group guidance and
counseling? What are the objectives of group guidance? How can you organize group
guidance activities? State the techniques of group guidance. Explain Role play technique of
group guidance.

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 Purpose Type and Use
Cognitive Measure  Psychometric Tests; e.g. for measuring
intelligence Quotient (I.Q), cognitive
style/preference; self concept,
reasoning skills sand problem solving.
 Achievement Tests: for measuring
achievement in cognitive domain such
as subject matter test.
Affective Measures Questionnaires, Inventories, Opinionnaires For
measuring attitudes, perceptions and affective
behaviors.
Psychomotor Measures Observational Schemes, Practical skills
inventory For measuring different aspects of
practical abilities

Instrument Development and Validation

The table above gives the stages in the development of any of the instrument listed in the table
Domain Specification: This is where the construct, attitude or skill to be measured is identified
and specified in both general and specific terms. It includes:
Preparation of Blueprint
Item Writing
First Level Validation and Revision
Pilot Testing
Finalization

Preparation of Test Instrument

This is an important stage of preparing the plan or blueprint for writing items for the instrument.
The plan showing coverage of the instrument in terms of objectives and domain content are put
on a grid. This is to ensure that the domain in focus is covered in breath and in depth.

Item Writing

This is the process of composing the first draft of the instrument by writing its component items.
The structure of the instrument starts developing from this stage. It is perhaps the most
intellectually demanding step in the process of instrument development. The process ends when
the distribution of items in the test blueprint is completely covered.

First Level Validation and Revision

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 After the first draft of the instrument is composed, it is subjected to validation for face and
content validity. Comments from the validation items are used to revise the structure and items
on the instrument.

Pilot Testing

The revised draft is pilot tested on a sample of the population for which the instrument is meant.
Further refinement of the instrument is made on the basis of pilot test data.

Finalization

Data from the pilot testing exercise are used to further refine the instrument.At this time, the
reliability values are determined.

Adapting Instruments

Sometimes, it is not worth the effort developing and validating a new instrumentif standardized
forms exist. It could be like re-inventing the wheel Mosttimes however, it may not be able to use
the standardize instrument in the pureform without adapting it to our situation.Adaptation could
be with minimum modification. The modification could alsobe major. The direction of
modification is usually in the areas of:
- Degree of fit with the test blueprint
- Cultural bias
- Length.

After modification, the instrument should be subjected to validation and reliabilityexamination as

if it was a new instrument.

Develop and validate the following instruments which could facilitate your providing objective
guidance and counseling service to your students.

Activity 6:
1. A questionnaire to collect background data on your students that are relevant to their academic,
social and career guidance needs.
2. A questionnaire to measure their attitude towards the course you teach.
3. A 50 item achievement test in your course which will reveal the learning difficulties of your
student.

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Exercise: Adapt a standardized psychometric inventory e.g. for measuring self-concept for use in
your class. Provide an opportunity for your students to talk about themselves:their “now” and
their “tomorrow”. Note what they avoid saying, what theyemphasize and relate these to your
prior knowledge of each student. Do you gaina better understanding? Are you confused the
more?

Activity 7:
1. Administer the questionnaire you developed in for measuring the attitude of your students
towards yourteaching. Score the items in the questionnaire. Remember to reverse scoring for
negative terms. Take the total for each section of the questionnaire and for the whole instrument.
Calculate the mean for the group. Record the scores for each student in the different sections and
also the total scores. What counseling decisions need to be taken on the basis of the graph?
2. Call selected students on individual basis and get to know them better based on item of
exercise 6. e.g. “You said in class that you were xyz, but efg is what I knew of you. Can you
explain further? Or can you help me reconcile the two views about you?

Data Collection and Processing

Instruments can be administered individually or to a group of learners. After administration, the

responses should be scored and the data recorded in a manner that is amenable to processing.
Data processing can simply involve manual calculation (using the hand-held calculator) of
percentages and means and drawing of graphs to show the distribution of scores. It can also be
through the use of a personal computer for more elaborate analysis.

Processed data should be stored in such a way as to facilitate retrieval when needed for offering
guidance and/or counseling to individuals or groups of learners.

Group and Individual Interview

The interview is a good technique for getting in-depth information that could otherwise not be
obtained from most instruments. In a relaxed atmosphere, the interviewee (the person being
interviewed) could furnish the interviewer (the person conducting the interviewer) with a large
volume of information. In order not to be drowned by the avalanche of information, we need to
systematically plan for, execute, and follow-up interviews that we conduct during guidance and
counseling exercises.

Planning The following steps need to be taken in planning and interview:

Step 1 Stage Setting
Identification of characteristics of the interviewee
Step 2 Arranging the sitting, audio/Video recording Developing aninterview guide
Step 3 Pilot testing the instrument
Step 4 Finalization of the interview guide

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Executing: In executing the interview plan, the interviewer needs to
 Present the questions audibly and ensure that the interviewee fully understands the
demand of the question.
 Avoid forcing the pace of response
 Complete the question and answer session for a question before moving on to the next.
 Take notes as the responses are given.

Follow – Up

 Develop the interview transcript

 As follow-up questions if there are areas that need clarification from theinterviewee.
For group interviews, target respondents should be identified. Agreements should
be reached by the group on a subject before being recorded by the interviewer.

Group and Individual Observations

Observations are designed to provide perspectives to data gathering that are not capture by test
administration and interviews. These perspectives include nonverbal behaviors and interaction
patterns. A sad look; a look of excitement, gait when walking, shy tendencies in class, and
aggressive tendencies are some of the characteristics of the learner to be counseled that a
questionnaire may not reveal in full. By observing the learner, we are able to record in graphical
and direct form, such physically observable behaviors.

The development of an observation instrument is the first step to be taken. We should follow the
sequence shown in steps 1 to 4 on the previous page. After developing the instrument, we could
use it in gathering data by observing the group as a unit or for observing individual students with
specific problems.

There are two main types of observation. The observer, in this case the teacher, participates in
the activities given to learners. This enables the teacher pit himself or herself in the place of the
learner (empathy). In non-participant observation the observer looks from a distance and records
unobtrusively. This is the more common mode of observation in guidance and counseling.
Anecdotal Record

This is record of snapshots of significant events in the life of the learner. The events can be
recorded either by the teacher or by the learner. Whichever way, the teacher keeps the record for
the purpose of having insights into the behavior patterns of the learner. This record is important
as the teacher prepares to attend to the counseling needs of the learner.

Student Advising

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This is an organized scheme for offering guidance to students. The focus is usually academic
guidance although it could be stretched to include social guidance if social activities in the life of
the learner impacts negatively on learning.

In many institutions, the scheme is department based. Each lecturer in the Department is
assigned a group of students. The students are expected to meet periodically with the Advisor, as
a group or individually. Where such schemes exist, they have been known to be effective in
helping students overcome their learning difficulties.

Records to be kept by the Teacher/Counselor

 Records of Achievement

A good record of achievement test can serve as an effective instrument wit which we can
measure an individual’s performance with (a) those of others in his group and (b) his past
achievement. With this, one can diagnose his weakness and strength.

School progress of each student can also be measured, need for remedial measures determined
and the progress of the entire students improved. For instance, a Mathematics test if well-
constructed could provide information as to whether or not; students’ weakness is in the
fundamental operation.

 Personality Information Records

Personal qualities and interests are equally important as factors which affect one’s success in
occupation, life, social life, and in school. The only way to measure personality is by observing
how the individual behaves in different situations. Such observations can be made in the
classroom, at playground, during social gathering, etc. when the individual is quite himself or
herself.

Personality records should contain the following views about the students; (a). Concern for
others -antisocial, indifferent, dependable, sometimes socially concerned or deeply concerned.
(b). Responsibility -unreliable, somewhat dependable, usually dependable, conscientious,
assumes much responsibility. (c). Emotional stability -hyper-emotional, excitable, usually well
balanced, exceptionally stable.

Health Records

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Though the teacher cannot have this, it is necessary that the school counselor has a record about
student’s health. This should be made up-to-date indicating the type of disease from which the
individual must have suffered, the duration of illness and the time of the year, if possible.
Medical statements about student’s ears, eyes, teeth, posture, nervous symptoms, or speech
defects should also be included. A cumulative up-to-date health record will help the school
counselor refer particular students at different times to specialists for treatment. This also helps
to decide the type of job to which a student can be assigned. A research fellow on school
discipline has suggested that the offence should not determine the punishment but instead type of
punishment recommended should depend on the physical strength of the individual offender. It
therefore follows that a detailed, up-to-date health record will help remind the counselor and the
school authority of the importance of individual differences in dealing with the children.

Family Records

The home is one of the major factors which affect the education of students. An unstable home
causes the student emotional imbalance. The family record should include name and address of
parents, their nationality and occupation, and the socio-economic status.

If family records are kept and maintained up-to-date by the counselor, clues can be found in an
attempt to spot out student’s difficulties with the aim of helping to alleviate his or her suffering.
A good knowledge of the family records of the student will help to foster the triangular
relationship, which should exist between the teachers, the parents and the student.

The counselor should examine the cumulative records of each student to;

(a). Help the counselor get acquainted with a new student more quickly at the beginning of the
semester or session.
(b). Help students who are not working up to class level to cope with their problems. The under-
achievers and those students who need remedial courses are this identified and helped.
(c). Identify gifted students and other students of unusual ability and help them by finding
appropriate and challenging work for them.
(d). Find out students who attend classes irregularly and encourage them towards regular
attendance.
(e). Study the personality traits of students who misbehave and suggest ways for their learning
other adaptive behaviors.
(f ). Help the counselor to study students for whom special aids, such as scholarship are being
considered.
(g). Gain background knowledge about students before assisting them in the choice of course for
study.
(h). Gather some information about a student before conferring with his parents.

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(i). Discover students of exceptional talents in such special fields as arts, music, athletics or
creative writing.

Activity 11:
Which records of the student s in your c lass do you have ? How do you obtain them? Of what
use are the records to you? Which ones would you have loved to have but which you do not
have? Why would you wish you had them? Think of your student’s days, did any of your
teachers ever give you any advice, suggestion, threat etc. If “yes”, What was it upon? Why did
he/she has to do so? What was your reaction? Find out if any of your students would have loved
to discuss his life, program, career, or future plans with you but was afraid or reluctant t to do so.
How many students? Why were they afraid or reluctant? What do you intend to do after this
discovery? After a class test, do you discuss students’ performance with them?

Techniques
Dear learners, you need to develop or adapt instruments for data gathering for guidance and
counseling. use the instruments developed/adapted for data collection process data
collected;conduct group and individual interviews and observations; and keep anecdotal records
of learners.

Instrumentation in Guidance and Counseling

We need as much information as possible from learners in order to make a success of guidance
and counseling, It is when most, and perhaps all the information is in that we can take a global
look at the problem and offer meaningful guidance and counseling.

The tool for gathering information is known as the instrument. Such tools include tests,
questionnaires, inventories, interview guides and observational schemes. Just as the thermometer
is an instrument in the hands of the scientist, so also is the questionnaire the instrument in the
hands of guidance counselors. For data collected to be useful, the instrument should be valid and
reliable. In this section, you will learn to develop instruments for data collection and adapt
existing instruments for your case. First, let us see the different types of instruments.

Types of Instruments

Several typologies exist for classifying instruments. For example, instruments can be grouped on
the basis of (a) what they measure, e.g. cognitive (achievement tests); affective (attitudinal
inventories and questionnaires); psychomotor (practical skill tests); and (b) how they measure
e.g. power and speed tests. For the purpose of this Module, we shall adopt the scheme presented
in the following table.

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The following techniques help assure good communication with young people
during the counseling session:

 Create a positive and friendly first impression.

 Establish rapport during the first session, show empathy and reassurethe young client.
 Eliminate barriers to good communication (e.g., negative attitudes, poorlistening, not
allowing youth to express fears or ask questions, beingjudgmental and impatient, etc.)
 Use “active listening” with the young client; i.e. acknowledging,confirming and asking
clarification from the speaker.
 Provide information simply and use visual aids as much as possible.
 Ask appropriate and effective questions and use open-endedquestions.
 Allow youth to ask questions and seek clarification.
 Recognize and take advantage of teachable moments.
Source: Levenberg, P. and A. Elster. 1995. Guidelines for Adolescent Preventive Services

The Trend of the Development of School Counseling in an International Context

Based on a review of the three articles on school counseling in the United States, South Korea,
and Japan, some observations can be made about the trend of the development of school
counseling in an international context. These observations include: (a) from non-professionals to
professionals; (b) from position to program; and (c) from a remedial orientation to a preventive
and developmental orientation.

From Non-professionals to Professionals

In Japan and South Korea, the requirements for school counseling personnel have become more
stringent. These two countries have been striving for the establishment of formal positions of
professionally trained school counseling and guidance personnel for years. For example, in South
Korea, school counselors were initially disciplinary guidance teachers. Although their title was
changed to career counseling teachers in 1990, their roles were more or less the same. They were
even given teaching assignments like other regular teachers. Worse still, senior teachers could
apply for counseling teacher positions after they have taken two to three related courses. The
lack of understanding of the nature of counseling and related job skills made them unprepared
for the work as school counseling professionals. Fortunately, in 2004, the need for full-time
specialist in guidance and counseling was advocated. In 2005, more than 300 full-time,
registered school counselors were appointed in schools. These counselors are more professional
as they were trained formally as “professional school counseling teachers,” having the skills and
expertise to carry out guidance and counseling in the school context. This is a positive change
from non-professionals to professionals in the development of school counseling in South Korea.

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In Japan, guidance and counseling in schools were initially taken up by clinical psychologists.
However, as they did not receive internship training in schools, they lacked understanding of the
school personnel and cultures. In recent years, they have to receive training to earn enough
credits to keep up their credentials as school counselors. This is a positive move because
guidance work is handled by experts who are familiar with the school context. In addition to
clinical psychologists, class teachers are important personnel in guidance work because pre-
service and in-service training is given to them. They may study student cases, refer problem
cases to guidance teachers, and learn how to counsel from their peers. In 2008, social workers
were introduced to schools to assist guidance and counseling work. These show that Japan is
undergoing a struggle as to who is the best professional to carry out guidance and counseling
work in schools.

As for the United States, Gysbers (2008) has described the recent development of individual
student planning in his article. He emphasized that individual student planning is not only
collection of students’ records, be they hard or soft copies. Rather, students need to be contacted
either on an individual or a group level on which they can share their needs and goals with the
school counselor. Although Gysbers did not explicitly state the need for more professional
school personnel, the practice he described can show that school counseling work is carried out
by trained, qualified professionals well-informed of the counseling practice and ethics in the
United States.

From Position to Program

Gysbers (2008) posited that to make school guidance work effective, emphasis should be placed
on the implementation of school guidance as a program on the whole rather than the sheer
establishment of the school counselor position. In the 1970s and 1980s, three models of school
counseling and guidance work that shared the same emphasis were devised (Gysbers, 2001). In
one of the models, Myrick (1997) delineated the characteristics of developmental guidance and
counseling work. They included: (a) provision of programs for all students; (b) guidance
curriculum be organized, planned, sequential and flexible; (c) all school personnel be involved.
The second model, developed by Johnson and Johnson (1991) in the 1980s, emphasized the
development of students’ competency. The acquisition of competencies by all students was the
major concern.

The third model, developed by Gysbers and Moore (1981) in the 1970s, was a comprehensive
guidance program model. It consisted of an organizational structure which includes content
(competencies), organizational framework (structural components and program components),
and resources (human, financial, and political). In practice, different time compositions should be
allocated to the four program components (i.e., guidance curriculum, individual student planning,

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responsive services, and system support) according to students’ levels and their developmental
needs.

In sum, the three models provide us with some perspectives on the reorientation of school
guidance and counseling from a problem-based approach to a strength-based approach, from a
remedial mode to a preventive and developmental mode, from position to program, as well as
from a single focus on responsive services to a comprehensive focus on guidance curriculum,
individual student planning, responsive services, and system support.

With these in mind, we can evaluate the positions of school counselors and the implementation
of school guidance work as a program in both Japan and South Korea. From the articles, we see
that the school guidance position was established in Japan in 1995, 10 years earlier than that of
South Korea. However, as school counselors are clinical psychologists who mainly deliver
responsive services in schools, it can be anticipated that this approach could only cater for the
needs of a few students whereas a broad range of developmental, experiential, and transitional
issues of other children and youth is not addressed.

While school personnel are providing different services to students in the areas of educational,
personal and social, career as well as physical issues, the effectiveness of the services, however,
is quite limited because there is a lack of cooperation and collaboration among the colleagues.
With the setup of the guidance curriculum, what they are doing now could become more
organized, planned and sequentially preventive programs. It is encouraging that schools in Japan
receive community support as well. The setup of the school counselor system and the
collaboration with the Chambers of Commerce and Industry, school boards of education, the
community support teams and non-profit-making organizations that work with children and
youth plus law enforcement are evidence of system supports as well as financial and political
resources. These could be favorable conditions to implement comprehensive and integrative
guidance program in schools in Japan.

As for South Korea, the position of school counselors was established in 2005. School
counselors’ training and role identity issues are still the main concerns at the moment. As stated
by Lee and Yang (2008), South Korea can follow the example of the United States to put
stronger emphasis on the development of school guidance work as a program in the long run.
Adopting the model of comprehensive school guidance program can be an appropriate and
feasible direction to develop school counseling work in South Korea.

From a Remedial Orientation to a Preventive and Developmental Orientation

According to Yagi (2008) and Lee and Yang (2008), school counseling and guidance work
seems to be moving from a remedial orientation to one that emphasizes more on the strengths of
students in both Japan and South Korea. This is like the development of school guidance in the
United States, where emphasis was first put in resolving students’ career-related issues and other

69
learning and behavioral problems, then later to guidance activities which are more preventive
and developmental in nature that emphasize students’ strengths and assets.

In the United States, the Comprehensive Developmental Program approach began to emerge to
respond to the call for a reorientation. What began with the appointment of teachers to the
position of vocational counselor has become a program. This framework has become the major
structure of organizing and managing guidance in the schools of the United States (Gysbers,
2001). The level of implementation of guidance programs varies from one school to another.
Among the four program components, individual student planning seems to be the most difficult
to be implemented. It is because there is a great demand on human resources to carry out
effective individual student planning. Although literature on individual student planning is not
very substantial in the field of school counseling, Gysbers’s (2008) article does provide us with
some updated and valuable information on the implementation of individual student planning in
the United States.

At present, individual student planning exemplifies an integration of theory and practice, as

demonstrated by the four examples quoted in the article. Gysbers (2008) described a number of
recent studies which indicate substantial impact on students’ success in schools through
individual student planning. In sum, Gysbers acknowledged the positive impacts of the
comprehensive guidance program on the whole and individual student planning activities in
particular, which could help students identify their endowed talents and capabilities, striving to
make the most of these to live a meaningful and rewarding life.

There is continuous development in the guidance curriculum. Gysbers (2001) described that
guidance curriculum typically consists of competencies and structured activities which span
systematically from kindergarten to Grade 12. In recent years, different systemic and integrative
models for the implementation of school-based prevention programs have been devised. One of
these conceptual frameworks is “Developmental-Contextualism” (Walsh, Galassi, Murphy, &
Park-Taylor, 2002). According to this perspective, both the personal and contextual aspects of
the person-environment relationship are considered in school guidance programs because
“Within this newer perspective, a developing person not only affects his or her contexts, but the
context also affects the person’s course of development” (Walsh et al., 2002, p. 686).

Besides individual student planning and the guidance curriculum, responsive service is another
core component of the comprehensive guidance program (Gysbers& Henderson, 2001). As
Seligman (1998) suggested, approaches to helping people have been changing. There is also a
trend to conduct diagnostic activities and personal counseling with a positive, strength-based
orientation. Morrison, Brown, D’Incau, O’Farrell, and Furlong (2006) stated “A focus on
strengths represents a different perspective on how to conceptualize student adaptation to school”
(p. 20). Morrison et al. presented an interview format to organize and collect information about
students’ strengths and protective factors in their personal and contextual domains. Student,
parents, and teachers are all informants. They will be asked interview questions in the five areas
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of “Individual Assets,” “Family Assets,” “Peer Assets,” “Classroom Assets,” and “School
Assets.” Questions like “Do you have any ideas about what you want to be when you grow up?”
(for students), “How do you participate in or help at your child’s school?” (for parents) or “What
are the rules and procedures in class? How do the rules help students to learn?” (for teachers)
will be asked. By collecting information about family, peer, classroom, and school assets, school
counselors could form a picture of the availability of protective factors that can become the basis for
developing interventions.

Other than this, different strength-based counseling models have appeared. As Seligman (1998)
stated, “Treatment is not just fixing what is broken, it is nurturing what is best within ourselves”
(para. 5). Carl Rogers, the founder of Person-Centered Therapy, had a strikingly different view
on the development of persons and the role of counseling and psychotherapy. Rogers paid
attention to human strengths rather than pathologies, to human assets rather than liabilities, to
human potential rather than limitations (see Lopez et al., 2006). Recently, Smith (2006) proposed
and outlined ten stages of strength-based counseling to illustrate how the approach may be
implemented. The ten stages are: (a) creating the therapeutic alliance; (b) identifying strengths;
(c) assessing presenting problems; (d) encouraging and instilling hope; (e) framing solutions; (f)
building strength and competence; (g) empowering; (h) changing; (i) building resilience; and (j)
evaluating and terminating. Overall speaking, in providing responsive service and designing
guidance activities, there is an obvious move from a remedial to a preventive, strength-based
orientation.

From the above discussion, we have traced the general trend of the development of school
counseling in an international context. From the beginning, school counseling work was taken up
by the appointed teachers on top of their regular duties. Then, full-time positions of school
counselors were introduced in the schools. This is a move from non-professionals to
professionals. Thereafter, there was a further move from position to program where the focus on
the counseling personnel was shifted to implementing guidance activities as a program. There is
also a move from the remedial approach of school counseling to a preventive, strength-based
orientation that sees the importance of developing students’ potentials and assets in order to live
a more fulfilling life.

The Need for Resources: A Concluding Remark

Gysbers and Henderson (2006) delineated three major characteristics of school counseling and
guidance. Firstly, guidance is a program, meaning that guidance activities should be well-
planned, structured, and systematically implemented. Secondly, guidance programs should be
developmental and comprehensive. The programs, when designed, should take into consideration
the developmental needs of students at different stages of their lives. The content across levels
should be progressive in nature. Moreover, the program should be broad enough to touch upon
important issues that students could be facing in the course of development. Lastly, guidance
program should feature a team-approach, meaning that teachers do not design and carry out

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guidance activities by their own. Rather, teachers should work collaboratively as a team to
formulate and conduct the activities.

Based on the description above, school counseling and guidance programs in the United States,
South Korea, and Japan do manifest the three characteristics. However, in delivering the
programs, resources may be one of the key issues to consider. Gysbers and Henderson (2006)
proposed that resources for school counseling and guidance work include human resources,
financial resources, and political resources. Such a perspective can be helpful to evaluate and
develop school counseling work further in the three countries.

First of all, the need for human resources suggests that schools need more professional school
guidance personnel. This not only means that more manpower be allocated to schools to carry
out guidance duties and activities, but also entails that these people should receive appropriate
and professional training before they become qualified guidance teachers. For teachers without
prior training, on-the-job training could be provided to familiarize them with the knowledge and
skills needed for the job as guidance teachers. Such training and certification issues are important
to the success of school counseling work, as advocated earlier in this article that guidance teachers should
change from non-professionals to professionals. This is exactly an issue facing South Korea and Japan for the
time being.

Apart from human resources, financial resources are another important criterion for effective
school counseling work. For example, individual student planning, as a focus in Gysbers’s
(2008) article, requires teachers not only to keep hard and soft copies of students’ records, but
also to meet students individually or in group meetings to discuss students’ transition planning
for their attainment of personal and career goals. These meetings which involve consultation
with school guidance teachers or counselors could be expensive and imply a lot of money.
Besides this expenditure, other school counseling work such as guidance curriculum, responsive
services, and system support also need financial resources to sustain and implement. No matter
how developed guidance programs are, as in the case of the United States, or how progressively
developing they are, as in the cases of South Korea and Japan, financial resources should remain
a key factor for the successful development of school guidance work. Although large expenses
are anticipated, it is worthwhile to spend money on counseling programs and work because early
intervention or more desirably, prevention, can enhance the overall well-being of the student
cohorts, which is beneficial to the population’s health and productivity in the long run. This is
the reason why we are arguing for a change from the remedial approach to the one that
emphasizes development and prevention.

Last but not least, political resources are needed for school counseling and guidance programs.
On the school policy level, political resources imply clear support from the upper management in
the schools such as the school supervisors or head teachers. Their support could be shown in the
clear role descriptions of school guidance workers, which could help to avoid role ambiguity of
these personnel. This role ambiguity issue is what South Korea is facing. Besides, support from

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the senior management of schools is important because it can help to focus school guidance work
on the program itself as well as the position of guidance workers. This is in line with our earlier
proposition that school guidance and counseling should shift from mere positions to programs,
with concrete rationale and contents.

On the other hand, on the government policy level, political resources of school guidance work
could be policies devised by the local education department. The 1963 Educational Act and the
1997 Elementary and Secondary Education Act from the Ministry of Education in South Korea
(Lee & Yang, 2008), as well as the school counselor system introduced by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan (Yagi, 2008) are good examples of
political resources given from the governmental level.

Recognizing the importance of government support, educators and school counseling personnel
could try to solicit help and support from the government or make use of existing policies and
resources to develop school guidance work. To take Hong Kong as an example, the New Senior
Secondary Education curriculum in 2009 can be an opportunity to enhance school guidance and
counseling work because when the new curriculum is implemented, all secondary schools are to
keep students’ portfolios in their three years of senior secondary education. This requirement is
favorable to school counseling because such records enable teachers to assist students to
formulate their transition plans and attain their personal career goals, which is similar to
individual student planning, a key element of comprehensive guidance program as posited by
Gysbers (2008).

Conclusively speaking, whereas different countries or regions face different problems or

limitations in developing school guidance programs, one important issue we have to resolve is
resources allocation which include human, financial, and political resources. Other than this,
however, the government bodies and school administrators should be convinced of the rationale
behind the school guidance and counseling work in the first place as the mindset and values
could influence subsequent decisions to be made and actions to be taken.

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