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A framework Approach to the Design of Energy Efficient Residential Buildings

in Nigeria

Article in Energy and Built Environment · July 2021

DOI: 10.1016/j.enbenv.2021.07.001

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 Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy and Built Environment

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/energy-and-built-environment/

A framework approach to the design of energy efficient residential

buildings in Nigeria
Ekele Thompson Ochedi a,∗, Ahmad Taki b
a
Department of Architectural Technology, School of Environmental Technology, Kogi State Polytechnic, P.M.B. 1101, Lokoja, Nigeria
b
Director of Architecture Research Institute, Leicester School of Architecture, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: The main objective of the Nigerian building sector working on achieving energy efficiency is to decrease energy
Framework demand of buildings and thereby reduce the negative implications of urban development and poor energy infras-
Energy consumption tructure on people’s wellbeing. One of the key strategies being adopted for substantial reduction of energy demand
Energy efficient buildings
in the Building Energy Efficiency Guide for Nigeria is the bioclimatic architectural design approach. Hence, in-
Simulation
telligent design of buildings, especially the building envelope, can considerably improve energy efficiency and
Case study
Lokoja/Nigeria help to realize heating and cooling targets. The aim of this paper is to promote and encourage sustainable build-
ing development in Nigeria by developing a systematic and context-based framework for the design of energy
efficient residential buildings. This study adopted a mixed method approach of interviews with 12 architects and
22 householders. Moreover, measurements and observational surveys of 22 existing buildings that fit into three
distinct building typologies were conducted. Three existing buildings were investigated using a building simu-
lation approach to compare their performances, especially in terms of thermal comfort. The data collected was
analysed using content analysis, descriptive statistics analysis, and simulations. The interviews with architects
and householders showed enormous potential to reduce residential buildings’ energy demand. To achieve this,
the interviewees emphasized the need for strong collaboration between all stakeholders in the building sector.
Measurements, observational surveys, and case studies of existing buildings confirmed that thermal discomfort
in residential buildings and challenges with building design, have a significant effect on the building occupants’
wellbeing. The research developed a framework for the design of energy-efficient residential building, which is
expected to enhance sustainability, particularly in the building sector. The framework was produced based on the
findings from the research data and the review of relevant literature. It involves an integrated process focused
on bridging the gap between building stakeholders achieving sustainability in buildings. Ultimately, the frame-
work is hoped to guide professionals in the design of energy-efficient buildings and assist institutions on policy
guidelines.

1. Introduction of smart strategies towards mitigating the effect of climate change and
high-energy consumption in the context the building sector.
Studies have shown that energy consumption of buildings surpasses Energy efficient appliances, sustainable urban and building design
other sectors at in different regions of the world [1–3]. The negative im- have been suggested as measures to reduce energy demand and con-
pact of energy consumption of buildings has a significant effect on the sumption [5,6]. There is an urgent need to adopt these measures in
environment and people’s wellbeing. Smith [4] maintained that the ad- Nigeria, especially in the design of buildings in order to reduce high-
verse effect of climate change on the building sector is broadly acknowl- energy demand and consumption.
edged as a reality and one of the major challenges facing humanity. This study evolved to produce a systematic and context-based frame-
These effects include a rise in temperature, thermal discomfort, energy work for designing energy efficient residential buildings in Nigeria fo-
poverty and flash flooding. The global temperature is rising as a result cusing on improving indoor thermal comfort, reducing energy demand
of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. The increase and consumption of buildings. The specific objectives are, to investigate
in energy demand of buildings leads to the need for deliberate adoption the concept of energy efficient residential buildings and its application
on the study area, to evaluate the energy performance of existing resi-

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E.T. Ochedi), [email protected] (A. Taki).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbenv.2021.07.001
Received 5 February 2021; Received in revised form 24 June 2021; Accepted 3 July 2021
Available online 22 July 2021
2666-1233/Copyright © 2021 Southwest Jiatong University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

dential buildings taking into account socio-cultural aspects and to pro- To reduce energy demand and consumption in buildings, designers
duce the proposed framework. must design buildings that satisfy the three pillars of sustainable de-
The aim of this study has necessitated the adoption of a mixed meth- velopment of environmental protection, social equity and economic vi-
ods research approach in order to have a broader understanding of the ability. The ultimate goal of sustainable development is for humanity
factors that will guide the production of the proposed framework. This and nature to coexist harmoniously and designers have the capacity to
is intended to generate broad information concerning the research focus contribute to its realisation through sustainable design practices and
[7]. The quantitative method will serve as a check for the limitations of knowledge sharing [21].
the qualitative method and the possible bias in the interpretation of data The relevance of building design on thermal comfort, energy con-
and the generalization of the findings by the inquirer. The qualitative sumption, people’s wellbeing and CO2 emissions, amongst other things
method is necessary to balance the subjective view of the researcher is the major factor that forms the basis for the development of this frame-
alongside those of the smaller research groups [8]. The combination of work. The framework is intended to guide designers in achieving the
different research methods allows for triangulation, which aids credible benefits of the adoption of energy efficient building strategies.
research outcomes [9,10].
This study used semi-structured interviews, case studies, measure-
ments and observational surveys to generate data to guide the produc-
2.2. Challenges with the design of buildings
tion of the framework for designing energy efficient residential buildings
in Nigeria. While an interview approach was adopted to gather informa-
Buildings in Nigeria are characterised by post-modern building el-
tion from local practitioners (architects) and households, measurements
ements influenced by the influx of foreign materials, especially from
and observational surveys were employed to collect data on existing res-
China [22]. Akande [20] argued that many residential buildings in some
idential buildings in the study area. Twenty-two buildings comprising of
climatic regions in Nigeria were not suitable for users due to poor de-
detached bungalows, semi-detached bungalows and bungalows in block
sign, which do not consider the local climate. Examples include lack of
of flats were surveyed. In addition, case studies of three residential bun-
proper ventilation in functional spaces and lack of shading devices on
galow typologies from Lokoja were conducted to determine their perfor-
external windows. External shading, for instance, has been recognised
mances, especially in terms of thermal comfort and energy consumption
as an important means of enhancing building energy efficiency in hot-
using natural ventilation. The three case studies were modelled using
humid climates [23]. Hence, there is an urgent need to encourage the
DesignBuilder as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) and simulated using
design of buildings that are responsive to the local microclimate.
EnergyPlus, whole building simulation engine. The simulation was con-
Energy efficiency in buildings is a new concept in Nigeria and Lokoja
ducted using hourly weather data of Lokoja, the study area for a period
in particular. To confirm this, the first Building Energy Efficiency Guide
of 10 years purchased from Meteonorm. All the research approaches are
(BEEG) for Nigerian was released in 2016, while the Nigerian Build-
aimed at generating relevant data that will inform the proposed frame-
ing Energy Efficiency Code (BEEC) was first launched in August 2017.
work for designing energy efficient residential buildings in Nigeria.
Therefore, little or no efforts have been put in place to make design of
buildings energy efficient in the Nigerian building sector. GIZ [24] re-
2. Rationale for the development of the framework
vealed that the techniques for designing energy efficient buildings are
beyond the skills and expertise of majority of architects in Nigeria.
2.1. Building design and energy demand
The incorporation of energy efficient measures into subsequent hous-
ing intervention will no doubt improve people’s wellbeing and the hu-
A significant aspect of the call for sustainable buildings is a call on
man environment. A framework for the design of energy efficient resi-
building designers to devise ways of designing buildings that have little
dential buildings in Nigeria is expected to significantly reduce the chal-
or no adverse effect on the natural environment and people’s wellbeing.
lenges with climate and decrease energy consumption of buildings.
Cowan et al. [11] argued that optimisation of building design is key
to achieving the UK’s commitment to lowering GHG emissions up to
80% by 2050. Excellent building design can leverage on the benefits of
natural systems towards significant decrease in energy consumption of 2.3. Housing deficits
buildings. Prudent building design using appropriate passive and active
technologies can greatly reduce energy demand, consumption and the Nigeria faces an acute shortage of housing stock with up to 16 mil-
contribution of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by the building sector. lion of housing deficits. There is a plan by “The transformation Agenda
Correct design of the building envelope can considerably improve of the Government of Nigeria” to reduce this deficit by building a mil-
energy efficiency and help to realise heating and cooling targets [12]. A lion houses annually [22]. There is a strong link between an increase in
study by Al-Tamini [13] showed that the extent to which non-renewable population, growth in building construction and energy consumption.
energy resources are required for building services is determined by Construction of buildings is growing fast in Africa due to increase in an-
building design. Okba [14], who argued that proper design of the build- nual population growth rate. For example, Nigeria with its population
ing envelope could lower the total cooling load on buildings thereby projected at over 140 million over a decade ago has an annual popula-
reducing overdependence on air conditioning, corroborated this view. tion growth rate of 3.7% for urban dwellers and rapid urbanisation is at
Other studies have shown that careful design of the building facades 50% for the major cities [25].
can decrease energy demand of buildings [15–17]. In line with this ar- Previous housing units in Nigeria have been built with little or no
gument is the opinion of Latha et al. [18] that proper building design sustainable measures taken into consideration. This research is intended
using the building envelope is key to reducing the heating and cooling to guide and create awareness in Nigeria on the need to incorporate en-
load in buildings. ergy efficient sustainable approaches to the design and construction of
The design of buildings can have both positive and negative impacts. subsequent intervention in housing provision. This is necessary to re-
Poor building design can contribute greatly to the increase of the build- duce future retrofit of residential buildings which might be built in the
ings’ energy consumption. Sustainable architecture presents suitable de- future without energy efficiency design measures. To prevent further
sign solutions to reduce the negative impacts of buildings on the envi- impact of buildings on the environment, the goal to overcome hous-
ronment without compromising building users’ comfort [19]. Akande ing deficits must involve sustainable approaches. A framework for the
[20] argued that many residential buildings in some climatic regions design of energy efficient residential buildings in Nigeria is expected to
were not suitable for users due to poor design, which do not consider significantly reduce thermal discomfort challenges and downsize energy
the local climate. consumption by buildings.

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E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

3. The methodology tion of a phenomenon. The outcome of content analysis are concepts
or categories, which describes the phenomenon. Content analysis is a
3.1. Interview with architects and householders means of testing theoretical issues for improved understanding of data
[32].
Structured and semi-structured interviews were employed to collect Content analysis was used in this research to explore contextual data
data from architects in Lokoja, Nigeria. The interview instruments for collected from architects and householders in the study area. It aids
both groups of architects and householders have two sections: section A the researcher to condense the large volumes of data from all the in-
involved structured questions for demographic data about the respon- terviewees and present them in a collaborative manner. Although con-
dents while section B comprised of semi-structured questions aimed at tent analysis is a flexible approach, there are no easy guidelines for the
generating data on existing approach to housing development and rele- analysis of data, which makes it a challenging task for researchers. The
vant data that will guide the development of the proposed framework. process of content analysis, especially the deductive approach was ap-
The areas covered by the interview instrument include current approach plied to interview transcript for this study leading to the analysis and
to the design of residential buildings, thermal comfort in residential findings.
buildings, views on how to achieve energy efficiency in buildings and
limitations to the design and realization of energy efficient buildings. 3.2. Measurement and observational survey
The interview with households centred on information about energy
need, energy consumption, thermal comfort and views on traditional Prior to each interview, which was conducted in the buildings oc-
and modern buildings. cupied by the 22 householders, measurements and survey of the build-
The study adopted non-probability sampling for the selection of ings were carried out. These were necessary to gather information on
respondents for interviews involving both architects and household- temperature, humidity and building information to aid the modelling
ers. Non-probability sampling is time and cost effective compared with and simulation of case studies, the production of the framework for de-
probability sampling [26]. The latter was also impractical since par- signing energy efficient residential buildings and for comparison with
ticipants are not equally likely to be selected due to the nature of existing data on climate and buildings. Moreover, this could also help
inquiry. to validate the information from the interviewees on energy demand
Of about 30 registered members of the Nigerian Institute of Archi- and thermal comfort in existing residential buildings. Temperature and
tects (NIA) in Lokoja, Nigeria, the interview involved twelve practicing humidity were measured using Bosch PTD1 Digital Thermometer and
architects from academics, parastatals, private practice and government Hygrometer, which measures humidity, surface, and room temperature.
ministries. The architects were selected using non-probability sampling Building orientations were measured using a compass while floor to ceil-
considering their years of experience and involvement in building de- ing height of buildings and other relevant distances were determined
velopment processes. Lokoja has a population of 77,516 in 1991, which using Bosch GLM 40 Professional laser measure. The observational sur-
increased significantly to 195,261 in 2006 [27]. Considering the pop- vey centred on building orientation, landscaping, floors, external walls,
ulation size of Lokoja in 2006 and using average household size of 5 windows, ceilings and roofs.
persons in Nigeria [28], there is approximately 39,000 households in
Lokoja. This population will require a survey of nearly 380 household- 3.3. Case studies
ers. Since it was not practical to survey such a large sample due to cost
implication, research period and other constraints, the survey was tar- Three residential building types were selected to represent the var-
geted at selected householders as representative samples. Hence, the ious building typologies in the study area. These are detached, semi-
householders interview focused on sample size of 22 comprising of three detached and block of flats. The three case studies were modelled in
building types, which form the majority of residential buildings in the DesignBuilder while EnergyPlus was used to analyse them using hourly
study area. The 22 households were selected from different locations in weather data of Lokoja for a period of 10 years.
Lokoja. The selection of respondents depended majorly on their build-
ing type, availability and ability to provide data regarding the interview 3.4. Simulation
questions.
There are different residential building typologies in Lokoja. These EnergyPlus was adopted for simulation as its code offers opportunity
include bungalows in detached, semi-detached and multifamily. Oth- for performing different time steps [33]. The dynamic thermal simula-
ers include detached and semi-detached duplexes. Bungalows represent tion of the selected case studies was necessary to determine their perfor-
a larger percentage of residential buildings in Lokoja. Hence, the re- mances, especially in terms of energy consumption and thermal comfort.
searcher expects that it would be important to focus on recruiting re- This is intended to inform the production of the proposed framework
spondents from this building type than any other building type. Fig. 1 for designing energy efficient residential buildings. The simulation re-
shows the percentage distribution of households by type of housing unit sults in terms of thermal comfort and energy signatures are intended to
for Kogi State in 2007. guide design decisions based on existing literature and research data, es-
Fig. 1, which is based on the 2006 population census in Nigeria, pecially relating to building occupants’ behaviour and comfort require-
shows that house on a separate stand form the larger part of housing ments.
units in Nigeria. Although this classification is not clear and lead to
some misunderstandings, the researcher is of the view that this clas- 3.5. Simulation of selected buildings
sification refers to detached bungalow residential buildings. Multifam-
ily or row houses are also assumed to be in this classification. Hence, Simulation study of three bungalows, one each of detached, semi-
the researcher is of the view that the selected case studies are typ- detached and block of flats or row houses were conducted were con-
ical of the majority of buildings in the study area. The three case ducted. Figs. 2–4 show the selected buildings while Figs. 5 and 6 show
studies were selected randomly from different locations in the study DesignBuilder 3D models and the annual simulation results of the de-
area. tached bungalow.
Both the interviews involving architects and householders were anal-
ysed using content analysis, an objective and organized way of identify- 3.6. Assessment of monthly performance of existing and improved buildings
ing and describing phenomena [29,30]. Content analysis is a technique
for reducing long textual data into lesser content categories using cod- This section compares the monthly performance of the existing build-
ing rules [31]. It aims to achieve a compressed and elaborate descrip- ing with the improved building in terms of the operative temperature

386
E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

Fig. 1. Distribution of households by type of housing unit for

Kogi State in 2006, Source: Based on data from NPC (2009).

Fig. 2. A view of the detached bungalow. Fig. 4. A view of the semi-detached bungalow.

nual simulation results of the semi-detached bungalow. Table 1 shows

the summary of the material and construction specification for floor
walls and roofs used for modelling and simulation of the semi-detached
bungalow.
Table 2 shows the operative temperature, solar gains and savings for
both the existing and improved buildings. Figs. 9 and 10 show the com-
parison between the existing and improved buildings operative temper-
ature and solar gains, respectively while Figs. 11 and 12 show monthly
simulation results of existing and improved buildings, respectively.

Fig. 3. A view of the semi-detached bungalow.

4. Discussion of major findings

and solar gains. The semi-detached bungalow is selected as a case study This section presents the summary of the findings from the analysis of
for simulation study in this regard. The simulations were conducted the data collected for this study to provide insight into the study context
by changing the building materials, especially in terms of the build- and relevant factors to consider in the development of the proposed
ing envelope. Figs. 7 and 8 show the DesignBuilder 3D model and an- framework.

Fig. 5. DesignBuilder 3D models of the de-

tached bungalow.

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E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

Fig. 6. Annual simulation result of the detached bungalow.

Table 1
Material and construction specifications for the semi-detached bungalow.

Building Material Finishing U-Value

elements
Floor 150 mm Concrete slab Ceramic tiles 2.602 W/m2 K
Wall 225 × 450 × 225 mm Hollow 25mm Cement plaster, painted 1.867 W/m2 K
lightweight concrete block cream colour
Roof Uninsulated pitch roof Oxblood colour, long span 3.447 W/m2 K
aluminium roofing sheets

4.1. Energy shortage, electricity demand and consumption

The researcher’s survey of 22 dwellings confirmed intermittent sup-

ply of power from the national grid. Of the 22 households interviewed,
19 relied on both the national grid and generators to power their me-
chanical cooling systems, as it was thermally uncomfortable to stay in-
side buildings without the use of cooling systems. Households that can-
not afford electrical generators and/or other means of energy stay or
sleep outside, especially during the hot season.
It is obvious that there is an urgent need to devise means of cutting
down energy demand and consumption in all sectors, especially the res-
idential sector. This could reduce the challenges arising from energy
shortage and its related problems. Energy efficiency approach to the de-
sign of residential buildings is one of the means of achieving this. Hence,
there is an urgent need to develop a framework that will guide profes-
sionals to design buildings that can improve indoor thermal comfort and
are energy efficient.

Fig. 7. DesignBuilder 3D model of the semi-detached bungalow.

388
E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

Fig. 8. Annual simulation results of the semi-detached bungalow.

Table 2
Comparison between the existing and improved buildings operative temperature and solar gains, respectively.

Month Existing building Improved building Savings (°C) Existing building Improved Savings (kWh)
operative operative solar gains (kWh) building solar gains
temperature (°C) temperature (°C) (kWh)
January 34.06 32.76 1.30 2042.21 1464.16 578.05
February 35.43 34.17 1.26 1680.08 1205.12 474.96
March 35.55 34.25 1.30 1666.43 1175.19 491.24
April 34.71 33.39 1.32 1558.02 1103.14 454.88
May 34.09 32.76 1.33 1655.57 1207.48 448.09
June 32.80 31.51 1.29 1608.49 1175.98 432.51
July 31.91 30.64 1.27 1526.40 1114.34 412.06
August 31.52 30.27 1.25 1421.90 1019.85 402.05
September 31.79 30.49 1.30 1465.61 1030.31 435.3
October 33.02 31.69 1.33 1689.52 1202.37 487.15
November 34.23 32.85 1.38 1982.56 1422.31 560.25
December 34.43 33.10 1.33 2141.14 1528.34 612.8

4.2. Current approach to the design of buildings

Interviews with both professionals and householders, and the obser-

vational survey of existing buildings in the study area established the
adoption of design approach, building materials and construction tech-
niques, which are not suitable for the microclimate. To achieve the ben-
efits of building design with regard to energy, comfort and other factors,
building design should be based on the microclimate. However, the data
from professionals, householders and the observational survey showed
that most of the buildings in the study area were designed without con-
sidering the microclimate. Building envelopes do not reflect the features
that will counteract the environmental factors. The reasons for this as
revealed by design professionals in Lokoja include challenges with the
design of buildings, use of building materials that are not responsive to
the microclimate and lack of awareness on energy efficient buildings.
Fig. 9. Comparison between the existing and improved building monthly oper-
Since poor design can contribute greatly to energy consumption and
ative temperature.
thermal comfort in buildings, designers need to be prudent in their de-

389
E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

indoor temperatures measured during the survey of 22 households were

28.7 °C and 40.6 °C, respectively. Those who argued that they were com-
fortable in their buildings attributed their reasons to larger windows,
use of mechanical means and adequate ventilation. Design profession-
als maintained that to improve thermal comfort and reduce energy con-
sumption in buildings, design approach should consider the climate of
Lokoja.
All the architects interviewed agreed with the statement that Lokoja
residents might find it difficult to live in their houses without mechani-
cal ventilation especially during the hot season. Moreover, building sim-
ulation study on three residential buildings in Lokoja revealed that it
will be difficult for people to live in existing buildings that relied only
on natural ventilation. The lowest and highest temperatures recorded
Fig. 10. Comparison between the existing and improved building monthly solar
for case study 1 (existing building) in August and March were 31.01 °C
gains.
and 35.27 °C, respectively.
Although it may be difficult to eliminate the use of mechanical means
sign of buildings bearing in mind the local and microclimate and other
in buildings due to the simulation results of existing residential build-
relevant factors. This will not only make life better for building users
ings, appropriate design of buildings will discourage excessive use of
but will improve the environment. The specific design and construction
energy-intensive mechanical means of cooling. This study focuses on
variables, which were identified in Section 4.10 is expected to feed into
achieving this through the proposed framework.
the development of the framework to improve the design of buildings
for comfort and energy efficiency.

4.3. Thermal comfort in buildings 4.4. Specific measures for the design of energy efficient residential buildings

Thermal comfort is a very important factor to be considered in the Architects interviewed in Lokoja mentioned that there should be con-
design of high standard buildings in order to provide comfortable indoor siderations of the minimum requirements for ventilation in residential
environment and therefore, good health and wellbeing of the occupants buildings due to the hot climate of Lokoja. These include the provision of
[34]. The findings from data collection showed that most building users adequate windows for functional spaces and cross ventilation. The min-
were not comfortable in their buildings. A study by Ifatimehin et al. imum requirements were not observed in most buildings due to poor
[35] confirmed this with respect to the harsh and hot weather of Lokoja, enforcement processes. This has led to overdependence on mechanical
especially from March to May. The outdoor temperature is over 30 °C means of cooling using electric generators, which are highly unsustain-
for the majority of the year, especially during the day making it difficult able. The reasons for lack of specific measures towards achieving energy
for people to be comfortable in their buildings. The lowest and highest efficiency in residential buildings include lack of awareness and policy

Fig. 11. Monthly simulation results of the existing building.

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E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

Fig. 11. Continued

on energy efficient buildings, challenges with the design of buildings ture. Different ethnic groups, religions and cultures in Nigeria who are
and clients’ requirements. living in different climatic zones are identified with diverse traditional
To realize energy efficiency in buildings, there is need for proper architecture [24]. The various traditional building materials employed
policy, legal and regulatory framework. The proposed framework aims in the construction of traditional buildings include locally sourced tim-
to provide guidance for professional designers, researchers and policy ber, thatch, palm front, palm leaves and mud bricks. Despite some chal-
makers on how to advance energy efficiency in buildings. lenges with the traditional building materials, findings from architects
and householders in Lokoja revealed that traditional buildings are very
4.5. Building envelope and energy efficiency good at improving indoor comfort.
The years spanning from early 1930s to the end of 1960s witnessed
The observational survey of existing residential buildings in Lokoja climate response design, which culminated into a global phenomenon
showed a lack of energy efficient building design features. Unsustain- referred to as “Tropical Architecture” in Asia and Africa along the
able design features noticed on buildings include poor orientation and colonies of the British Empire. This trend led to the production of en-
zoning of functional spaces, inefficient windows and lack of shading de- ergy conscious and climatic responsive design [36,38]. The traditional
vices, inadequate headroom or ceiling height, use of dark colours on and tropical architecture approaches to the design of buildings that are
both internal and external walls and use of dark colour roofs. highly sustainable has been overshadowed largely, if not completely by
To make residential buildings sustainable and energy efficient, the contemporary architecture.
building envelope should clearly portray features of passive solar design There is hope of revisiting traditional architecture, especially the use
or bioclimatic architecture. Ahmadi et al. [37] referred to bioclimatic of mud bricks and its other alternatives. Design professionals and house-
architecture as a means of taking advantage of local climate of a place holds in the study area argued that the use of traditional building mate-
to achieve thermal and visual comfort in buildings. These are lacking rials could only be possible after relevant modifications to enhance their
now, a reason for research into enhancing comfort and reduced energy aesthetics. This will require research into improvement of the aesthetics
use in buildings in Nigeria. aspect of local building materials and the implications of local building
materials on energy efficient buildings. In addition, they suggested the
4.6. Use of traditional building materials incorporation of traditional building materials into contemporary archi-
tecture owing to its several advantages, which include security, thermal
The trends in the Nigerian architecture cover three main eras, the in- capacity and sustainable features. GIZ [24] contended that tropical ar-
digenous/traditional, tropical architecture and contemporary architec-

391
E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

Fig. 12. Monthly simulation results of the improved building.

chitecture could be incorporated into modern architecture with new in- technologies and building materials. The barriers to realizing energy ef-
terpretations using modern materials. ficiency in buildings and other sectors suggest that efforts in this regard
should not focus on technical aspects only, but also on the social context
4.7. How to achieve energy efficiency in buildings where the majority of these challenges lies.

GIZ [24] identified three levels of bioclimatic design, energy efficient 4.9. Need for a framework for the design of energy efficient buildings
systems and renewable energy. Out of these three, bioclimatic design or
passive design approach is the foundation and starting point for energy Despite the efforts, which are minimal at reducing energy consump-
efficient buildings. This is important as majority of Nigerian household- tion and improving people’s wellbeing in Nigeria, design professionals
ers are not economically stable and see energy efficiency in buildings as lack a detailed framework for designing energy efficient buildings to-
an entirely new concept. wards realizing these objectives. This points to the need for the devel-
Design professionals in Lokoja revealed that to achieve energy effi- opment of a framework for designing energy efficient buildings.
ciency in buildings, the various stakeholders in the building industry, Interviews with architects in the study area showed that this study
especially design professionals, government and clients must collabo- would serve as a guide for the design of energy efficient buildings. They
rate as they have relevant roles to play. These roles include designing added that it would create awareness and awaken the interest of profes-
buildings based on the microclimate, proper policy and regulations and sionals in this regard. Hence, it is hoped that the proposed framework
creation of awareness for the acceptance of energy efficient buildings. would serve as a relevant tool, especially for design professionals for
The design approaches suggested by architects in the study area were in designing energy efficient buildings.
agreement with passive design techniques.
4.10. Specific design and construction variables
4.8. Challenges to realizing energy efficiency in buildings
To achieve energy efficiency in buildings, there is the need to iden-
Globally, there are many barriers to efficient use of energy. After tify specific design and construction variables that will aid comfort and
a review of existing literature on this subject, Weber [39] identified decrease buildings energy consumption. Appropriate adoption of these
four typologies. These are institutional barriers, obstacles conditioned passive design and construction strategies could enhance comfort and
by the market, operational barriers and behavioural barriers. A study energy efficiency in buildings. These variables will be discussed under
conducted by Schleich [40] outlined some barriers to achieving energy building form, building orientation, floors, walls, fenestration and roofs.
efficiency. This includes lack of accurate information, hidden costs, risk
and uncertainty and access to capital. 4.10.1. Building form
Some of the barriers to energy efficiency in buildings pointed out A proper analysis of any chosen site for an energy efficient building
by architects in the study area include lack of relevant policies, lack of should precede any chosen form. This will help designers to maximize
effective regulatory bodies, lack of awareness, lack of interest by gov- site benefits and overcome its challenges. Appropriate analysis of energy
ernment, clients and builders, corruption and lack of interest in local sources on site using passive design techniques will aid energy efficiency

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E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

in buildings. The areas to focus on during analysis should include sun Builder, which can be more expensive show little or no improvement
paths, wind direction, vegetation and access road(s). regarding operative temperature and solar gains. Hence, designers can
The observational surveys of residential buildings in the study area stick to the use of on-ground floor slab finished with tiles or polished to
revealed that majority of residential buildings have rectangular shape. taste, which is the most popular floor construction method in Nigeria,
One of the reasons identified for this is the size of plot. The researcher and Lokoja in particular until further research reveals a better option.
was not able to determine the ratio of length to width of these buildings.
Nevertheless, to improve energy efficiency in buildings in hot humid 4.10.4. Walls
climates, it is recommended that designers should strive to achieve the Walls are important building elements that can have significant ef-
ratio of length to width of 1:1.7 in previous studies [38,41]. fect on energy consumption and thermal comfort in buildings. The sig-
nificance of walling materials on thermal comfort and energy consump-
4.10.2. Building orientation tion in buildings have been extensively studied [47–51].
In hot and humid climates, buildings should be designed so that the Chiraratananon and Hien [50] maintained that high thermal mass
short sides face East and West [42] and they should avoid or minimize walls are expensive in tropical climates. Hence, low thermal mass con-
placement of windows here [13,41]. This will reduce heat gain and cool- struction is more preferred to reduce energy consumption and improve
ing demand. Hence, it is important for every design to be tested for the thermal comfort in buildings in tropical regions [41]. These arguments
most suitable orientation. seem to support the use of lightweight walling materials for buildings
There are situations where it may not be possible for buildings to in Nigeria.
take advantage of the best orientation. For instance, there are locations Observational survey of existing buildings in Lokoja, the study area
where buildings must be made to face the access road. This may be confirmed that lightweight concrete block is the most popular wall con-
due to challenges with land allocation processes. Where this is the case, struction material. They come in both solid and hollow design. They are
designers can employ the concept of zoning. Functional spaces should produced in different sizes but have the same length and height. The
be placed based on when and how long they are used with respect to most popular ones are 225 × 450 × 225 mm and 150 × 450 × 225 mm in
climatic factors and sun paths. Gut and Ackerknecht [43] maintained width, length and height, respectively. The extensive use of lightweight
that the arrangement of spaces in buildings should be based on their blocks in the study area might be in favour of the argument for low
functions and when they are used during the day. Moreover, functional thermal mass for hot and humid tropical climates.
spaces like bedrooms should be located on the eastern side of the build-
ing, which is coolest in the evening. Living room(s) and other rooms, 4.10.5. Fenestration
which can be used almost throughout the day, should be situated on the Fenestration refers to opening in buildings, most notably doors and
north side. Auxiliary spaces like kitchen and store can be located on the windows. Doors and windows are used to generate energy performance
western side. Buildings can be made more energy efficient if they are data at their surface level for simulation. Hence, doors and windows are
planned to take advantage of solar radiation and the prevailing wind treated the same in terms of energy performance simulation. Windows
direction [44]. and other building elements connected to it are relevant to sustainable
Interviews with householders further revealed the need for zoning architecture. Specific areas to consider in the design of fenestration for
of functional spaces. The interviewees lamented that the movement of energy efficient buildings based on the study of 22 bungalow residen-
the sun caused overheating in different part of their buildings making it tial buildings in Lokoja include window-to-wall ratio (WWR), window
difficult for them to use those spaces. Most of them complained bitterly glazing and external shading.
about the bedrooms, which were affected by the evening sun making WWR is an important design factor for improving energy efficiency
them difficult to use. Zoning using passive design principles can help to in buildings as window area can have significant impact on both heat-
minimize the challenges with the effect of the sun. ing and cooling loads [52]. The Building Energy Efficiency Code (BEEC)
for Nigeria, which was launched in 2017 recommended 20% WWR for
4.10.3. Floors buildings in Nigeria. It is advisable to test WWR using building energy
On-ground concrete slab is the most popular floor construction performance modelling or building energy efficiency calculator for com-
method for bungalow residential buildings in Lokoja, the study area. pliance with relevant factors, which include ventilation and daylighting
More than one floor residential buildings use a combination of on- prior to its adoption for the design of residential buildings. The obser-
ground and suspended concrete slab for floor construction. This was vational study of 22 bungalow residential buildings in Lokoja showed
confirmed from observational survey of existing buildings. The exten- that most of the residential buildings might not have been designed us-
sive use of on-ground concrete slab may be due to its advantages, which ing WWR concept. This was evidenced as functional spaces of different
include thermal comfort because of its thermal capacity, durability and sizes observed have the same sizes of windows.
resistance to insects and rodents. An appropriate window glazing selection bearing in mind the micro-
Concrete has high thermal mass and the potential of enhancing cool- climate can have significant effect on energy demand and thermal com-
ing in buildings especially when prevented from the effect of solar radi- fort in buildings. Observational survey of existing residential buildings
ation. An uninsulated on-ground concrete slab has surface temperature in Lokoja showed that single-glazed, clear glass is what is predominantly
that is almost the same as the near constant earth temperature. If the used for window glazing. Few households that use reflective or tinted
slab is protected from solar radiation, the heat absorbed during the day glass confirmed that were adopted for privacy and aesthetics purposes
can dissipate thereby improving indoor thermal comfort. To maximize and not for their energy performance qualities. Moreover, the simula-
the advantages of concrete floor slab, the concrete floor must be in con- tion of existing buildings revealed that single-glazed, tinted glass might
tact with the building interior. Hence, floor finishes like carpet that can be more suitable for window glazing for the study area. Single-glazing,
insulate should be discouraged. Clarke et al. [45] posited that build- tinted glass performed better than single-glazing, clear glass and double-
ing designers should encourage the use of tiles fixed using cement or glazing clear glass during the simulation.
cement-based adhesives and polished concrete to enhance the cooling Despite the relevance of shading devices, interviews with architects
of the floor. Smith [46] advocated that the use of stone rocks (granite and households and observational survey of existing buildings in the
and marble) for flooring would provide cool indoor temperature. study area revealed that most buildings do not have shading devices.
Building simulations conducted on case studies from the study area Shading devices, which were provided for few buildings were inade-
revealed that on-ground concrete slab finished with slab might be more quate for the control of solar radiation. What is popular in Lokoja and
suitable for residential buildings in Lokoja. Other floor construction tem- Nigeria at large is the provision of “window dressing”, which are majorly
plates tested in comparison with on-ground concrete slab in Design- for aesthetics purposes. Simulation of existing buildings in the study

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E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

area showed that the combination of both overhang and side fins will There were no specific comments regarding roof materials and con-
be more appropriate for proper control of solar radiation. Previous study struction techniques from the interviews with both architects and house-
has shown that use of overhangs and horizontal shading for North and holders in the study area. The survey of existing buildings in the study
South wall and a combination of horizontal and vertical shading for East area revealed that insulation is not included in the construction of roofs.
and West facades can reduce thermal discomfort in buildings [42]. Few buildings incorporated the use of ridge vents but do not have an
eave vent. Studies have shown that a combination of eave and ridge
4.10.6. Roof vent can remove hot air from the roof space thereby, improving ther-
A well-designed energy efficient roof can help to improve indoor mal comfort.
comfort conditions, reduce energy consumption and energy bills due to
decrease in cooling loads. 4.11. Findings from modelling and simulation study of three selected
Observational studies of existing residential buildings in Nigeria and buildings
Lokoja in particular showed that the most widely adopted roof con-
struction method for residential buildings is that of a pitched roof. In This section outlines the findings from the three case studies based
the past, residential buildings were constructed majorly with corrugated on the simulation results.
iron sheets. With the advent of long span corrugated aluminium roofing
sheets, stone-coated aluminium stepped roofing tiles and other roofing • Orientation: No single orientation is suitable for all buildings. This
materials, corrugated iron sheets are almost becoming outdated. was evidenced in case study 1–3 studied. The best orientation for
The choice of roof type by building owners in the study area is more case study 1 was 2700 with the building facing the North axis.
of a personal choice in terms of aesthetic and affordability than for their The operative temperature and solar gains were at their lowest at
effects on energy consumption. Often building owners are unaware of 33.22 °C and 22,062.20 kWh compared with other alternatives con-
the implication of the colour of roof on the thermal performance of sidered. The best orientation for both case studies 1 and 2 occurred
buildings. Hence, they are not too mindful of the colour of roof as long at 900 with the buildings facing the East direction. Hence, every
as it improves the aesthetic quality of buildings and is affordable by building should be tested at the design stage for the most suitable
certain class of people in the study area. orientation.
Roof insulation can also be employed in roof construction to reduce • Functional Spaces: Functional spaces in a particular building may
both heating and cooling loads. This is important as nearly 60% of ther- have different performance in terms of thermal comfort. For the 5
mal energy leakage takes place through buildings’ roof structure [53]. functional spaces studied in case study 1 to include 3 bedrooms,
Sanjay and Chand [53] revealed that polyurethane insulation layers living, dining and kitchen, results showed different performance re-
could reduce cooling load by more than 50% compared with similar garding operative temperature and solar gains. It can be deduced
roof structure without insulation. A study conducted by Halwatura and from the results that for better performance of functional spaces, de-
Jaysinghe [54] for the tropical climate of Sri Lanka using expanded cel- sign should not just focus on the entire building but also consider
lular polyethylene resulted in at least 10 °C reduction of soffit tempera- individual spaces.
ture. • Floor: The use of concrete slab finished with tiles seem to be more
The relevance of roof insulation was confirmed by the simulation of suitable for the buildings studied as other floor materials and finishes
existing buildings in Lokoja conducted earlier in this study. An insulated showed little or no improvement regarding operative temperature
roofing system, pitched roof energy code standard-medium weight (data and solar gains.
modified when load to file) with an R-Value of 4.739m2-K/W and U- • Walls: Materials with higher U-Value were more favourable for
Value of 0.211W/m2-K performed better in terms of energy demand buildings especially in terms of operative temperature than those
and thermal comfort compare. with uninsulated 25 mm aluminium roof with lower U-Value. For instance, brick cavity single leaf construc-
having an R-Value of 0.290m2-K/W and U-Value of 3.447W/m2-K. tion with dense plaster has U-Value of 2.184 W/m2-K that led to
Roof shading, eave and ridge vents have been identified as means of a reduction in the annual operative temperature of case study 1 by
reducing heat gain and enhancing thermal comforts in buildings [55]. 0.33 °C. On the other hand, brick cavity with dense plaster with
Appropriate eave size should be provided to shade buildings elevations. a U-Value of 1.562W/m2-K reduced the operative temperature by
These approaches were popular with the tropical architectural style of 0.31 °C. Moreover, brick cavity with full mineral insulation having a
the past but have been abandoned to contemporary architecture. The U-Value of 0.537W/m2-K led to an increase of 0.28 °C in the annual
major focus of Nigerian contemporary architecture is on aesthetics and operative temperature.
adoption of foreign architectural styles, which are not suitable for the • Glazing: The use of double glazing as template and glazing type did
study area. not favour the case studies. For case study 3, their use led to an
The newly published BEEC for Nigeria recommended metal roof tile increase in the annual operative temperature by 0.3 °C (33.62 –
having 50mm insulation and U-Value of 0.72 W/m2 K for buildings in 33.65) and a reduction in solar gains of 1,965.94kWh (39,496.48
Nigeria. – 37,530.54). This is less compared with a reduction in annual op-
Building and ceiling height are other factors that can affect ther- erative temperature and solar gains by 0.11 °C and 7,091.62 kWh,
mal comfort and energy consumption in buildings. For the simulation respectively using single leaf, no shading as glazing template. The
of bungalow residential buildings in the study area, an increase in ceil- use of single glazing, no shading as the glazing template and single
ing or building height showed significant effect on operative tempera- Ref-A-L Tint 6mm as glazing type for the 3 case studies led to a re-
ture and solar gains. Increasing the ceiling and entire building height duction in both the annual operative temperature and solar gains.
by 0.5 m led to a reduction of the annual operative temperature by Their use led to 0.19 °C reduction in annual operative temperature
0.13 °C and an increase in solar gains by 598.10 kWh. The decrease in for case study 1 and 5,091.93 kWh reduction in annual solar gains
the annual operative temperature showed that increase in the ceiling for case study 2.
and building heights could lead to reduction in energy demand due to • Shading: The use of window shading had little or no effect on the
decrease in temperature, especially in tropical climate. The increase in operative temperature. For instance, using single glazing, internal
solar gain may be due to exposure of additional surface of the building blinds as glazing template, Low-E (e2=2) clear 6mm as glazing type
envelope (0.5m high) to the effect of solar insolation. Hence, an increase and drape close weave light for window shading did not affect the an-
in building height, especially bungalow residential building should be nual operative temperature. Moreover, using blinds with minimum
compensated by adequate shading of the building envelope to reduce slats as window shading device for case study 1 increased the annual
solar gains. operative temperature of the building by 0.01 °C. Though this had a

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negative effect on the operative temperature, the annual solar gains units. These are case studies, measurement and observational survey,
for the building reduced by 160.01 kWh. The use of a combination of data from building professional and data from householders.
overhang and fins had significant effect on both the operative tem- The case study is highly significant in conducting research involv-
perature and solar gains. Its use led to 0.14 °C decrease in annual ing practice-based fields like architecture and planning [56]. Designers
operative temperature of case study 2 and 720.73 kWh reduction in rely on comparison between existing cases and the actual design condi-
annual solar gains of case study 3. tions [57]. Hence, multiple case studies of existing residential buildings
• Ceiling: The use of different types of ceiling materials did not affect in the study context were conducted to determine their performances,
the operative temperature and solar gains of the case studies. In- especially in terms of thermal comfort and energy consumption. The
creasing the height of the building and the ceiling led to a reduction study of the selected cases showed that it would be difficult to produce
the annual operative temperature and increase in the annual solar a robust framework without a study of existing buildings. The study re-
gains of the 3 case studies. For example, by reducing the height of vealed relevant data that can feed into the design of an energy efficient
case study 1 by 0.5 m, the annual operative temperature reduced by residential building scheme. Relevant findings have been documented
0.19 °C while the annual solar gains increased by 407.50 kWh. in the previous section.
• Lighting: The simulation results showed that lighting has marked Another aspect of the data collection stage is the measurement and
effect on energy consumption in buildings. The use of Low emitting observational survey. This was required to measure some relevant com-
diode (LED) instead of incandescent GLS, which is mostly used in fort variables in residential buildings. Moreover, it was essential to val-
the study area for case study 3 led to a reduction in annual operative idate existing climate and building information data in the study area.
temperature by 0.93 °C. The general lighting for the building reduced It was a means for the researcher to observe building elements and sur-
by 80% approximately. rounding in terms of comfort, energy demand and consumption. For this
study, measurement and survey of 22 households covering three build-
5. Framework development ing typologies were conducted. These are detached, semi-detached and
block of flats in bungalows.
This study adopted a holistic approach for the development of the The data collection stage also involves interviews with building pro-
conceptual framework for designing energy efficient residential build- fessionals aimed at:
ings in Nigeria. It was developed based on the process identified for • Identifying challenges with existing residential buildings in terms of
achieving energy efficient residential buildings in a chosen climate, microclimate, energy, functional spaces, building elements, comfort
which has been revealed through the methodology adopted. etc.
The decision to develop the framework was borne out of the knowl- • Suggesting possible ways of making residential buildings energy ef-
edge gap discovered from the review of literature regarding energy effi- ficient.
cient residential buildings in hot humid climates, especially in the study • Identifying possible limitations to energy efficient building develop-
context. ment.
To design the framework, there was the need to explore relevant re-
quirements. Hence, architects and householders were interviewed for In addition to the data gathered from building professionals, it was
important data that informed the development of the framework. The necessary to seek relevant data from householders and building users.
interview with architects in Lokoja provided information regarding the Hence, 22 householders were interviewed from the study area. The areas
design approach of existing residential buildings, challenges and possi- covered by the interview include:
ble ways of achieving energy efficiency in buildings. On the other hand, • Comfort, energy need and energy consumption in existing residential
building occupants provided data on energy demand, thermal comfort buildings.
and challenges with existing buildings. Other areas include their pref- • Views on traditional buildings, modern buildings and traditional
erences in terms of building materials and the design of buildings. The building materials in terms of comfort and other factors.
findings from interviews, measurements and observational surveys and • Prospects regarding future building development.
case studies of existing residential buildings informed the development
of the framework. Hence, the framework is a product of both objective The data collected from stage 1 of the framework were then eval-
and subjective data relating to the design of energy efficient buildings. uated based on project context, microclimate, energy challenges and
best practice in similar climates. These are expected to feed into the
specifications that will inform the design of energy efficient residential
5.1. An overview of the stages of the framework
buildings.
The argument presented in this section shows that it will be difficult
The framework for the design of energy efficient residential buildings
to design energy efficient residential buildings for a particular climate
for Lokoja is in four stages. These are the alignment and context stage,
without the study of the context, collection and analysis of data from
specification stage, design stage and simulation stage. The stages are se-
measurements, observational survey and interviews with professionals
quential leading to the outcome, which is the proposed energy efficient
and buildings’ occupants.
residential building that meets relevant benchmarks, standards and de-
sign requirements. Design professionals in the study context can com- 5.1.2. Specification stage
mence their design process from the specification stage by first identi- This stage aimed at identifying relevant building design, materials
fying the building design, materials and construction specifications that and construction specifications that will guide the design of the pro-
satisfy their chosen project. Where there is a change of context, it is rec- posed energy efficient residential building. This is required to determine
ommended that the whole stages in the framework should be followed the fundamental criteria and target performance levels that are required
with relevant modifications to suit the objectives. These stages are pre- for an energy efficient design. The specifications should be informed
sented in the next section. Fig. 1 shows the proposed framework. by the factors outlined in stage 1 of the framework. The design factors
include the building form, organization of functional spaces, building
5.1.1. Alignment and context stage orientation, shading devices, window sizes and placement and land-
The alignment and context stage are the basis for the entire frame- scaping. This research showed that specification regarding the design
work. The goal of this stage is to identify evidences and relevant data elements should hinge especially on the microclimate and passive de-
that show that the research intervention might meet the desired aim sign techniques. Moreover, building design, material and construction
and become a useful tool to the study area. This stage comprises of four specifications should strive to strike a balance between best practices,

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economic conditions of the people and availability of building materials including interviews, case studies, measurement and observational sur-
and construction expertise. vey and measurement, defined the research investigations and findings
Interviews with building occupants revealed that it is necessary to These findings informed the development of the proposed framework,
include local building materials in the design of modern buildings due which is the main aim of this study. This methodology is unique and
to their cooling capacity. Hence, building materials specifications for has not been found to be used in any study, especially on energy effi-
energy efficient buildings should consider the inclusion of local build- cient residential buildings that adopted a combination of these research
ing materials and their implications on comfort, energy, cost of energy methods.
efficient buildings and other relevant factors. Practice elements are key to achieving energy efficiency in buildings.
Building design, materials and construction specification for this re- The elements of practice, which include technologies, engagements, in-
search were informed by best practices form similar climate, findings stitutionalized knowledge, explicit rules and expertise [59] could be
from case studies, observational surveys and interviews with architects used to shape practices. Hence, the researcher strongly recommends
and householders in the study area. the adoption of the proposed framework for the design of buildings in
At the end of this stage, the specifications for building design, ma- Nigeria. Design professionals should be encouraged to use relevant de-
terials and construction elements is evaluated leading to the design of sign approaches, building materials and construction specifications to
the proposed energy efficient building. The basis for evaluation should eliminate high-energy consuming building elements, materials, fittings
include availability of materials and construction expertise, efficiency and means. Building design should focus on approaches, techniques and
and cost implication and suitable local alternatives. measures that will improve energy efficiency in buildings without dis-
regarding users’ comfort. The study showed that majority of clients or
5.1.3. Design stage building owners are not aware of the effect of their design requirements
Building design is key to energy efficiency improvement and the real- and building expectations on comfort, the environment and energy con-
ization of buildings’ heating and cooling targets [12]. The consumption sumption. Hence, there is need for strong awareness creation on the
of non-renewable energy is determined to an extent by building design realisation of energy efficiency in buildings.
[13]. Hence, the design stage is key to achieving comfort and reduc- Earlier in this manuscript, it was revealed that energy efficiency mea-
ing energy demand and consumption in buildings. The design stage of sures are the least expensive means of improving the state of energy
the framework is where design professionals are expected to use design in Nigeria now and in the future [42]. Hence, it will be unsustainable
trainings and expertise bearing in mind stage one (alignment and con- to embark on future housing development without incorporating these.
text stage) and two (specification stage) to produce a well-articulated The findings from this research have shown that policy makers have
design that incorporates appropriate energy efficient design techniques. not done enough to promote the delivery of energy efficient residen-
Design solutions based on client’s requirements should consider thermal tial buildings in the study area. Relevant policies will no doubt improve
comfort, energy demand among other factors. investment into energy efficiency in buildings by stakeholders. For in-
Design approaches towards achieving energy efficiency in buildings stance, investment in awareness creation on energy efficient buildings
have been discussed in chapter two under the factors that affect en- and developing concrete strategies to determine actual household en-
ergy consumption in buildings, chapter five under research data anal- ergy bills. Moreover, there is an urgent need to adopt long term energy
ysis, chapter seven under discussion of major findings from analysis of efficiency strategies beginning at the early state of building projects
research and specific design and construction variables. aiming at promoting environmental protection, economic and social
Architectural design process as practiced in the study area and other sustainability. This should focus on ensuring that energy efficiency
similar climates where the framework can be adopted should be applied concepts are valued, practiced and rewarded at all stages of building
to the design stage. projects
This study has revealed that there is limited data on energy ef-
5.1.4. Simulation stage ficient buildings in Nigeria. This paper would provide relevant data
The design of buildings is an iterative process starting from the pre- that can be used by institutions for the formulation and implemen-
liminary design stage to the final detailed design stage. The use of com- tation of effective policies regarding energy efficient buildings. Fur-
puter simulation tools is vital to realizing the most appropriate design thermore, the research will enhance the understanding of profession-
elements and approaches. Building simulation is an auxiliary tool for als in building industry concerning the design of energy efficient resi-
the design of energy efficient buildings [58]. dential buildings. The proposed framework is flexible. Hence, it can be
The simulation stage involves the modelling of the proposed energy adopted for different climates with little or no modification. The find-
efficient residential building based on the design, materials and con- ings from this research and the research output are expected to con-
struction specifications identified in stage two and applied to the de- tribute greatly to energy efficient residential building development in
sign in stage three. Proper templates and specifications are applied to Nigeria.
the building model before running the actual simulation to determine The proposed framework will improve knowledge regarding energy
the building performance based on several simulation modules, which efficient residential buildings, particularly in hot humid climates. More-
include sun paths analysis, daylighting, cooling and dynamic thermal over, it can help teaching and learning on energy efficient buildings.
simulation. The performance of the building based on the simulation The methodology adopted for this study can help researchers to con-
results should be analysed to determine whether it satisfy relevant stan- duct similar research in other climates thereby contributing towards
dards and requirements. Where the simulation results did not meet the research development in this field. The adoption of the research out-
design requirements, the design should be modified and re-simulated put and the consequential savings that will accrue from energy bills will
until appropriate standards are satisfied. If the simulation results are help to improve wealth creation, economic prosperity and regeneration.
satisfactory based on the design objectives, then the design is accepted Reduction in energy bills and use of electric generators through intelli-
as a proposed energy efficient building scheme. gent design and change of building occupants’ behaviour could improve
people’s wellbeing, quality of life and level of productivity. Furthermore,
6. Conclusion it can aid the formulation of relevant policies in this regard and help to
advance societal welfare and cohesion. The reduction of cooling loads in
This study was informed by the gap identified in literature regarding buildings through the adoption of energy efficient measures will reduce
the need for a framework for the design of energy efficient residential energy consumption leading to significant reduction of CO2 emission
buildings in Nigeria. The adoption of a mixed method research design and pollution.

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E.T. Ochedi and A. Taki Energy and Built Environment 3 (2022) 384–397

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