Written Reflective writing:

assignments a basic introduction

An increasing number of courses require students to write reflectively. Reflective writing may be
an occasional requirement or it may be a core feature of most or all assignments. There are many
different models of reflection and it is vital that you follow any guidelines offered on your course.

The aim of this handout is to model some basic ideas about reflective writing. We are not
suggesting that this is the only way to approach it!

What is reflective writing?

Reflective writing is evidence of reflective thinking. In an academic context, reflective thinking usually
involves:

1 Looking back at something (often an event, i.e. something that happened, but it could also
be an idea or object).

2 Analysing the event or idea (thinking in depth and from different perspectives, and trying to
explain, often with reference to a model or theory from your subject).

3 Thinking carefully about what the event or idea means for you and your ongoing progress
as a learner and/or practising professional.

Reflective writing is thus more personal than other kinds of academic writing. We all think reflectively
in everyday life, of course, but perhaps not to the same depth as that expected in good reflective
writing at university level.

Example of basic reflective writing

Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. Initially, however, the tasks were
not seen as equally difficult by all team members. Cooperation between group members was
at risk because of this perception of unfairness. Social interdependence theory recognises a
type of group interaction called ‘positive interdependence’, meaning cooperation (Johnson &
Johnson, 1993, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2001), and many studies have demonstrated that
“cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement” (Maughan & Webb, 2001).
Ultimately, our group achieved a successful outcome, but to improve the process, we perhaps
needed a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks were being shared out. In
future group work, on the course and at work, I would probably suggest this.

Reference
Maughan, C., & Webb, J. (2001). Small group learning and assessment. Retrieved August 01,
2007, from the Higher Education Academy website:
www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/temp/assessment.html
A possible structure for reflective writing

Reflective thinking – especially if done in discussion with others – can be very ‘free’ and unstructured
and still be very useful. Even reflective writing can be unstructured, for example when it is done in a
personal diary. In assignments that require reflective writing, however, tutors normally expect
to see carefully-structured writing.

The example of basic reflective writing on the previous page can be broken down into three parts:
description, interpretation and outcome.

1 Description (keep this bit short!)

What happened? Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team.
What is being examined? Initially, however, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by
all team members.

2 Interpretation

What is most important / interesting Cooperation between group members was at risk because
/ useful / relevant about the object, of this perception of unfairness. Social interdependence
event or idea? theory recognises a type of group interaction called ‘positive
How can it be explained e.g. with interdependence’, meaning cooperation (Johnson & Johnson,
theory? 1993, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2001), and many studies
How is it similar to and different from have demonstrated that “cooperative learning experiences
others? encourage higher achievement” (Maughan & Webb, 2001).

3 Outcome

What have I learned from this? Ultimately, our group achieved a successful outcome, but to
What does this mean for my future? improve our achievement, we perhaps needed a chairperson
to help encourage cooperation when tasks were being shared
out. In future group work (on the course and at work), I would
probably suggest this.

This is just one way of structuring reflective writing. There are others and you may be required to
follow a particular model. Whichever approach to reflection you use, however, try to bear in mind the
following four key points (all of which were made by course tutors who set and mark reflective work):

• Reflection is an exploration and an explanation of events – not just a description of them.

• Genuinely reflective writing often involves ‘revealing’ anxieties, errors and weaknesses, as
well as strengths and successes. This is fine (in fact it’s often essential!), as long as you show
some understanding of possible causes, and explain how you plan to improve.

• It is normally necessary to select just the most significant parts of the event or idea on which
you’re reflecting. (The next page has some suggestions on how to do this in your writing.) If
you try to ‘tell the whole story’ you’re likely to use up your words on description rather than
interpretation.

• It is often useful to ‘reflect forward’ to the future as well as ‘reflecting back’ on the past.
Vocabulary aid

The following are just a few suggestions for words and phrases that might be useful in reflective
writing. Using any of these words and phrases will not in itself make you a good reflective writer, of
course! The vocabulary aid is structured according to the three-part analysis that is modelled on the
previous page of this handout.

1 Description (the short bit!)

We are not suggesting specific vocabulary for any descriptive elements of your reflective writing, because
the range of possible events, ideas or objects on which you might be required to reflect is so great.

Do remember, though, that if describing an idea, for example a theory or model, it is usually best to
use the present tense e.g. ‘Social interdependence theory recognises…’ (not ‘recognised’).
Events, of course, are nearly always described using the past tense.

2 Interpretation (probably the most important bit)

⎧ aspect(s)
⎪ element(s)
⎧ meaningful ⎨ experience(s) was (were)…
⎪ significant ⎪ issue(s)
For me, the [most] ⎨ important ⎩ idea(s)
⎪ relevant
⎩ useful ⎧ arose from…
learning ⎨ happened when…
⎩ resulted from…

Previously, thought (did not think)...

At the time,
⎫ ⎧ felt (did not feel)...
At first
⎪ ⎪ knew (did not know)...
Initially,
⎬ I ⎨ noticed (did not notice)...
Subsequently,
⎪ ⎪ questioned (did not question)...
Later, ⎭ ⎩ realised (did not realise)...

[Alternatively,]
⎧ might be
is perhaps
⎧ because
due to…
of…

[Equally,]
This ⎨ could be ⎨ explained by…
⎩ is probably ⎩ related to…

⎧ is similar to...
This ⎨ because…
⎩ is unlike...

⎧ reveals…
[Un]Like... this ⎨
⎩ demonstrates…
3 Outcome

⎧ read...
experienced...
⎧ feel…
think…
⎪ applied... ⎪ realise…
Having ⎨ discussed... I now ⎨ wonder…
⎪ analysed... ⎪ question…
⎩ learned... ⎩ know…

[Additionally,] ⎫
⎪
[Furthermore,] ⎬ I have learned that...
⎪
[Most importantly,] ⎭

I have significantly ⎫
slightly ⎪ ⎧
⎧ my skills in…
my understanding of…
developed
⎬
⎪
⎨
⎩ improved
⎨ my knowledge of…
However, I have not [sufficiently]
⎭ ⎩ my ability to…

This means that…

This makes me feel…

This knowledge ⎧ is ⎧ essential

⎧
This understanding ⎨ could be ⎨ important ⎨ to me as a learner [because…]
⎩ to me as a practitioner [because…]
This skill ⎩ will be ⎩ useful

⎧ did not...
have not yet...
⎪ am not yet certain about...
Because I ⎨ am not yet confident about... I will now need to…
⎪ do not yet know...
⎩ do not yet understand...

As a next step, I need to…

DCQE
Martin Hampton
email: [email protected]
www.port.ac.uk/ask
Department for Curriculum
WA13a: 08/10 and Quality Enhancement
 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD WRITING
by Paul B. Thornton

Managers and leaders must express their ideas clearly, concisely, and completely when
speaking and writing. If your written messages aren't clear or lack important details, people
will be confused and will not know how to respond. In addition, if your written messages are
too lengthy, people simply don't read them.

The process of good writing involves three basic steps - preparing, writing, and editing.
Practicing the following 16 principles will help you be a more effective writer.

1. Know your objective

Think before you write. What's your goal? Make sure you fully understand the assignment. Are you
writing a one-paragraph executive summary or a five-page report? Try answering this question:
What specifically do I want the reader to know, think, or do?

2. Make a list

Write down the ideas or points you want to cover. Why? This helps you get started in identifying
the key ideas you want to discuss.

If you have trouble getting started, try discussing your ideas with someone else. "Kicking an idea
around" often helps you clarify your objective and fine-tune what you are trying to accomplish.

3. Organize your ideas

Just as it's difficult to find what you want in a messy, disorganized desk drawer, it's hard to find
important ideas in a poorly organized message. Here are a few ways you can organize your ideas:

• Importance
• - Begin with the most important piece of information and then move on to the next most
important.
• Chronological order - Describe what happened first, second, third.
• Problem-Solution - Define the problem, then describe possible alternatives or the solution
you recommend.
• Question-Answer - State a question and then provide your answer.

Organize your ideas so the reader can easily follow your argument or the point you are trying to get
across.

4. Back it up

Have an opinion but back it up - support with data. There are a number of ways you can support
your ideas, including explanations, examples, facts, personal experiences, stories, statistics, and
quotations. It's best to use a combination of approaches to develop and support your ideas.

Brilliant Business Writing Skills 1

KWELANGA TRAINING
5. Separate main ideas

Each paragraph should have one main point or idea captured in a topic sentence. The topic
sentence is normally the first sentence in the paragraph. Each paragraph should be started by an
indentation or by skipping a line.

6. Use bullets or numbers

If you are listing or discussing a number of items, use bullets or number your points like I have
done in this paper. Here's an example of using bullets.

Join the Business Club to:

• Increase sales
• Gain new marketing ideas
• Make new friends
• Give back to your profession

7. Write complete sentences

A sentence is about someone doing something - taking action. The someone may be a manager,
employee, customer, etc. The "doing something - taking action" can include mental processes
such as thinking, evaluating, and deciding, or physical actions such as writing and talking. A good
rule to practice is to have subjects closely followed by their verbs.

8. Use short sentences

Sentences should be a maximum of 12 to 15 words in length. According to the American Press

Institute, sentences with 15 or fewer words are understood 90% of the time. Sentences with eight
or fewer words are understood 100% of the time.

9. Be precise and accurate

. Words like "large," "small," "as soon as possible," "they," "people," "teamwork," and "customer
focus" are vague and imprecise. The reader may interpret these words to mean something
different than what you intended.

Reduce communication breakdowns by being specific and precise. Define terms as needed. The
reader may not understand certain acronyms and abbreviations.

10. Use commas appropriately

Use a comma to separate the elements in a series of three or more items: His favorite colors are
red, white, and blue.

Use a comma to set off introductory elements: After coffee and donuts, the meeting will begin.

Use a comma to separate adjectives: That tall, distinguished, good-looking professor teaches
history.

Brilliant Business Writing Skills 2

KWELANGA TRAINING
11. Use the correct word

Here are several words that cause confusion.

• You’re is a contraction for "you are" Your means possession, such as "your coat."
• It's is a contraction for "it is." Its indicates possession.
• Their means possession/ownership-"their house." There means location. They're is a
contraction for "they are."

12. Avoid redundancies

It is a redundancy to use multiple words that mean or say the same thing. For example, consider
the following:

• Redundant - My personal beliefs… Beliefs are personal, so just state, My beliefs...

• Redundant - I decided to paint the machine gray in color. Gray is a color, so just state, I
decided to paint the machine gray.

13. Numbers

When using numbers in the body of your paper, spell out numbers one through nine, such as
"Three men decided…" When using numbers 10 or above it's proper to write the number, such as
"The report indicated 68 customers…"

14. Have a conclusion

Would you really enjoy watching a movie or sporting event that had no conclusion? No. The
conclusion ties your points together. The reader wants to know the final score - the bottom line
message.

15. Edit your work

Read what you have written several times.

• On your first read, focus on organization and sentence structure. Shorten long sentences.
Cross out unnecessary words and phrases. Reorganize material as needed.
• Read it again and make sure commas are used appropriately and that there is punctuation
mark at the end of every sentence.
• Read it a third time and focus on word choice. Are there certain words that are vague or
unclear? Replace them with specific words.
• Read what you have written aloud to yourself or to a friend to see if he or she (and you)
can understand it and improve it in any way.

A significant part of good writing involves editing. Very few people can sit down and write a perfect
paragraph on their first try. It requires multiple rewrites.

16. Get help

There are several web sites that can help you improve your writing. Check out the following: This
very website has useful articles on business writing. Dictionary.com helps with spelling and making
sure you're using the word correctly, and also has links to lots of other resources.

Brilliant Business Writing Skills 3

KWELANGA TRAINING
Summary

You don't have to be a great writer to be successful manager/leader. However you must be able to
clearly and succinctly explain your thoughts and ideas in writing.

Strive to be simple, clear, and brief. Like any skill, "good writing" requires practice, feedback, and
ongoing improvement.

Brilliant Business Writing Skills 4

KWELANGA TRAINING
 Essay Format

Introduction
Thesis Statement

Body

Conclusion
 Introduction
0 First part of an essay
0 Try to capture the reader’s attention

Introduction Format
0 1. Attention getter
0 2. State your problem
0 3. Bridge or transition sentences
0 4. Thesis statement
 Ways to Start Your Introduction
0 Strategy
0 Provide some interesting
background about the topic in
the form of a general statement

0 Use a thought-provoking
quotation

0 Ask a question about your topic

0 State a surprising fact or a

puzzling statement

0 Start with a short story

 Ways to Start Your Introduction
0 Strategy
0 State a common
misconception

0 Describe a problem

0 Give an analogy

0 Show how the topic is

related to the reader’s
experience
 Introduction
0 Make a bridge to connect the attention getting
sentence(s) to your thesis statement
0 Common way to make a bridge is to explain why the
topic is important.
0 This bridge is often a few sentences long.
0 Conclude introductory paragraph with the most
important idea of the essay-THE THESIS
STATEMENT
The Parts of a Thesis Statement

3
Topic Opinion
Reasons
 The Functions of a Thesis
Statement
To announce the topic to the reader

To reflect a judgment about the topic

To provide the reader with a blueprint

of what is to come in the paper
 The Body
0 The body is a set of paragraphs that develop
the idea expressed in the thesis statement.
0 Make a list of main ideas that support the thesis statement.
Each main idea becomes the main idea sentence for a body
paragraph.
0 Arrange the main ideas in logical order (time, place,
importance)
0 Plan out each body paragraph by listing major details that
support each main idea
0 Order the details within each paragraph in a logical way.
Each body paragraph may end with a concluding sentence.
 Example Essay Outline
Thesis Statement

Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence: Gnome-napping is stealing someone’s personal property, and stealing is illegal.
Main Points: 1.
2.
3.

Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence: It is morally wrong to take anyone’s property, whether it is a gnome or a car.
Main Points: 1.
2.
3.

Body Paragraph 3
Topic Sentence: The GLF is incredibly disrespectful because they take items that don’t belong them.
Main Points: 1.
2.
3.
 The Writing Stage
0 After planning and arranging your main ideas and
major details, begin writing your body paragraphs.
0 The number of paragraphs depends on the topic’s
complexity, inclusiveness, and your purpose for
writing.
0 Usually a short essay contains 3 to 5 body
paragraphs, plus an introduction and conclusion
0 Remember to use signal words to make smooth
transitions between sentences and paragraphs.
 Signal/Transition Words
0 For examples: For example, for instance, to
illustrate
0 For organization or chronological order: The
six steps are…, next, finally first, secondly,
third
0 For additional points: Furthermore, in
addition, also, moreover
0 For opposing ideas: On the other hand, in
contrast, although, however
0 For similar ideas: Likewise, similarly, in
comparison
 Signal/Transition Words
0 For exceptions: However, nevertheless, but,
yet, still
0 For emphasis: Above all, finally, more
importantly
0 For understanding: In other words, in essence,
briefly
0 For summarizing: In conclusion, to sum up, for
these reasons, in a nutshell
0 For exams: Remember this, this is important,
this could be on the test
 Conclusion
0 Leave the reader thinking about your topic. Leave
an impression on them!
0 No new information in conclusion
0 Be sure to recap your ideas
0 Should follow logically from the body of the essay
0 Restate your thesis statement in different words
0 You might want to have your reader do something
after reading (“call to action” – Example: Go write
your Senator about this problem.)
 Center for Academic Support

THE COLLEGE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO WRITING

FIVE TYPES OF ESSAYS
(Information obtained from Successful College Writing 2nd ed. by Kathleen T. McWhorter)

Narrative Essay

What is it?
A narrative essay achieves a certain purpose through telling a story, which makes it
interesting to the reader and also results in getting some point across. For example, you might
write a story about meeting someone special to you. The purpose may be to tell how meeting
this person affected your decision to attend college or to entertain the reader with a funny story
about that person. The purposes of writing narratives include the following: to create a sense of
shared history, to provide entertainment, to offer instruction, and to provide insight. Some
examples of narrative essay topics include a special person, event, or place. After choosing a
topic, you should determine the main point you want to make about that topic and then
concentrate on that throughout the rest of the paper.

Guidelines for writing a narrative essay:

4 Make a specific point. Determine what the purpose of your essay is. State that point in your
thesis statement, or controlling idea, and build upon it throughout the essay by using
examples, stories, and other details that all relate back to the main idea.
4 Involve readers in the story and create a visual picture by using dialogue and physical
description, which is achieved through telling events that happened and presenting problems
that arose. Also include specific descriptive details so that the reader can easily picture the
scene in each of the events.
4 Sequence events. Often this is done chronologically (the order in which events happened),
but using flashbacks (writing the story from one point in time but then talking briefly about
something that happened in the past) and foreshadowing (briefly talking about something that
will happen in the future) can make the story more interesting.
4 Decide which point of view, first-person (from the author’s point of view, using “I”) or third-
person (using “he,” “she,” “them,” etc. instead of “I”), works best for your essay, and tell the
story from that viewpoint.

Descriptive Essay

What is it?
A descriptive essay tells about a certain topic or story, using details to appeal to the five
senses. It gives readers the ability to vividly imagine the situation or scene and feel as if they are
experiencing it firsthand. To write a descriptive essay, you could choose a person, place, event,
object, or experience and describe it thoroughly using many sensory details.

Guidelines for writing a descriptive essay:

4 Use sensory details. Appeal to sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
 Center for Academic Support

4 Use active verbs (in which the subject is doing the acting instead of being acted upon by
something or someone else, such as “Cindy hit the ball.” instead of “The ball was hit by
Cindy.”). Also, use a variety of sentence types, such as a simple sentence (“Tom went to the
store.”), compound sentence (“Tom went to the store, and he bought a loaf of bread.”),
complex sentence (“While Tom was at the store, he bought a loaf of bread.”), or compound-
complex sentence (“While Tom was at the store, he bought a loaf of bread, but he forgot to
buy a gallon of milk.”).
4 Avoid vague language, such as “pretty,” “really,” “a lot,” and “very.”
4 Create a dominant impression (overall attitude, mood, or feeling about the subject), such as
causing the readers to sympathize with you about a sad event that happened or to agree with
you strongly on a certain controversial topic. Choose the details and descriptions that will
help accomplish this impression.
4 Use comparisons. In order to help make the descriptions even more vivid to the reader, use
similes (such as “His emotional state was like a roller coaster.”), metaphors (such as “Her
smile was a ray of sunlight in the dark sea of unfamiliar faces.”), personification (giving
human characteristics to an object, such as “The wind howled in my ears and beckoned me to
walk further into the forest.”), and analogies (brief stories that relate to the topic). Determine
the method of organization that works best for your essay: spatial (top to bottom, inside to
outside, near to far), chronological (the order in which events happened), least-to-most, or
most-to-least.

Comparison and/or Contrast Essay

What is it?
A comparison and/or contrast essay tells about two or more main subjects by pointing out
similarities and/or differences. One way to write this type of essay would be to choose two or
more objects, people, places, events, experiences, or ideas and compare and/or contrast them
according to a few specific points.

Guidelines for writing a comparison and/or contrast essay:

4 Have a clear purpose and a main point (to express ideas, to inform, to persuade, etc.).
Make sure your subjects have something specific on which you can base your
comparison and/or contrast.
4 Decide the order that best suits your essay. The two main ways you can choose to organize a
comparison and/or contrast essay are point-by-point organization and subject-by-subject
organization.
point-by-point: switching back and forth between the subjects,
comparing/contrasting them according to several main points
subject-by-subject: writing about all the main points of one subject and then
writing about all the main points of another subject, and so
on, referring back to the other subject(s) in a
comparing/contrasting way
4 In your thesis statement, or controlling idea, include the subjects; identify whether you
will be talking about similarities, differences, or both; and state your main point.
4 Have a sufficient number of significant characteristics and details (which are the various
points you use to compare and/or contrast the subjects), and give an equal amount to all
 Center for Academic Support

sides.

Cause and Effect Essay (also called causal analysis)

What is it?
A cause and effect essay analyzes what causes certain things to happen or why things are
a certain way, the results brought about by certain events, or both. For example, you may want
to write an essay about an event that happened and then tell how it affected your life. This would
tell the cause (the event) and the effect (how it affected your life). To begin writing a cause and
effect essay, you may want to first decide on a topic, such as an event or a person, and then
decide what you will tell about that topic, such as what happened to make that specific event take
place or what made the person have a certain attitude or personality. You could also tell about a
specific topic and what effects it had on future events.

Guidelines for writing a cause and effect essay:

4 Decide whether you will focus on causes, effects, or both.

4 There can be multiple causes of one effect. (For example, because you saved your money,
shopped around for the best deal, and saw an ad in a newspaper, you were able to buy the car
of your dreams.) There can also be one cause of multiple effects. (For example, your
decision to stay out late one night may have caused you to miss an important phone call,
forget to study for a test, and made you tired the next day.) There can also be a chain of
events in which each effect turns out to be the cause of another effect. (For example, one
event may have affected your decision to travel to Europe, which affected your decision to
study a foreign language, which helped you get a job as a travel agent.)
4 Have a clear purpose (to tell information, to persuade readers, or both). This purpose is
achieved through a main idea, which should be included in the thesis statement, or
controlling idea.
4 Choose a logical organization. For example, you may want to use chronological (the order in
which events happened), most-to-least (such as most effective to least effective or most
difficult to least difficult), least-to-most (such as least costly to most costly or least obvious
to most obvious), or order of importance (such as a belief that is most important to you, then
a belief that is a little less important, and so on).
4 Explain cause and/or effect fully, using details to support your explanations.

Argumentative Essay

What is it?
An argumentative essay makes a claim and then gives examples and evidence to prove
that point. You can begin writing an argumentative essay by deciding on a certain topic, such as
something about a belief, idea, or controversial issue. Then, do research to obtain detailed
information. The information can be statistics, stories, examples, observances, and other facts.
Use the information throughout the essay to argue your point and convince the reader.

Guidelines for writing an argumentative essay:

 Center for Academic Support

4 Choose a narrow issue.

4 Tell your reader what you believe about the issue very clearly and specifically in your thesis
statement, or controlling idea.
4 Be aware of your audience and anticipate the reader’s views. This means that if you know
your readers will most likely not believe a certain statement because it goes against
traditional beliefs or their personal viewpoints, make sure you give solid evidence to back it
up.
4 Use convincing details as evidence to support your claim. These should be from believable
and reliable sources. For example, if you’re stating something that has to do with human
health, quote a doctor who knows about that topic, or if you are talking about a trend in
society, include statistics from a well-known organization.
4 Choose the most appropriate way of arguing your point (inductive or deductive).
inductive=start with stating all the evidence and then move on to one conclusion
deductive=start with one basic statement of belief and move on to the
supporting points of evidence
4 Acknowledge opposing viewpoints to prove you have thought about the topic thoroughly yet
still find that your point is correct.

Classification or Division Essay

What is it?
A classification or division essay presents several topics by organizing them in a clearly
defined pattern.
A classification essay takes several topics that are related in some way and sorts them
into groups or categories according to certain characteristics. Some examples of this type of
paper would be three objects, people, or places that are each described separately, but they are
also categorized and presented in such a way so that the connection among them is clear to the
reader.
A division essay begins with one topic and divides it out into several parts in order to
take a closer, more detailed look at it. To write a division essay, you could choose a topic about
a person, place, object, or event and then divide it into several aspects that analyze the topic from
different points.

Guidelines for writing a classification or division essay:

4 Decide either how to classify the topics or into what parts to divide the topics,
according to whatever works best for your audience and is both exclusive (meaning that it
strictly allows only certain information into each category) and comprehensive (meaning that
all information is included somewhere, in one category or another) so that no topics overlap
or are left out.
4 Make each category clear and understandable to the reader by using descriptions of the
categories and topics and by including details.
4 Make sure the thesis statement, or controlling idea, tells what the main subject of the paper is;
it may also mention the method you will use to classify or divide.
 SKIMMING AND SCANNING
Skimming and scanning are two specific speed-reading techniques, which enable you to
cover a vast amount of material very rapidly. These techniques are similar in process
but different in purpose. Quickly "looking over" an article is neither skimming nor scanning. Both
require specific steps to be followed.

I. SKIMMING is a method of rapidly moving the eyes over text with the
purpose of getting only the main ideas and a general overview of the content.

A. Skimming is useful in three different situations.

• Pre-reading--Skimming is more thorough than simple previewing
and can give a more accurate picture of text to be read later.
• Reviewing--Skimming is useful for reviewing text already read.
• Reading--Skimming is most often used for quickly reading
material that, for any number of reasons, does not need more
detailed attention.

B. Steps in skimming an article

• Read the title--it is the shortest possible summary of the content.
• Read the introduction or lead-in paragraph.
• Read the first paragraph completely.
• If there are subheadings, read each one, looking for relationships
among them.
• Read the first sentence of each remaining paragraph.
a. The main idea of most paragraphs appears in the first
sentence.
b. If the author's pattern is to begin with a question or
anecdote, you may find the last sentence more valuable.
6. Dip into the text looking for:
a. Clue words that answer who, what, when, why, how
b. Proper nouns
c. Unusual words, especially if capitalized
d. Enumerations
e. Qualifying adjectives (best, worst, most, etc.)
f. Typographical cues--italics, boldface, underlining,
asterisks, etc.
7. Read the final paragraph completely.
C. Mastering the art of skimming effectively requires that you use it as
frequently as possible.

D. Skimming can usually be accomplished at about 1000 words per minute.

II. SCANNING rapidly covers a great deal of material in order to locate a
specific fact or piece of information.

A. Scanning is very useful for finding a specific name, date, statistic, or fact
without reading the entire article.

B. Steps in scanning an article.

• Keep in mind at all times what it is you are searching for. If you
hold the image of the word or idea clearly in mind, it is likely to
appear more clearly than the surrounding words.
• Anticipate in what form the information is likely to appear--
numbers, proper nouns, etc.
• Analyze the organization of the content before starting to scan.
a. If material is familiar or fairly brief, you may be able to
scan the entire article in a single search.
b. If the material is lengthy or difficult, a preliminary
skimming may be necessary to determine which part of the
article to scan.
• Let your eyes run rapidly over several lines of print at a time.
• When you find the sentence that has the information you seek,
read the entire sentence.

C. In scanning, you must be willing to skip over large sections of text without
reading or understanding them.

D. Scanning can be done at 1500 or more words per minute.

Choose the strategies that work best for you or that best suit your purpose.

 Ask yourself pre-reading questions. For example: What is the topic, and what do you already
know about it? Why has the instructor assigned this reading at this point in the semester?

 Identify and define any unfamiliar terms.

 Bracket the main idea or thesis of the reading, and put an asterisk next to it. Pay particular
attention to the introduction or opening paragraphs to locate this information.

 Put down your highlighter. Make marginal notes or comments instead. Every time you feel the urge
to highlight something, write instead. You can summarize the text, ask questions, give assent, protest
vehemently. You can also write down key words to help you recall where important points are discussed.
Above all, strive to enter into a dialogue with the author.

 Write questions in the margins, and then answer the questions in a reading journal or on a separate
piece of paper. If you’re reading a textbook, try changing all the titles, subtitles, sections and paragraph
headings into questions. For example, the section heading “The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and
Avogadro” might become “What are the gas laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro?”

 Make outlines, flow charts, or diagrams that help you to map and to understand ideas
visually. See the reverse side for examples.

 Read each paragraph carefully and then determine “what it says” and “what it does.” Answer
“what it says” in only one sentence. Represent the main idea of the paragraph in your own words. To
answer “what it does,” describe the paragraph’s purpose within the text, such as “provides evidence for
the author’s first main reason” or “introduces an opposing view.”

 Write a summary of an essay or chapter in your own words. Do this in less than a page. Capture
the essential ideas and perhaps one or two key examples. This approach offers a great way to be sure
that you know what the reading really says or is about.

 Write your own exam question based on the reading.

 Teach what you have learned to someone else! Research clearly shows that teaching is one of the
most effective ways to learn. If you try to explain aloud what you have been studying, (1) you’ll
transfer the information from short-term to long-term memory, and (2) you’ll quickly discover what
you understand — and what you don’t.

See other side of page for sample diagrams →

Sample diagrams:
San José State University Writing Center
www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter
Written by Christina Cantero

Writing Professional Memos

In this era of emails and electronic communication, learning to convey information quickly and
professionally is a highly sought-after skill. In many business or academic settings, the best way
to showcase this skill is by writing a memorandum—otherwise known as a memo.

What is a Memo?
A memo is a targeted message designed to draw attention to a specific problem and, if necessary,
propose a solution and action steps. Normally, memos are used for communicating policies,
procedures, updates, or important information to those within an organization. A memo is often
written in the form of mass communication rather than one-on-one communication. It’s different
from a typical email in that it broadcasts a message to a large group or audience.

Audience Considerations and Purpose

Oftentimes, a memo’s purpose is not only to inform, but to persuade an audience with a call to
action. To do this successfully, it is important to be aware of your audience. Memos are often
used in professional settings, such as a corporate office or a university campus; knowing who
your readers are and understanding the professional setting will help you better organize your
memo and write persuasively and effectively.

Tips to Consider
• Memos are often brief; it is important to keep your information concise and to the point.
• Memos should be fairly skimmable. Headings, lists, and a well-organized structure of
topics will help ensure your memo is easy to read and understand.
• Memos should only be addressed to the individuals who need to read it. If you have an
issue involving only one person, it would be unprofessional to send a memo out to
everyone in a team or within a company.

What are the Parts of a Memo?

1. Heading: As demonstrated in the box below, the heading segment has a basic format.

Format of Memo Heading

TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)

DATE: (current date)

SUBJECT: (brief statement of what the memo is about)

Writing Professional Memos, Fall 2019. 1 of 4

 2. Introduction: Similar to an introduction of an essay, an introduction in a memo states
the purpose of a memo by providing the context of the issue/event and the proposed
solution/call to action. In other words, it provides a short overview of what the rest of the
memo will cover and gives your audience the incentive to keep reading.

3. Context: This section provides more in-depth context or background information about
the issue/event. Remember to only provide information that is necessary for the reader to
understand the overarching point.

4. Call to Action: This section provides the steps or actions that will be taken to solve the
issue; if your memo is not addressing a problem but, rather, informing your audience of
an event, this is where you would highlight what your readers need to do for the event.

5. Discussion: The discussion section is the longest portion of the memo. This is where you
will identify your main arguments or key points in support of your proposed solution/call
to action.

6. Summary: If your memo is longer than one page, you may want to include a summary
section. This is where you write a brief statement of the key points you have covered. In
addition, this is also where you would include any resources you refer to in your research.

7. Closing Statements: The closing statements provide a polite and courteous ending to the
memo. They can also convey any benefits the audience will enjoy through the proposed
solution or your sentiment of how you can make their actions easier.

Examples of Closing Statements

1. “I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Wednesday meeting. If
you have any questions or need any assistance in this matter, please feel free to contact me.”

2. “I look forward to our staff’s cooperation in this endeavor. It will ultimately lead to company
growth and potential pay increases in the long term.”

3. “By increasing our efforts, we will avoid any potential pitfalls during the upcoming holiday
season, and I am willing to offer any sort of guidance to those who are unsure how to
implement these changes.”

Activity 1: Closing Statement Practice

Imagine you are the CEO of a clothing line company. You have just asked your marketing staff
to change the traditional advertising plan to a digital one. This will demand more hours out of
your workers, but you have explained that it will increase profit in the long-term.
Can you write a closing statement for this memo?

Writing Professional Memos, Fall 2019. 2 of 4

Activity 2: Label the Memo
Please identify all the parts of the sample memo in the boxes provided above; refer to the “parts
of a memo” section if you are unsure.

TO: Advertising Staff

FROM: John Johnathan, Advertising VP 1.
DATE: October 31, 20XX
SUBJECT: Halloween Costumes at Work 2.

It has come to my attention that many of our staff have expressed the desire to wear costumes during
Halloween this year, as many have done throughout the past few years. After discussing it with both HR
and our CEO, we have made the decision to ban the practice during this time.

While we have had employees in the past dress up for the holiday, Halloween falls on Thursday, Oct. 31st
this year. As you all are aware, this is when our meeting and facility tour will take place with Overseas
Inc.: a well-established textile company and our biggest prospective client since Local Co.
3.
Because of the delicate nature of this business endeavor, we have decided it would be more beneficial to
have our staff dress professionally and to ban costume-wear at this time.
4.
Overseas Inc. is known for its high-quality merchandise and professional presentation. To develop a
stable business relationship with them, we need to put our best foot forward and give them a good
impression. Our company will be able to do this, and more, by representing ourselves in a professional,
attentive manner. According to TorbesFinancial.com, businesses that have professionally dressed staff:

- are 56% more likely to solidify a business deal;

- will have an overall 38% increase in employee confidence;
- have a 58% overall better impression when compared to a business with casually dressed staff.

While I understand that many will be disappointed in our decision, maintaining our professionalism
during this time will benefit our company in the long run. In addition, if a business deal is reached with
Overseas Inc., management will be throwing a company-wide party to celebrate, and costumes will be
encouraged.
5.
Thank you,
John Johnathan, Advertising VP

Writing Professional Memos, Fall 2019. 3 of 4

Answer Key
1. Heading 2. Introduction 3. Context 4. Call to Action 5. Closing Statements

References
Purdue Writing Lab. “Parts of a Memo.” Purdue Online Writing Lab, N.d., https://tinyurl.com/y8oe8uep.
Accessed 30 Oct. 2019.

“Writing a Sample Memo.” A Research Guide for Students, N.d.,

https://www.aresearchguide.com/sample-memo.html. Accessed 30 Oct. 2019.

Writing Professional Memos, Fall 2019. 4 of 4

 Writing  a  Formal  Letter  
 
 
A  formal  letter  (or  business  letter)  is  a  piece  of  formal  correspondence  and  has  a  
very  specific  format.  It  should  be  within  one  page  and  be  fully  blocked  
(everything  is  lined  up  to  the  left  and  between  every  section  is  a  double  space).  
There  are  a  number  of  sections.  They  include:  
 
1. Heading.    This  includes  the  return  address  (the  writer’s  address)  and  
should  be  two  or  three  lines.  Include  the  postal  code.  If  the  letter  is  being  
written  from  a  company,  the  company’s  letterhead  may  serve  as  the  
heading,  if  the  address  is  already  printed  on  it.    
 
2. Date.  There  should  be  double  spacing  above  and  below  the  date.    
 
3. Inside  Address.  This  is  the  address  of  the  person  you  are  writing  to.  
Include  the  name  and  position  of  the  person  if  you  know  it,  followed  by  
the  address.    
 
4. Greeting  (also  called  Salutation).  The  greeting  in  a  formal  letter  is  
always  formal  and  usually  starts  with  the  word  “Dear”  followed  by  the  
person’s  family  name  or  job  position  (Dear  Mr.  Smith  /  Dear  Human  
Resources  Director).  The  greeting  ends  in  a  colon.    
 
5. Body  (the  paragraphs).  This  part  of  the  letter  is  the  text.  Each  paragraph  
should  be  separated  by  double  spaces.  Also  there  should  be  double  space  
between  the  greeting  and  the  body.  It  could  be  three  to  five  paragraphs,  
but  not  usually  more  than  five.  Indenting  is  not  necessary.    
 
6. Complimentary  Close.  This  is  the  short,  polite  closing  that  ends  with  a  
comma.  A  common  complimentary  close  is  Best  regards.  There  is  a  double  
space  between  this  and  the  body  and  between  this  and  the  signature  line.    
 
7. Signature  Line.  This  is  your  signature  (usually  for  printed  letters).  It  is  
possible  to  put  a  digital  signature  here,  your  name  in  blue  or  just  your  
name  in  black.  If  your  name  is  in  blue  or  in  the  form  of  a  digital  signature,  
your  name  is  required  in  black  at  the  bottom.  Otherwise,  just  your  name  
in  black  is  printed  (unsigned)  if  the  letter  is  not  on  paper.    
 
A  formal  letter  should  not  contain  post  scripts  (PS).    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  Body  
 
The  body  of  the  letter  (the  paragraphs)  is  very  important  and  this  text  type  has  
specific  rules  for  writing.  Here  are  the  rules  for  paragraphs  in  the  body  of  a  
formal  letter.    
 
In the first paragraph, you should say clearly who you are and why you are writing.
The introduction paragraph is quite short, just about three sentences, so you don’t
explain anything or give details here. It is like an introduction. The reader should
know exactly what the purpose of the letter is. Avoid unnecessary discussion or
opinion here. Simply say what your purpose is.

The second paragraph is for details or explanation. You should give details on what
you mentioned in paragraph one and explain anything that needs more information.

A third paragraph can be added if there is a lot more information that is needed, or if
there is another topic that needs to be covered. If it can all be put into one paragraph
(paragraph 2), then it is better to keep it shorter. However, if another paragraph is
really necessary, put it here.

The next paragraph should state what you would like the reader to do. If you need
information, ask for it here. If you wish to apply for something, state here what you
need the reader to do for you. You may want a letter of recommendation or perhaps
you need product information. Be clear and tell the reader exactly what it is you need
from him or her.

The last paragraph is also very short, like the first paragraph. You should thank the
reader for his or her time and include your email, telephone number, etc if you need
the reader to reply to you. This is especially important for job application letters.

You can also include your telephone number/e-mail address after your printed name
at the bottom, so that they can contact you ASAP if necessary.

Be sure to keep a copy of the letter for yourself and include photocopies of any
relevant documents and enclose them with your letter.
 
Types  of  formal  letters  
 
There  are  many  types  of  formal  letters.  They  include:  
1. Complaint  letters  
2. Job  application  letters  
3. Letters  requesting  information  
4. Apology  letters  
5. Letters  to  the  editor  
 
On  the  following  pages,  you  will  find  a  sample  template  and  examples  of  the  
different  types  of  formal  letters.    
 
 
 
 
 
Template for Formal Letters
Your address

Date

Address of the company

You are writing to.

Greeting (Dear…)

Paragraph 1
(Why you are writing)

Paragraph 2
(Explain the situation)

Paragraph 3
(What do you want the reader (company) to do?

Paragraph 4
(A short closing thanking the reader or company)

A closing,

Your signature

Your name
 
 
 
 
 
Sample Complaint Letter
65 Geylang East Ave 4 #12-34
Singapore
153045
June 29 2015
Customer Service Desk
Grammar King Language Books Pte. Ltd.
2 McNally Street
Singapore 246810
Dear Sir or Madam:
I recently ordered a new grammar book called “Sing Your Way to Perfect Grammar”
by Madonna Carey. It is a textbook with a corresponding CD, and the ISBN number
is 13579. My order number is A6237 (ordered March 9, 2010). The book is not in
good order and the CD is not working properly.

When I received my order in the mail, I opened the box and found that the packaging
was not thorough and the CD was actually not firmly in its case. The book seemed to
have been damaged even before I had opened the cover. When I examined the
contents I found that the book had a torn back cover and pages 14 – 17 were missing.
Later I tried the CD, but could not get it to work either on my computer or the
computers of my friends.
To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my visa card for the amount
charged for the book and CD. Also I had to pay shipping charges when the package
arrived, so I would like to be reimbursed for this amount as well. That could be in the
form of a credit to my card or as a cheque, since I paid for it in cash. I have already
bought another book from a different retailer, because I needed it quite urgently. I
would accept a voucher or credit for other materials, if that is your policy.
Thank you in advance for taking care of this matter. I have always used books from
your series and would like to remain a loyal customer.
Best regards,

Signature

Justin Thyme
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sample Letter Requesting Information
65 Geylang East Ave 4 #12-34
Singapore
153045
November 11 2016
Service Desk
Dictionary Heaven Pte. Ltd.
2A Tampines St. 1
Singapore
246810
Dear Customer Service Representative:
My name is Justin Thyme and I am interested in ordering your new dictionary and
grammar book called “I live for English”. I have been trying to order it online, but I
have not had any success, and would like to know how this can be done.

When I went to your website, I entered the correct information, including the book’s
ISPN number: C29874. The website asked for my credit card information, as well as
for my particulars (mailing address, phone number, etc.). I was able to enter all of this
information, but I still could not purchase the book. I was somewhat worried because
I entered my credit card information a few times into your system, and I did not
receive any message saying it was successful or unsuccessful. I sent an email to my
credit card company, but they could not explain why this occurred. They suggested I
write to you instead.
Please advise me on the best way to make this purchase. If I need further instruction,
please send me any necessary directions. Alternatively, I could pick the book up in
person if you supply it at any of the major bookstores in town. Please let me know
where I can buy this title, or if there are any others ways I can try. In addition, please
check your sales records to see if any of my purchase attempts made it through to you.
Thank you in advance for taking care of this matter. I have always used books from
your series and would like to remain a loyal customer. Any information can be sent to
[email protected]
Best regards,

Justin Thyme
 
 
 
 
Sample Cover (Job Application) Letter
 
1 Geylang East Avenue 1, Unit 11-01
Singapore
389778

May 01 2016

Getta Djab
Director of Human Resources
DBS Bank
14 Tanjong Pagar Road
Singapore
112334

Dear Ms. Djab

Please consider this letter my application for the position of bank teller at the
Tampines Branch of DBS, a position listed on your website on April 28, 2016. My
objective is to find a rewarding position with an institution that makes use of my
education as well as my strengths and talents. Considering my qualifications, I
strongly believe that DBS may hold that opportunity and that I would be an asset to
your service team.

My education and experience have provided me with an in-depth knowledge of

banking operations, as well as the organizational structure. I have an undergraduate
degree in Business, during which I also studied Psychology and French.
Subsequently, I received my Master’s degree in Business and have been able to use
the knowledge I gained in both degrees to become an effective business
representative.

I would like to find a position that allows upward movement. I believe in starting at
an entry position and working my way to the stretches of my potential. I have been
interested in banking since I was a high school student and that has shaped the
direction of my tertiary education. I believe the DBS may be the institution that helps
me grow along with it.

I have attached a copy of my resume with a list of references. I would very much
appreciate an opportunity to further discuss my qualifications with you. I may be
reached any time at [email protected] or via mobile at +65 94857632. Thank you
for your consideration. I look forward to hearing from you.

Best regards,

Otto Graff
 
 
 
Sample Apology Letter
Department  of  Customer  Service  
Holiday  Spinn  Hotel  
21  Downda  Road  
Singapore  
101010  
 
May  08  2015  
 
Ms.  Anna  Holly  Day  
16  A  Beet  Street  
Singapore  
202020  
 
Dear  Ms.  Day:  
 
My  name  is  Shea  Monyu  and  I  am  the  director  of  the  Customer  Service  
Department  at  Holiday  Spinn  Hotel,  Singapore.  Thank  you  for  your  letter  of  April  
28,  2016.  It  is  with  great  concern  that  I  read  your  letter  about  the  service  you  
received  at  our  hotel  between  April  24  and  April  27,  2016.    
 
Firstly,  on  behalf  of  the  hotel  and  the  housekeeping  department,  I  would  like  to  
apologize  for  the  fact  that  your  room  was  not  properly  serviced  during  your  stay  
and  they  you  left  with  a  very  bad  impression  of  our  hotel.  We  take  pride  in  our  
level  of  comfort  and  cleanliness  at  Holiday  Spinn,  so  I  have  taken  your  claim  very  
seriously  and  have  discovered  that  a  problem  with  a  new  scheduling  software  
caused  the  confusion  about  having  the  appropriate  staff  attend  to  your  room  at  
the  appropriate  time.  For  this  we  sincerely  apologize.    
 
I  have  issued  a  credit  to  your  visa  card,  so  that  you  will  not  be  charged  for  your  
stay  with  us  and  would  like  to  personally  invite  you  to  stay  with  us  again  for  a  
free  four-­‐day  holiday  at  a  time  of  your  convenience.  We  value  you  as  a  loyal  
customer  and  I  would  also  like  to  assure  you  that  we  have  taken  steps  to  insure  
that  this  kind  of  mistake  will  not  happen  again.  I  do  hope  you  come  to  visit  us  
again,  compliments  of  Holiday  Spinn.    
 
We  value  your  feedback  and  look  forward  to  hearing  from  you  about  our  service  
once  again,  so  that  we  can  work  to  serve  you  better.  Please  feel  free  to  contact  
me  personally  if  you  have  any  questions,  or  would  like  me  to  take  care  of  your  
free  booking.  I  may  be  reached  through  the  email  on  our  website  or  at  
+6599199100.  I  look  forward  to  serving  you  again.    
 
Warmest  regards,  
 
Shea  Monyu  
Director  of  Customer  Service  
Holiday  Shinn  
Sample Letter to the Editor
Wan  Tu  Noh  
3  Woodlands  Street  East  
Singapore  
837465  
 
May  05,  2016  
 
Editor  
The  Straits  Times  
21  Ink  Road  
Singapore  
987654  
 
Dear  Editor:  
 
It  is  with  sadness  and  support  that  I  write  to  you  about  the  article  “Plight  of  
Domestic  Workers  in  Singapore”  from  the  May  02,  2016  edition  of  The  Straights  
Times,  page  42.  I  feel  that  this  is  a  topic  that  both  Singaporeans  and  foreigners  in  
this  country  must  respond  to,  as  it  an  issue  relevant  to  those  who  hire  domestic  
workers.    
 
The  author,  Lim  Dim  Sum,  stated  that  20%  of  domestic  workers  in  Singapore  
have  been  abused  by  their  employers  at  some  point  during  their  working  time  in  
Singapore.  I  find  this  both  astonishing  and  disturbing.  As  an  employer  of  a  
domestic  worker,  I  have  always  done  my  best  to  be  sure  that  my  helper  is  treated  
fairly  and  well;  however,  I  have  heard  many  stories  over  the  years  of  
maltreatment  and  even  abuse  from  her  friends.  I  am  quite  sure  that  this  problem  
is  rampant  in  Singapore  and  I  wish  to  acknowledge  publicly  that  this  is  an  issue  
for  us  as  a  population.  I  also  wish  to  applaud  Mr.  Lim  who  so  bravely  and  
eloquently  presented  his  findings  through  his  research  study  on  the  topic.    
 
I  feel  it  is  our  responsibility  to  stand  united  against  abuse  and  I  would  like  to  call  
this  newspaper  to  its  role  as  well.  Please  take  this  issue  as  a  role  of  your  
publication  and  aim  to  educate  the  public  in  the  hopes  of  eradicating  the  abuse  of  
domestic  workers.  Please  give  us  more  articles  and  updates  on  this  troubling  
situation.  As  a  Singaporean,  I  thank  you  and  hope  you  will  continue  to  work  on  
this  unfortunate  issue.    
 
Please  consider  me  a  supporter  and  accept  my  thanks  and  congratulations  on  
bringing  this  important  issue  to  light.  I  look  forward  to  reading  more  in  The  
Straits  Times.    
 
Respectfully  yours,  
 
Wan  Tu  Noh  
 Persuasive Techniques
We use persuasive language to convince others to agree with our facts, share our
values, accept our argument and conclusions, and adopt our way of thinking. There
are many different ways to persuade people. Here are some of the more common:
Appeals: One persuasive technique is appealing to the audience,s:
o Emotions
o Fears
o Desire to seem intelligent
o Need to protect their family
o Desire to fit in, to be accepted, to be loved
o Desire to be an individual
o Desire to follow a tradition
o Desire to be wealthy or save money
o Desire to be healthy
o Desire to look good
r Desire to protect animals and the environment
o Pride in our country
Often other persuasive techniques can also involve an appeal.

Evidence: Using evidence is very persuasive as it makes the reader see the author as
knowledgeable and the argument as more logical or reliable.
Fxxi*g*ie;: Statistics, expert opinions, research findings and anecdotal evidence.

Attacks: Attacks on opposing views, or the people who hold them can persuade the
audience by portraying views and beliefs which are contrary to the author's
conterition as foolish, dangerous, uncaring or deceitful. Using humor to make fun
of these views can be particularly persuasive. Note: can offend or alienate
audience if overdone.
[,'r*r':i:ri*; 'Town Hall? clown Hallif we consider the Mayor's latest comments.'

fnclusive and Exclusive Language: Inclusive language such as 'we','our,,,us, and

exclusive language such as 'them' can persuade by including the reader, or by
creating a sense of solidarity or a sense of responsibility.
*xnni:i.:i"*l 'People like you and me don't want to see this happen'

Rhetorical Questions: Rhetorical questions are questions that do not require and
answer and are asked for effect only. They engage the audience and encourage
them to consider the issue and accept the author's answer, or imply that the
answer is so obvious that anyone who disagrees is foolish.
f;:i*rn*i*: Do we want our children growing up in a world where they are
threatened with violence on every street corner?

Cause and effect: arguments may claim there is a cause and effect relationship when
really there is just a relationship and other factors should be considered.
 I

Connotations: The connotation is the emotional meaning associated with the word.
Persuasive authors often choose their words carefully so that the connotation
suits their purpose.
f,x*mp$* {1} 'Kill' and 'Slaughter' both mean the same thing, but the word
'slaughter' has a different connotation to 'kill', as it causes the audience to
imagine that the act was particularly horrific.
ilx*r**** fff.]'Health issue' vs'health crisis'
*x*mp** {3} 'Terrorist'vs 'freedom fighter'
.

Analogy: Analogy is a form of reasoning which compares one thing with another in
order to make a particular point.
ilxarnyr0*: School is like a prison and students are like prisoners.

Generalisations: Make sweeping statements about a whole group, based on only

one or two members of that group. These can be persuasive if the audience
believes the generalization is appropriate, but can undermine argument if they
do not.
Hxnrnp$*; A store manager might see one or two teenagers shoplifting, and write
a letter to the editor claiming all teenagers steal and can't be trusted.

Humor: Humor, such as puns, irony, sarcasm, satire and jokes can be persuasive by
dismissing opposing views, providing a more engaging and friendly tone, and
sway an audience by having them enter into the joke.
ffxa*:pls: 'Totally Artraged' as a pun on 'Totally Outraged' when talking about
controversial art.

Jargon: By using specialised terms, the author can persuade the audience that they
are an expert.
ilx*n:p*$*r When announcing a recession whilst trying to save face a politician may
call it 'period of economic adjustmen{ or'interruption of economic expansion'.

Formal Language: Formal language can make the author sound knowledgeable while
removing emotion from the issue. This can make the argument sound reasonable
and rational, and the contention seem balanced.
*x*n:p9*: 'lf we consider the situation in emergency wards, with increasingly low
staff retention rates, there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to
maintain adequate doctor to patient ratios.'

Colloquial language: Colloquial language is informal, everyday, conversational

language that includes down to earth views and is seductive because it appears
friendly, and can make the audience feel that the author is on the same
wavelength as them.
f;xarnp'*!*; "That totally grassed me out" vs. "That really disgusted me."
 --

Repetition: By repeating letters, words and phrases the author can reinforce an
argument and ensure that the point of view being made stays in an audience's
mind.
ftx;tr.mpi*: Now is the time to make real the promises of democra cy. Now is the
time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of
racialjustice. Nouz is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial
injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make iustice a
reality for all of God's children.

Hyperbole: The use of hyperbole emphasizes points by exaggerating. lt can be used

to mock opposing opinions, as a shock tactics technique, or an appeal to fears.
fxar:-*pi* {3i Those who support this ridiculous idea would have us believe that it
will dramatically improve the quality of life for modern living. Of course it willl \
And it will probably bring about world pesce, stop pollution, ond make the troms
run on time!
Sx*rnpF* i?! Every weekend the city is overrun by beggars

Alliteration and Assonance: The repetition of initial consonant sounds {alliteration)

or vowel sounds (assonance) adds emphasis to major points and makes them
more memorable.
$xx rreph* : Syd ney's slippery slide (alliteration )
The elite meet and greet {assonance)

lmagery and Figurative Language: use of figurative language, metaphor and simile
can paint a word picture for audience, making the point visually and by
comparison, or appeal to emotions. They can also make the author appear
sophisticated or well spoken.
&x*ntpie {l"j Australia is a fabric woven of many colors (metaphor)
f;xaa"*-*i* i3] Citizenship was thrown around like confetti (simile)
H:;*n:::i*: l;il Bodies were piled up in makeshift roadside graves and in gutters
(imagery)

lmages: lmages can also be used to persuade the reader, either independently or
used with an article. Consider: .i

fs:{"ntssrt: What is the issue?

{,*nt*nt: What is in the image? What is in the foreground and the
background? What symbols or text is used? What colors are used?
T*r$ei; Who/ what is the visual directed at?
It4**tsag*: What is the artist's message or contention? How does the content
of the image persuade the reader to accept this contention?
 TONE
I Passionate Equitable (iust and Indifferent
I Mocking fatu) (showing lack of
t Assured r Learred interest)
I Reasonable t Admiring . matter of fact
I Impenronal I Bitter I ponderous
{showing no emotion) I
Antagonistic I sarcastie
I Cheerful (opposing, hostilif) I sensitive
t ForcefirI I Forgiving I aggressive
I Arrogant I Restrained I Appalled
(unpleasantly self- I Satirical (attack I Critieal
important) through ironyo I F etwent (intense.
Vindictive (seeking ridicule) str0ng)
revenge) Plaintive (expressing I Insensitive
I Calm sorrow) t Pensive {deep in
I Shocked I Authoritative ttrought)
I Decisive (conclusive) t Detached (no Querulous
t Impartial (not emotional (compiaining)
biased) involvement) Sardonic (bittertry
I Respectful I Optimistic (positive) mocking or cynical)
a Complaining
I Pleading Condescending
I Sympathetic I Neutral (pretending to be on
I Jovial (happy) I
Ingratiating equal terms whlie
I Apologetic (ungrateful) maintaining an attitude
I Rearonable I Disappointed of superiority)
a Indignant (anger I Sceptical (Doubts, C3'nical fuessimistic
aroused by something questions, disagrees) view)
unjust or mean) Chauvinistic Ardent (eager
I Certain (exaggerated or .r
passionate)
I Wise aggressive patriotism- F'orthright
I Rational (abiiity to that ones group is (outspokerl
reason, logical) superior (surely!) straightforward)
I Balanced I Endearing Dogmatic (arrogan!
I Objective (not t Guarded assertive)
influenced to personal I Insulting tr'rivolous (not
prejudice or emotions) I Persuasive serious, silly)
I Cautious
I Confident I
Quizzical
r t Conserwative
I Resentful (bitter, Controlled
angry) I r Demeaning
Despoudent (lost all
I Admonishing
I Cautious hope)
I Tolerant t Earnest (serious) (telling off)
I Impatient I F acetious (intending Chiding (subtle,
t Aloof to be amusing) nagging)
I Angry I Biting Judgmental
r Outraged r Embittered {aroused
bitter feelings)
 HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR LISTENING SKILLS:
A KEY TO GOOD COMMUNICATION
William Doverspike, Ph.D.
Drdoverspike.com
770-913-0506

A psychologist once had a client who asked his Don’t interrupt or change the subject. A
wife, “How would you rate my listening pause, even a long pause, doesn’t always mean
skills?” She replied, “You are capable of that the speaker has finished saying everything
perceiving sound.” For this husband, the four that he or she has to say.
most dreaded words were “We need to talk.”
This statement can sometimes be translated, Concentrate on what you are hearing. Focus
“You need to listen.” your mind on what the speaker is saying.
Practice shutting out outside distractions when
Good communication builds good relationships. listening. Listen with your eyes.
Psychologists emphasize good listening skills,
which are one of the main themes throughout Turn off your own worries. Turning off and
Dale Carnegie’s (1936/1981) classic book titled tuning in aren’t easy, but they are important.
How to Win Friends and Influence People. Personal problems or worries not connected
There are several simple strategies that can help with the subject at hand form a kind of internal
people improve their listening skills. “static” that can blank out the real message that
you are trying to tune in.
Limit your own talking. You can’t talk and
listen at the same time. If you are thinking Consider taking notes. In some settings,
about what you are going to say next, then you taking notes may be appropriate and will help
are not listening. Good communication is said you remember important points. Be selective.
to be 99% listening and 1% talking. Trying to take notes on everything said can
result in being left far behind or in retaining
Listen to hear. Listen carefully to the person irrelevant information while missing the main
who is speaking. Listen to hear, not to mentally themes.
compose your response. Listen to learn, not to
construct your rebuttal. Listen for ideas, not just words. You want to
get the whole picture, not just isolated bits and
Think like the person who is speaking. His or pieces. Listen for key themes.
her problems and needs are important. You’ll
understand and retain them better if you strive Use interjections to punctuate your listening.
to understand his or her point of view. An occasional “Yes” or “I see” shows you are
still with the speaker. However, wait until the
Ask clarification questions. If you don’t speaker has finished his or her comment, and
understand something, or if you feel you may don’t overdo or use interjections as meaningless
have missed a point, clear it up now before it comments.
embarrasses you later. It is often helpful to ask
open questions rather than closed questions.
HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR LISTENING SKILLS 2

Prepare in advance. Remarks and questions Reference

prepared in advance, when possible, free your
mind for listening. Carnegie, D. (1936/1981). How to win friends
and influence people (Rev. ed.). New
York, NY: Pocket Books. (Original
Respond to ideas, not the person. Don’t allow work published 1936).
irritation to rise from things heard or from
mannerisms of the speaker. Rather than reacting
to these distractions, consider responding to the
ideas. Base your response on principles, not
personalities.

Don’t argue mentally. Don’t allow yourself to

become annoyed or irritated with anything that
is said. Try agreeing with points to see if you
can understand the speaker’s perspective better.

Don’t jump to conclusions. Avoid making

unwarranted assumptions about what is going
to be said. Don’t mentally try to complete the
other person’s sentences. Listen and learn.

Practice silence. The word listen has the same

letters as the word silent. One of the best ways
to listen is to be silent. If you practice silence
(e.g., though meditation), you will become
better at learning how and when to be silent.

As a final thought, it is often helpful to keep

this question in mind: “Am I listening or just
waiting to talk?”
HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR LISTENING SKILLS 3

Correct Citation for Reference Entry Documentation

The reference entry correct citation styles for this This document is cross-referenced to a portable
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Note: According to the Chicago Manual of Style, blog
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be cited in the running text and/or notes. However, if a
blog is cited frequently, you may include it in the
N/A
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Webinar Presentation Deck:
Modern Language Association N/A
Doverspike, William F. “How to improve your listening
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Workshop Handouts:
N/A
Note: MLA guidelines assume that readers can track
down most online sources by entering the author, title, or
other identifying information in a search engine or a
database. Consequently, MLA does not require a URL in
citations for online sources such as websites. However,
some instructors still ask for it, so check with your
instructor to determine his or her preference.

Copyright © 2006 by William F. Doverspike, Ph.D.

Content was last updated 2023.

The correct citation for this article is Doverspike, W. F.

(2006). How to improve your listening skills. Retrieved
from http://drwilliamdoverspike.com/
 Lesson 1: Reading and interpreting different types of graphs

Learning Goals:

o When and how to use a line, bar and pie graph.

o Define and identify the parts of a line and bar graph.
o Examine line graphs presented in examples.
o Read and interpret information from line graphs.

Topic: Reading and interpreting different types of graphs

Graphs (line, bar, or pie graphs) help you communicate information in a format that shows
how one piece of information is related to another.

Line graphs can be used to compare changes over the same period of time for more
than one group.

Pie charts are best to use when you are trying to compare parts of a whole. They do
not show changes over time.

Bar graphs are used to compare things between different groups or to track changes
over time.

1
Example(s):

Let’s first look at line and bar graphs:

A bar or a line graph is used to organize and analyze information about two variables, e.g.,
weight and cost, time and distance, colour and number.

The horizontal axis (x-axis) is used to show the quantity (e.g. time) or type (e.g. blue) of
one of the two variables. This variable is called the independent variable. It’s a variable
you can manipulate, but it’s not dependent on the changes in other variables.

The vertical variable (y-axis) is called the dependent variable. The value of y depends on
the value chosen for x.

The axes are usually labeled with the name of the variable and units of measure.

"Chart Title"
The title provides an introduction to the data
contained within the graph
This is the y-axis.

This is the x-axis.

2
Here is an example of how we can use a line graph to compare Mark’s height at
different ages.

Marks's height
60 57

50 45
40
40
Height (inches)

30
30

20

10

0
2 4 6 8
Age (years)

1. How old is Mike when he is 40 inches tall?

2. At what age is Mike 42 inches tall?

3. How much did Mike grow from when he was 2 years old to when he turned 8 years

old?

3
A pie chart uses “pie slices” to show relative sizes of data.

Each slice is usually represented as a percentage or fraction.

It is a really good way to show relative sizes: it is easy to see which movie types are
most liked, and which are least liked, at a glance.

4
Practice Questions:

Read and interpret each graph below by answering their respective questions.

Question 1:

1. What is the largest number on the vertical scale?

2. What pulse rate is recorded at 4 minutes?

3. A pulse rate of 95 beats per minute was recorded at how many minutes?

5
 Question 2:

The Effect of Fertilizers on Tomato Plant Growth

Xtreme Grow

Pete's House Plants

Miracle Gro

Costco Fertilizer

No Fertilizer

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
The Average Height

1. How many items are being compared in the graph?

2. What was the average height in cm for Xtreme Grow?

3. What was the average height in cm for No Fertilizer?

6
Question 3:

Soda Flavour Survey

6%
12%

12%

40%

30%

Other cherry soda mountain dew ginger vanilla mint

1. How many sectors are in this circle graph?

2. What percentage of people preferred ginger soda?

3. What percentage of people preferred cherry soda?

4. If a total of 100 people were surveyed, then how many people preferred vanilla mint
soda?

7
Stand 4 Lesson 1 Assessment:
Answer the questions as it pertain to each graph.

Question 1:

Temperatures in Toronto

45 40
40
35 30
Temperature in Celsius

30 27
25
19
20
15 12
10 5
5
0
1 2 3 Weeks 4 5 6

1) What is the title of this line graph?

2) What is the range of the values on the horizontal scale?

3) What is the range of the values on the vertical scale?

4) How many points are on the graph?

5) What is the lowest temperature recorded?

6) What is the highest temperature recorded?

7) At what point did the temperature dip?

8
Question 2:

Value of Deborah's Car

25000 23000
20470
20000 18570
16670
Value in $

15000
11770
9870
10000

5170
5000

0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Year

1. What is the title of this line graph?

2. What is the range of values on the horizontal scale?

3. What is the range of values on the vertical scale?

4. How many points are in the graph?

5. What was the highest value recorded?

6. What was the lowest value recorded?

7. Did the value of the car increase or decrease over time?

9
Question 3: The line graph below shows people in an office at various times of the
day.

Number of People in the Office

30 27
25
25 22
20
number of people

20
15
15 12

10

5 3

0
8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM
Hours

1. What is the busiest time of day at the office?

2. At what time does the office have the least amount of people?

3. How many people are in the office at 8 am?

4. About how many people are in the office at 1:30 pm?

5. What was the greatest number of people in the office?

6. What was the least number of people in the office?

10
Question 4: The line graph below shows the number of pre-teens 9 through 13 in
Aurora that have cell phones.

Pre-teens in Aurora that own cell phones

800 750

700

600
Number of Children

500
500

400

300
200
200 120
80
100

0
9 10 11 12 13
Age of Children

1. At what age do children have the greatest number cell phones?

2. At what age do children have the least number of cell phones?

3. How many cell phones do 11 year-olds have?

4. About how many cell phones do 12 year-olds have?

5. What was the greatest number of cell phones at any age?

6. What was the least number of cell phones at any age?

11
Communication Skills

Week 2
 What Will We Study THIS WEEK?
• Introduction to Communication
Skills
• Basics of communication
• Types of Communication
• Class Activity
• Process of Communication
• Class Activity
• Quick Review/Flashback
 What is
Communication?
• Communication is the art and process of
sharing ideas.
• It is a process of sending and receiving
messages through verbal and non-
verbal means.
• Effective communication depends on
the richness of those ideas.
 Types of Communication

• Communication can be categorized into two types:

• Based on Channel/Medium:
• Verbal communication
• Non-verbal communication

• Based on Purpose and Style:

• Formal communication
• Informal communication
 Verbal Communication
• In verbal communication, message is transmitted verbally
either by mouth or by writing.
• Every communication works solely with the objective of
conveying messages.
• In verbal communication, the principle is followed is:
“Keep it short and simple”
 Classifying Verbal Communication
• Oral/Spoken Communication: • Written Communication:
• Spoken language is used. • Written signs and symbols are used to
• It includes face-to-face conversations, communicate.
speech, telephonic conversation, video,
television, voice over internet. • Message may be printed or hand
• Examples: conversations, interviews, written.
counseling/helping colleagues,
meetings, conferences. • Message can be transmitted via letter,
• Oral communication is influenced by report, memo, bulletins, job
pitch, volume, speed and clarity of descriptions, manuals etc.
speaking.
 Non-Verbal
Communication
• According to McConnel
(2003), non-verbal
communication is
behavior, other than
spoken and written
communication that
creates or represents
meaning.
• Actions speak louder
than words.
• Appearance, body
language and sound.
Communication Based
on Purpose and Style
• Formal Communication:
• Formal communication follows certain
rules, standard conventions to
communicate/convey message.
• Professional settings, corporate meetings,
conferences undergo in formal pattern.
• Use of slang and foul language is avoided
and correct pronunciation is required.
Informal Communication
• This is casual and
unofficial form of
communication.

• Information is exchanged
spontaneously between
two or more persons
without conforming the
prescribed official rules,
processes, system,
formalities, and chain of
command.
Compare and contrast these pictures.
What Do You Understand From This Picture?
 Intercultural Communication

• The skills required to communicate, or share information, with

people from other cultures and social groups.
• Intercultural communication also requires an understanding that
different cultures have different customs, standards, social norms,
and thought patterns.
• Good intercultural communication skills require a willingness to
accept differences and adapt them.
 Types of Speech

Impromptu Speech Persuasive Speech

• A type of speech in which
• Speech given on the spot speaker attempts to convince
without any preparation audience to accept his/her
point of view.

• An excellent communicator is
who can give extemporaneous • Sometimes audience cannot be
speech. convinced by a single
persuasive speech.
Process of Communication
 Make a group of
two people and
play roles.
Activity
Contemplating Seven C’s of Communication
 Activity: Applying
Seven Cs

Just 1 Minute

Speak on Any Topic

of Your Liking
Flashback
 Narrowing a Topic and Developing a Research Question
Narrowing a Topic Reference Sources
You may not know right away what your research question is. Gather Reference sources are a great place to
information on the broader topic to explore new possibilities and to help begin your research. They provide:
narrow your topic. • a way to identify potential research
topics.
• Choose an interesting topic. If you’re interested in your topic, chances • a starting point to gather information
are that others will be, too. Plus researching will be a lot more fun! on your topic.
• an introduction to major works and key
• Gather background information. issues related to your topic.
• For a general overview, reference sources may be useful. • key authors in your area of research.
• The database OneSearch@IU is also a good place to start narrowing
your focus and finding resources (libraries.iub.edu/onsearch). General Reference Sources
Dictionaries and encyclopedias provide
• Ask yourself: general information about a variety of
- What subtopics relate to the broader topic? subjects. They also include definitions
that may help you break down and better
- What questions do these sources raise? understand your topic. They are gener-
- What do you find interesting about the topic? ally not cited, since they mainly give an
overview of a topic.
• Consider your audience. Who would be interested in the issue?

From Topic to Research Question

After choosing a topic and gathering background information, add focus with a research question.
• Explore questions.
- Ask open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic.
- Consider the “so what” of your topic. Why does this topic matter to you? Why should it matter to others?
- Reflect on the questions you have considered. Identify one or two questions you find engaging and which
could be explored further through research.
• Determine and evaluate your research question.
- What aspect of the more general topic you will explore?
- Is your research question clear?
- Is your research question focused?
(Research questions must be specific enough to be well covered in the space available.)
- Is your research question complex?
(Questions shouldn’t have a simple yes/no answer and should require research and analysis.)
• Hypothesize. After you’ve come up with a question, consider the path your answer might take.
- If you are making an argument, what will you say?
- Why does your argument matter?
- How might others challenge your argument?
- What kind of sources will you need to support your argument?

Sample Research Questions

Clarity Focused Simple vs. Complex
Unclear: Why are social networking sites Unfocused: What is the effect on the envi- Too simple: How are doctors addressing
harmful? ronment from global warming? diabetes in the U.S.?
Clear: How are online users experiencing or Focused: How is glacial melting affecting Appropriately complex: What are common
addressing privacy issues on social network- penguins in Antarctica? traits of those suffering from diabetes in
ing sites like MySpace and Facebook? America, and how can these commonalities
be used to aid the medical community in
Adapted from: George Mason University Writing Center. (2008). How to write a research question.
prevention of the disease?
Retrieved from http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/?p=307
REPORT WRITING
This study advice sheet highlights common features in written reports and makes
recommendations for clear presentation and a conventional format.

What is a report?
A report is a more highly structured form of writing than an essay, and is designed so that it can
be read quickly and accurately; though reports are not necessarily read from beginning to end.
Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information was
gathered as much as the information itself. Reports should be organised for the convenience of
the intended reader. Reports are written on a wide range of subjects for a wide variety of reasons.

Before writing any report you should identify the objective and the preferred conventions of
structure and presentation. This is as true for reports you write at university as it is for reports
written in employment.

All reports attempt to communicate findings for one reason or another, whether to inform decision
makers, change public opinion or maintain a record of development. Whenever you write a report
you must bear in mind why you are writing and who you are writing for. All reports have an
intended reader. Put yourself in his/her position. What does he/she need to know?

Stages in report writing

The following stages are involved in writing a report:
 planning your work;
 collecting your information;
 organising and structuring your information;
 writing the first draft;
 checking and re-drafting.

Draw up an outline structure for your report and set the work within a sensible time scale for
completion by the given deadline. One common structure is based on the 4 P’s: position, problem,
possibilities, proposal. This means you outline the current position, describe the problem, examine
the range of possibilities and decide on a proposal (Hemingway, 1993). Some of the most
time-consuming parts of the process are collecting and selecting your information, and checking
and revising your report.

 Clarify your terms of reference – what brief are you working to?

 Decide on the main sections of your report – what instructions have you been given?

Note for students on modules LLP002, LLP207, LLP312 and LLP314: Your assessment brief
on Learn will have specific details on the main sections you should include in your report. These
may not be the same as the structure suggested in this advice sheet. However, the
recommendations on Presentation, Style of Writing, Layout and the Checklists in this advice sheet
are still relevant.

Examples of different types of reports

Research report: https://www.nesta.org.uk/publications/state-art-analysing-where-art-meets-
technology-using-social-network-data
Industry analysis: http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/resources/report/design-economy-report
Market research: http://academic.mintel.com/display/793761/ (Access on Campus or via VPN)
Structuring your report
Check with your tutor to find out what your report should include and how it should be presented.
The following elements are however common to many reports:

• Title page
This should include the title of the report (which should give a precise indication of the subject
matter), the author(s)’s name(s), module, and the date.

• Acknowledgements
You should acknowledge any help you have received in collecting the information for the
report, for example from staff in your department, support services or external companies.

• Contents
You should list all the main sections of the report in sequence with the page numbers they
begin on. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be listed
separately under a title such as ‘List of Illustrations’ together with the page numbers on which
they appear.

• Abstract or executive summary

This should be a short paragraph summarising the main contents of the report. It should
include a short statement of the main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and any
recommendations made. The abstract or summary should be concise, informative and
independent of the report. The summary may have more than one purpose: it reminds the
reader what they have read but it is also useful to busy managers or professors who may not
always read the full report.
Write this section after you have written the main body of the report.

• Introduction
This should give the context and scope of the report and should include your terms of
reference (what have you been asked to find out?) State your objectives clearly, define the
limits of the report, outline the method of enquiry, give a brief general background to the
subject of the report e.g. the company or procedure, and indicate the proposed development.

• Methodology
In this section you should state how you carried out your enquiry. What form did your enquiry
take? Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires, how did you collect your data? What
measurements did you make? How did you choose the subjects for your interviews?

• Results or findings
Present your findings in as simple a way as possible. The more complicated the information
looks, the more difficult it will be to interpret. Graphs, charts and diagrams help your reader
identify key results and will break the flow of written text.

• Discussion
This is the section where you analyse and interpret your results drawing from the information which
you have collected, explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest explanations
for your findings. Outline any problems encountered and try and present a balanced view.

• Conclusions and recommendations

This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It should be expressed
clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your recommendations in
a separate section or include them with the conclusions.
 • References
It is important that you give precise and accurate details of all the work by other authors which has
been referred to within the report. References are normally listed in alphabetical order by the
authors' names or in numerical order. Check your Department handbook to find out what
referencing format is required by your Department.

Appendices
An appendix contains additional related information which is not essential to read but can be
consulted if the reader wishes. However, the interpretation of the report should not depend on this
being read. You could include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or
other such information.

Presentation

Your report should be easy to read. What are the requirements for your module?
• Paragraphs should be short and concise. They should be spaced apart.
• Avoid rambling by using short sentences.
• Avoid using unnecessary jargon and unexplained abbreviations.
• List your standard measurements, units and technical terminology in a glossary at the end.
• Headings should be clear – highlighted in bold or underlined.
• Label graphs, pictures or drawings as 'Figures', e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.
• Tables of information should be labelled separately, e.g. Table 1, Table 2 etc.

Style of writing
Keep it simple. Avoid sentences that are too long and eliminate unnecessary jargon. Your tutor will
be able to advise whether the report should be written in the ‘active’ or ‘passive’ voice.

The active voice reads as follows: ‘I recommend ...’

The passive voice reads: ‘It is recommended that ...’

The active voice allows you to write short, punchy sentences. The passive appears more formal and
considered and is more suitable for academic writing. Avoid mixing the two voices.
In which voice will you be expected to write?

Layout
Most reports have a progressive numbering system. The main sections are given single numbers -
1, 2, 3 and so on.
Subsections are given a decimal number- 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 etc.
Subsections can be further divided- 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.2.1, 1.2.2 etc.

Redrafting and checking

Once you have written the first draft of your report you will need to check it through. It is
probably sensible to leave it on your desk for a day or so if you have the time. This will make a
clear break from the intensive writing period, allowing you to view your work more objectively.
Assess your work by re-reading particularly focusing on:
• structure,
• content,
• style.
 Report writing checklist
7. Results and findings
1. Title page
Are your diagrams clear and simple?
Does this include the: Are they clearly labelled?
title? Do they relate closely to the text?
author(s)’s name(s)?
module details? 8. Discussion
Have you identified key issues?
2. Acknowledgements Have you suggested explanations for your
Have you acknowledged all sources of help? findings?
Have you outlined any problems encountered?
3. Contents Have you presented a balanced view?
Have you listed all the main sections in sequence?
Have you included a list of illustrations? 9. Conclusions and recommendations
Have you drawn together all of your main ideas?
4. Abstract or summary Have you avoided including any new
Does this state the: information?
main task? Are your recommendations clear and concise?
methods used?
conclusions reached? 10. References
recommendations made? Have you listed all references?
Have you included all the necessary information
5. Introduction for locating each reference?
Does this include: Are your references accurate and consistent?
your terms of reference?
the limits of the report? 11. Appendices
an outline of the method? Have you only included supporting information?
a brief background to the subject matter? Does the reader need to read these sections?

6. Methodology 12. Writing style

Does this include: Have you used clear and concise language?
the form your enquiry took? Are your sentences short and jargon free?
the way you collected your data? Are your paragraphs tightly focused?
Have you used the active or the passive voice?

Illustrations checklist
All illustrations should be carefully presented to help convey your information:
• Are all your illustrations clearly labelled?
• Do they all have titles?
• Is the link between the text and diagram clear?
• Are the headings precise?
• Are the axes of graphs clearly labelled?
• Can tables be easily interpreted?
• Have you acknowledged all sources and obtained permission to reproduce copyright images?
• Have you numbered your illustrations and listed them in the Contents section?
HOW TO DESIGN A
GOOD
QUESTIONNAIRE?
• Many research projects and dissertations demand the collection of primary
data from individuals.
• Questionnaires are used to gather data or information on a particular topic.
• However, a badly designed questionnaire may get only unusable responses
or none at all.
 PRE-PLANNING

• Before you even write the first question, it is important that you have a very
clear idea about what you want your questionnaire to achieve.
• Write down your research goals and think about what information you
need to elicit from respondents to meet those goals. Think also about how
• Research Goals: The goal of the research process is to produce new
knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue.
• The goals of scientific research are: description, prediction, and
explanation/understanding.
• You are going to analyze each question to get the results you need.
• Eliminate unnecessary lines of questioning at the planning stage.
 MAXIMIZE YOUR CHANCES OF SUCCESS

• The aim of questionnaire design is to

(a) get as many responses as you can that are usable.
(b) To maximize the accuracy of responses.
• Give your questionnaire a short and meaningful title
• Keep the questionnaire as short and succinct as possible
• Be creative – use different colours and images to make it attractive
• Make it convenient
 WHO SHOULD YOU ASK?
(YOUR RESPONDENTS)
• It may not be possible to survey every person who could provide a useful response to
your questionnaire. In such cases, you will need to choose a sample from your population
to survey.
• Population: All the members of the group you are interested in.
• Sample: The subset of the population selected to receive the questionnaire
• Respondents: The subset of the sample that actually completes and returns the
questionnaire.
• When choosing your sample, make sure it is representative of the population you are
studying. For example, does it cover all ages, socio-economic groups, genders etc.
 CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS

Maximise your response rate by providing clear information and instructions as follows:
• State who you are
• Outline what the purpose of the survey is and why their response is important
• Explain how answers will be treated with confidentiality and anonymity (unless agreed
with the respondent)
• Provide clear instructions as to how each question should be answered – e.g. whether you
are expecting one or more answers, or whether answers should be ranked – and, if so, is 1
high or low?
• How to return the questionnaire and in how much duration
 TYPES OF QUESTION

• There are many different types of question you can use to get the
information you need. In the main, these fall into open and closed
questions.
• An open question allows the respondent to use their own words to answer,
e,g. “what do you think are the main causes of racism?”.
• A closed question gives them pre-defined options, e.g. “which of the
following do you think are the main causes of racism: A,B,C or D?”.
Open questions Closed questions
Elicit “rich” qualitative data Elicit quantitative data
Encourage thought and freedom of Usually MCQs
expression.
Take longer to answer. Are quick to answer and may improve
your response rate.
Are difficult to analyze – responses may Easy to ‘code’ and analyze responses.
be misinterpreted.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHEN WRITING
QUESTIONS
• Avoid leading questions - “Wouldn’t you say that…”, “Isn’t it fair to say…”
• Avoid ambiguity – ensure your questions are not open to interpretation. For
example, “If the man plays tennis with his brother and he’s a regional
champion, is he likely to win?” is ambiguous because we do not know which
brother is the regional champion. Also, the word ‘likely’ is too imprecise and
may be interpreted differently by each respondent.
• Avoid words like “regularly”, “often” or “locally” for the same reason.
Questions must be clear, the wording specific and mean the same thing to
all respondents. Otherwise, your survey results will be invalid.
• Avoid jargon - ensure your language caters for all levels of literacy.
• Remember, for some respondents, English may be their second language.
• Avoid double-barrelled questions (A double-barreled question is
composed of more than two separate issues or topics, which however
can only have one answer.) – e.g. “Do you enjoy playing badminton and
tennis?
• Ask for one piece of information at a time.
• Minimise bias - people sometimes answer questions in a way they
perceive to be socially acceptable. Make it easy for respondents to admit
social lapses by wording questions carefully.
• For example, “How many times have you broken the speed limit because
you were late?” could be rephrased, “Have you ever felt under pressure to
drive over the speed limit in order to keep an appointment? Then you could
ask, “How many times have you prioritised the appointment over keeping
the speed limit?”
• Handling difficult or embarrassing questions - to encourage a greater
response to difficult questions, explain why you need to know that
information. E.g., “It would be very helpful if you could give us some
information about yourself to help us put your answers in context:”
• Ensure options are mutually exclusive - e.g. “How many years have you
worked in academia: 0-5, 6-10, 11-15, over 15.” Not, “0-5, 5-10, 10-15…”
 QUESTION ORDER
Once you’ve got your list of questions, you need to think about the order in which they appear.
Here are some general principles:
• Put the most important items in the first half of the questionnaire or interview - many people
don’t complete questionnaires. This will ensure you get the most significant data from non-
finishers.
• Don’t start with awkward or embarrassing questions - respondents may just give up.
• Start with easy and non-threatening questions - this encourages respondents to carry on with
the questionnaire.
• Go from the general to the particular.
• Go from factual to abstract questions.
• Go from closed to open questions.
• Leave demographic and personal questions until last.
 LAYOUT AND DESIGN

• The appearance of your questionnaire will go a long way towards

encouraging (or discouraging) responses. Always allow enough room for
respondents to answer questions. Use clear headings and numbering if
appropriate. Think about including pictures if this helps to explain what you
are asking about.
 ELECTRONIC VERSUS PRINT QUESTIONNAIRES

• When your entire target population has access to email, it is tempting to send a
questionnaire electronically for speed and convenience.
• However, there are some drawbacks to using email for circulating questionnaires and you
need to weigh up the pros and cons. For example, although quick and cost-free to send
they may be viewed as spam and deleted.
• It can also be difficult to encourage respondents to complete the whole survey.
• Similarly, print copies have their associated pros and cons. They can be time-consuming
and costly to produce but may be perceived as more anonymous than electronic, thereby
encouraging respondents to answer more honestly.
• If completed face-to-face respondents can be encouraged to answer all questions.
 PILOTING YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE

• Having created your questionnaire, it is important that you test it out on a

small target group before you circulate it more widely. This will not only
help you pick up any typing errors, but also highlight any ambiguity in the
wording of your questions. You may also discover that in order to analyse the
data in the way you want, you will need some extra questions. Or you may
find out that some questions are not necessary. Give your pilot group the
same information – and a deadline!
 MEETING MINUTES
INSTRUCTOR:
 INTRODUCTION
Minutes, also known as minutes of
meeting (abbreviation MoM), protocols or, informally, notes, are
the instant written record of a meeting or hearing.

They typically describe the events of the meeting and may

include a list of attendees, a statement of the issues considered
by the participants, and related responses or decisions for the
issues.
 MEETING MINUTES – A
HELPFUL TOOL

Meeting minutes are a helpful tool for

• recording meeting activities, group
or individual accomplishments, and
• for providing a record for the group’s
activities, programs, and issues
STEPS INCLUDED IN RECORDING
MEETING MINUTES

There are five main steps involved in recording the

minutes of a meeting. They are:
• Pre-planning
➢Names of all the members present – includes
guests and speakers
➢Documents that may be handed out as the
meeting progresses, such as copies of a list of
proposals to be voted on
➢Minutes recorder should know what is expected
of them
STEPS INCLUDED IN RECORDING
MEETING MINUTES

• Record-taking
• Writing or transcribing the minutes
• Sharing meeting minutes
• Filing or storage of minutes for referencing
in the future
 A group may be using a specific format to record notes but, overall, the
minutes of a meeting typically include the following details:
• Date and time the meeting happened

WHAT TO • Names of attendees, as well as absent participants

• Acceptance of, or amendments made to, the previous meeting’s

INCLUDE IN minutes
• Decisions made regarding each item on the agenda, such as:

MEETING • Activities undertaken or agreed upon

• Next steps

MINUTES? • Outcomes of elections

• Motions accepted or rejected
• New business
• Date and time of the next meeting
 • Use full names, not nicknames
HINTS ON • Ask the presiding officer to restate a
WRIITNG motion if you are unsure of exact phrasing
• Use a tape recorder, if that’s easier for
MEETING you (if you are writing minutes later); just
MINUTES be sure to check with the meeting officers
and members first
 • Ask the name of the person making the
HINTS ON motion if you’re not sure of their name
• Identify major items of business in outline
WRITNG form or by underlining, bolding, etc.
MEETING • Include any and all committee and officer
MINUTES reports along with new business.
 1

Paraphrasing – means rewriting something in your own words,

Paraphrasing and giving the same level of detail as the source and at roughly the
same length as the original. You may choose to paraphrase
Summarizing: “Putting It In details or particular evidence and/or examples.
Your Own Words”
The choice between summarizing and paraphrasing depends
on how much detail from the source you need for your paper.
When writing a research paper, you, the When you need the source’s main argument and/or
writer, must incorporate into the paper the information and supporting points, summarize. Or, you may summarize a
ideas you have learned in the course of your research that section or part of a source, by identifying the section’s main
come from primary and secondary sources. Occasionally, it is point or idea. When you want all the details from a particular
appropriate to quote, but, usually, it is better to either passage or section of a source, paraphrase. (Don’t try to
paraphrase or summarize what you have learned. This task paraphrase an entire source.)
may seem simple; how often have we heard a teacher or
instructor tell us to put what we have read “into our own Whether you decide to summarize or paraphrase a source, the
words”? Yet, while easy to say, it is not so easy to do. process is similar. You just can’t cut and paste a chunk of text
into your essay draft and then change a few words here and
Summarizing and Paraphrasing there. You will remain too close to the source’s organization,
It is important to be able to summarize and paraphrase sentence structure and phrasing. Instead follow these six
correctly in order to effectively integrate your research into steps.
your essay without relying on direct quotation or committing
plagiarism. Step One: Skim the Source
Skim a source to determine what you need from it: its
Summarizing – means rewriting something in your own words argument, a specific supporting point, and/or particular
but shortening it by stating only the main idea and the evidence. Identify exactly what information you want to go
supporting points you need for your purposes. A summary can into your paper. This decision will help you decide how
be just one sentence or it can be much longer, depending on detailed your notes about this source should be.
whether you are presenting a broad overview or a more
thorough outline.

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 2

Step Two: Take Point-Form Notes Notes:

For a paraphrase, the notes will be more detailed and Main point
extensive. For a summary, the notes will focus on the main – for millions in the US: looking for healthy food to buy difficult
points of a reading. Either way, taking notes is an acquired skill Why?
and takes practice. - many neighbourhoods no grocery stores: only fast-food and
convenience stores
Let’s look at an example. The first stage in the note-taking
process is illustrated below. The note-taker has decided to Convenience Stores:
paraphrase the passage as it has lots of detailed information – sell high-fat, high-sugar candy, junk and processed food (or
relevant to the paper being written. The note-taker then reads anything healthy is more expensive?)
the passage, underlining the important information and ideas No grocery stores = fund. challenges to healthy eating
he or she wishes to capture for the paper, and then pauses to Neighbourhoods lack grocery stores, any kind of fruit and
jot down notes. vegetable vendors that:

In America today, millions of people leave their homes in a -create jobs

protracted and often futile search for healthy food for their -stimulate foot traffic (how? Usually surrounded by parking lots?)
families. Many walk out their front doors and see nothing
but fast-food outlets and convenience stores selling high- - bolster local commerce
fat, high-sugar processed foods; others see no food Overall effect:
vendors of any kind. Without affordable fresh food options,
especially fruit and vegetables, adults and children face -hard to eat in healthy manner ( lack of health? obesity?)
fundamental challenges to making the healthy food -breakdown of vibrancy and livability of communities
choices that are essential for nutritious, balanced diets.
And without grocery stores and other viable fruit and The note-taker first identifies the main point of the passage.
vegetable merchants, neighborhoods lack a critical The notes are in point-form: the reason for not writing out full
ingredient of vibrant, livable communities: quality food sentences is to break the connection with the original’s
retailers that create jobs, stimulate foot traffic, and bolster sentence structure. The note-taker also occasionally inserts
local commerce. questions for further analysis or follow-up. Doing all of these
(From: Bell.J. & Standish, M. (2009). Building healthy things filters the information and ideas of the source through
communities through equitable food access. Community the note-taker’s own understanding.
Development Investment Review, 5(3), 75-87.)

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 3

If, instead of paraphrasing, you make the decision to summarize the Step Five: Test What You Have Written To Ensure You
passage, the notes would include only the major points of the Have Avoided Plagiarism
passage.
If you followed the first four steps rigorously, you should pass
Step Three: Close or Put Away the Source this test. The way to test your writing is to go through your
This is a fairly self-explanatory step, but the point is that when passage and the original passage and underline, highlight or
you try to write about the information you have learned from put in bold the words that appear in both passages. There is
this source, you do so without the source in front of you. no way to write a paraphrase or a summary that does not
have some of the same words as the original, but doing this
Step Four: Turn Your Point-Form Notes into Sentences test will show you any places where you have lifted whole
How to do this? Keep in mind that both paraphrasing and phrases or sentences and put them in your text.
summarizing are about showing that you have internalized
what you have read to the point where you can say it yourself. Paraphrase: (words appearing in both passages are in bold)
Bell and Standish (2009) make the point that, for millions of
So, read over your notes two or three times, put those out of
Americans, buying healthy, fresh food such as fruits and
sight too, and, perhaps pretending you are explaining what vegetables, takes a major effort because many neighbourhoods
you have just read to a fellow student or your instructor, write do not have grocery stores close by but only fast-food outlets and
either your paraphrase/summary. Remember that, for a convenience stores. Convenience stores do not sell much
healthy food but, instead, sell junk food, candy, and processed
summary all you have to do is convey the main point and key food high in fat and sugar. Some neighbourhoods do not have
supporting points of the passage, not the details. food vendors of any kind. Bell and Standish argue that these
kinds of neighbourhoods are not just places in which it is difficult to
You need to make clear where the information and arguments buy and eat healthy food, they are also less vigorous and energetic,
come from, so it can be a good idea to start off with the and less comfortable to live in because grocery stores and other
author’s or authors’ name(s). Writing “Bell and Standish argue healthy food vendors may encourage walking, create jobs, and
support the local economy in other ways as well.
that. . . ” or “Bell and Standish’s main point is that. . . ” is often
a good way to get the words to start to flow. Remember you The test shows that while the two passages share many
can rearrange the information, group it differently, or change common words, there are very few exact copies of phrases in
the sequence slightly to suit your purposes; all of these actions the paraphrase. Phrases such as “grocery store,” “healthy
will help you to write the paraphrase or summary in “your food,” “convenience store,” or “food vendors” are not unique
own words.” turns of phrase that belong to one writer; they are common
terms, so changing these words is not necessary. For example,
“convenience store” is the best and most commonly used

Academic Skills, Trent University www.trentu.ca/academicskills

Peterborough, ON Canada ©2016
 4

phrase for that particular kind of retail outlet; changing it Step Six: Make Any Necessary Corrections
would be artificial and less clear. (The same rule applies to You may find a few exact phrases from your test; it is
technical and scientific terminology. These terms don’t belong important to change them. In the paraphrase, “fast-food
to anyone, and there is no reason to try to find synonyms for outlets and convenience stores” can be changed to
them.) “convenience stores or fast-food restaurants.” Similarly, “food
vendors of any kind” can be changed to “any type of food
Precisely how long can a phrase that is identical to one in the
vendor.”
original source be before it becomes a problem? A phrase of
three words is usually too long; it should be changed or Another technique to keep in mind is to occasionally quote a
included as a direct quotation. Based on this criteria, in the short phrase in the midst of your summary or paraphrase. For
paraphrase, there are a couple of problematic phrases that example, in the final sentence of the original passage, the
should be changed: “fast-food outlets and convenience authors used two adjectives, “vibrant” and “livable.” These
stores,” and “food vendors of any kind.” appear in the paraphrase as “vigorous and energetic” and
“comfortable for its residents to live in.” However, the authors
Summary: (the words common to the original source and to
are here using a distinctive turn of phrase to describe ideal
the paraphrase are in bold)
Bell and Standish (2009) argue that for millions of Americans, communities as opposed to using common terms such as
healthy eating is a difficult task because many neighbourhoods do “convenience store” or “healthy food”. So, in this instance,
not have grocery stores close by, only fast-food restaurants or another good choice would be to quote the authors:
convenience stores. These neighbourhoods lack the jobs and
economic support that grocery stores bring, thus making them less . . . Bell and Standish argue that these kinds of neighbourhoods are
“vibrant” and “livable” (75). not just places in which it is difficult to buy and eat healthy food, they
are also less “vibrant” and less “livable” (75) because grocery stores
The words in bold show that the summary passes the test. It’s and other healthy food vendors may encourage walking, create jobs,
usually a little easier to write a summary in your own words and support the local economy in other ways as well.
than to write a paraphrase in your own words because As you can see, learning how to paraphrase and to summarize
condensing and shortening will automatically ensure some your sources takes practice and patience. Following the six
change in organization, sentence structure and wording. In steps suggested here should ensure that you are successful in
this case, the decision was made to quote the two final conveying information and ideas learned from your sources
adjectives, “vibrant” and “livable”, as none of the synonyms “in your own words”.
were as descriptive in as few words.

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Peterborough, ON Canada ©2016
 COVER LETTER GUIDE
A cover letter should be a narrative extension of a candidate’s resume. If the resume is the summary of the
client’s career successes, the letter is their brief introduction to that summary.

Broad Brush vs Narrow Brush

o Each letter should include a section (usually the second paragraph) that describes the overall scope of your
career. (Broad brush)
o The bullets should provide specific, detailed examples of their directly related skills and/or
accomplishments in sentence form. (Narrow brush)
o When listing accomplishments, portray you as an achiever; choose examples that present outcomes with
real numbers and other hard facts.
o If you lack examples that link actions to quantifiable results, select highlights that reflect leadership, refined
technical skill, or special recognition.
o Avoid simply copying content from the resume: The ideas should be reworded.
Once you have customized the required areas and added personal touches, proofread/spell check the
document.
▪ CV (Curriculam Vitae) is used for academic and research purposes,
and it includes complete history of your academic credentials,
publications, and other related qualification. It is extensive and can
be more than 2 pages.
▪ Resume is usually used for operational careers; it is supposed to be
concise (standard length: 1-page or 2-pages)
▪ Know your goals: Prior to starting with the resume development process, you’ll
first need to determine your career trajectory. Are you thinking to make a lateral
move, change careers, take the next step up, or beginning your career?
▪ Research: After identifying your target positions and target companies/institutes,
conduct a research regarding eligibility criteria, job descriptions, and key skills
needed/demanded by your target positions and companies.
▪ Format: Select an appropriate format/template to make a catchy resume. Choose a
template that can cover your qualifications within 1-2 pages without giving a wordy
or messy impression.
WHEN YOU ARE APPLYING FOR YOUR FIRST PROFESSIONAL JOB…
1. Begin with a brief summary of your career competencies. It can be in the form of
para-bullet, only paragraph, and even only bullet-form.
Example of Qualification Summary:
▪ An enthusiastic and self-motivated graduate of physiotherapy with a comprehensive
educational background and strong capability to deliver an excellent service to
patients/clients.
▪ Possess proficient knowledge of advanced techniques used in physical therapy procedures.
▪ Well organized and an excellent team player with a proven ability to work proactively in
complex and challenging environments.
▪ Commended for having excellent communication and multitasking abilities, well-prepared
to utilize related knowledge and practicum to serve as a physiotherapist in a well-reputed
hospital.
2. Core Competencies: Mention your key skills (both technical and soft skills) or
core competencies relevant to the target position.
For example: If you are applying for a Lecturer of Physiotherapy, your core
competencies can be:
▪ Content Knowledge (You can specify)

▪ Organization and Planning

▪ Classroom Management

▪ Facilitation and Engagement

▪ Assessment and Coaching

▪ Collaboration and Teamwork

3. Education & Professional Development
▪ List your educational and training time-period in reverse chronology.
▪ Mention your CGPA, grades or scholarship-related information if any.
▪ Mention additional details of your major courses at the university.
4. Job Descriptions:
▪ This section incorporates your career history with details of your job duties in a
para-bullet or simple bullet form.
▪ You can include your internships’ experience with details of your job duties.
5. Publications
6. Conferences/Seminars
7. Volunteerism/Co-curricular Involvement
Presentation Skills
 Planning
O Why are you doing the talk? Be clear about your
purpose
O Find out how big your audience is likely to be & what
sort of group
O Make notes about your subject
O Don’t write your talk word to word
O Use small pieces of paper and number them
O Powerpoint has a notes & timing feature which may
help
O Time your talk & practice it
Presentation Techniques

“He was looking up into the sky all the time

he was speaking and Alice thought this
decidedly uncivil”

Lewis Carroll
 Techniques 1

O Pace of delivery
O Vary style
O Move about
O Vary pitch
O Use notes
O Avoid annoying habits
O Use props, but don‘t overdo it
 Techniques – teaching aids

O Flip chart for diagrams, pictures, key points

O Ohps/powerpoint - serve the same purpose (more

permanent, better for a large audience)

O Powerpoint – pros and cons on next slide

O Demonstration - get your audience involved

 Powerpoint

Advantages Disadvantages
O Quick, easy & simple O Can be tedious
O Prepare in advance O Not very dynamic
O Good for large O Easy to overload with
audience information
O Be careful with
O Can include pictures &
animations
graphics easily
O Tendency to read word
O Something to look at for word
 Do’s
O Take a deep breath
O Speak clearly
✓
O Make small cards to remind yourself of topics
(number them!)
O Be aware of where your audience is - are you
facing all of them?
O Smile, have fun
O Be yourself and project your personality
O Remember - no-one knows how you feel or
what you think
O Remember - The audience is on your side!
 Don’ts

O Rush what you’re trying to say –


SLOW DOWN
O Read off a sheet of paper word for
word
O Fiddle with things - its irritating!
O Use inappropriate language for your
audience
O Panic