CALCULUS

MA101
Dr. Jitendra Kumar

Professor
Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Ropar
Rupnagar, Punjab 140001, India

Personal Webpage: https://www.iitrpr.ac.in/jkumar

Course Webpage: https://sites.google.com/iitrpr.ac.in/ma101

Differential Calculus
Functions of Single Variable

Limit, Continuity, Differentiability

❑ Limit & Continuity: 𝜖 − 𝛿 Definition

❑ Differentiability: Differentials, Geometrical Interpretation

Dr. Jitendra Kumar – IIT ROPAR 3

Limit of a Functions of One Variable

We say lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿, if for every 𝜖 > 0, Function may not be defined at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

𝑥→𝑥0

there exists 𝛿 > 0, such that ∀ 𝑥,

𝜖 (𝑥0 , 𝐿)
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜖

In other words,
If we can make the difference |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| as
small as we like by considering a small enough 𝛿
neighborhood around 𝑥0 , then we say that
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑥0

Dr. Jitendra Kumar – IIT ROPAR 4

𝝐 − 𝜹 Definition of LIMIT

NOTE:

1. The formal definition of a limit does not provide a method for finding the limit of
a function, but it does allow us to confirm whether a suspected limit is correct.

2. The formal definition of a limit is also used in analysis to express limits

mathematically. Very often, the explicit form of the function may not be defined,
and in such cases, the formal definition becomes highly useful.

3. If the limit of 𝑓 at 𝑥0 does not exist, we say that 𝑓 diverges at 𝑥0 .

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Example: lim 3𝑥 + 1 = 4
𝑥→1 𝜖
Show that for a given 𝜖 > 0, there exist a 𝛿 so that

0< 𝑥−1 <𝛿 ⟹ 3𝑥 + 1 − 4 < 𝜖

Solve the inequality:

𝜖 𝜖
3𝑥 + 1 − 4 < 𝜖 ⇒ 3𝑥 − 3 < 𝜖 ⇒ 1 − < 𝑥 < 1 +
3 3 𝜖 𝜖
1− 1+
3 3
𝜖
If we choose 𝛿 ≤ Then for any given 𝜖, we have Note that the interval
3 𝜖 𝜖
1 − 3 , 1 + 3 contains
3𝑥 + 1 − 4 < 𝜖 whenever 0< 𝑥−1 <𝛿 the point 𝑥0 = 1

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Example: Suppose we test lim 3𝑥 + 1 = 7
𝑥→1 𝜖
Trying to show that for a given 𝜖 > 0, there exist a 𝛿 so that

𝑥−1 <𝛿 ⟹ 3𝑥 + 1 − 4 < 𝜖

Solve the inequality:

𝜖 𝜖
3𝑥 + 1 − 7 < 𝜖 ⇒ 3𝑥 − 6 < 𝜖 ⇒ 2 − < 𝑥 < 2 +
3 3 𝜖 𝜖
2− 2+
𝜖 𝜖 3 3
Note that the interval 2 − , 2 + does not contains the point
3 3
𝑥0 = 1 for all values of 𝜖.

For an arbitrary given 𝜖, 𝛿 does not exist and hence the limit can not be 7
Dr. Jitendra Kumar – IIT ROPAR 8
Example: Show that lim 𝑥 − 1 = 2
𝑥→5

Show that for a given 𝜖 > 0, there exist a 𝛿 so that

𝑥−5 <𝛿 ⟹ 𝑥−1−2 < 𝜖

Solve the inequality:

2 2
𝑥 − 1 − 2 < 𝜖 ⇒ −𝜖 < 𝑥 − 1 − 2 < 𝜖 ⇒ 2 − 𝜖 +1<𝑥 < 2+𝜖 +1

Note that there exists a 𝛿 such that the interval (5 − 𝛿, 5 + 𝛿) lies inside the interval
( 2 − 𝜖 2 + 1, 2 + 𝜖 2 + 1)

𝛿 ≤ min(5 − 2 − 𝜖 2 − 1, 2 + 𝜖 2 + 1 − 5)

e.g., 𝜖 = 1, the interval (2, 10) contains (5 − 𝛿, 5 + 𝛿) for 𝛿 ≤ 3.

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One-sided Limit of a Functions of One Variable

We say lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 (right hand limit), if for every 𝜖 > 0, there exists 𝛿 > 0,
𝑥→𝑥0 +

such that ∀ 𝑥,
𝑥0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 + 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜖

We say lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 (left hand limit), if for every 𝜖 > 0, there exists 𝛿 > 0,
𝑥→𝑥0 −

such that ∀ 𝑥,
𝑥0 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜖

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Example: Show that lim 𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑥→1+

We need to show that for given any 𝜖 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that

𝑥−1−0 < 𝜖, if 1 < 𝑥 < 1 + 𝛿

OR 𝑥 − 1 < 𝜖, if 1 < 𝑥 < 1 + 𝛿

Solving the inequality 𝑥 − 1 < 𝜖, we get 1 < 𝑥 < 𝜖 2 + 1

So if we can choose 𝛿 ≤ 𝜖 2 , then

1<𝑥 <1+𝛿 ⇒ 𝑥−1−0 <𝜖

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Basic Properties of Limit

Let 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑥0 , 𝑐 be real numbers, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 and and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑚, then
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

lim 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥
➢ 𝑥→𝑥 =𝑙±𝑚
0

lim 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑥
➢ 𝑥→𝑥 =𝑐⋅𝑙
0

lim 𝑓 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙 ⋅ 𝑚
➢ 𝑥→𝑥
0

𝑓 𝑙
➢ if 𝑚 ≠ 0, 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0 ∀𝑥, then lim (𝑥) =
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔 𝑚

𝑛 𝑛
➢ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 (if 𝑛 is even, assume 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 ∀𝑥, and consequently 𝑙 ≥ 0 )
𝑥→𝑥0

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An Important Result

The Sandwich Theorem / The Squeeze Theorem

Suppose 𝑔 𝑥 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ ℎ 𝑥 , ∀𝑥 in some open interval containing 𝑥0 , except possibly at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 itself.

lim 𝑔 𝑥 = lim ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑙. Then lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙

Suppose that 𝑥→𝑥
0 𝑥→𝑥 0 𝑥→𝑥 0

𝑥2 𝑥2
Example: Given that 1 − ≤ 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1 + , ∀𝑥 ≠ 0
4 2

Find lim 𝑓 𝑥 , no matter how complicated 𝑓 is.

𝑥→0

𝑥2 𝑥2
Solution: Since lim 1 − = lim 1 + =1
𝑥→0 4 𝑥→0 2

By sandwich theorem lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1

𝑥→0

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Continuity of a Functions of One Variable
A function y = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at a point 𝑥0 if

I. 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at 𝑥0

II. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists

𝑥→𝑥0 A function is considered continuous if its graph is
unbroken and can be sketched without lifting the
III. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) pen from the paper in a "continuous" manner.
𝑥→𝑥0

Mathematically:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at a point 𝑥0 , if for a given 𝜖 > 0, there

exist a real number 𝛿 > 0 such that

𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥0 <𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿

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Some Basic Properties of Continuous Functions

• If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are both continuous at 𝑥0 then so are 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔 and 𝑓𝑔.

• If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 and 𝑓 𝑥0 ≠ 0 then 1/𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0

• Assume that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 and 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑦0 = 𝑓 𝑥0 , then the composite function
ℎ = 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 .

Theorem (Bolzano): If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑎) < 0 < 𝑓(𝑏), then there is some 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such
that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.

Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem): If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑘 is any number between 𝑓(𝑎)
and 𝑓(𝑏) then there is at least one number 𝑐 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘.

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Some Basic Properties of Continuous Functions

Theorem (Boundedness Theorem / Extreme Value Theorem): If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 is
bounded and attains its bounds (𝑓 has a maximum and minimum on [a, b]).
Bounded: |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑥 in [𝑎, 𝑏].
Bounds: There are numbers 𝑐, 𝑑 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑑) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑐) for all 𝑥 in [𝑎, 𝑏].

Note: The above result may not hold if the domain is not a closed and bounded interval and/or if the
function is not continuous.

(i) Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = 1/𝑥, where 𝑓: 0, 1 → ℝ. Continuous but domain is not a closed and bounded interval

1
(ii) Consider 𝑔: −1, 1 → ℝ by 𝑔 𝑥 = ቐ𝑥 , 𝑥 ≠ 0 Domain is closed and bounded interval but function is not
continuous
0, 𝑥=0

(iii) Consider ℎ: ℝ → ℝ by ℎ 𝑥 = 1/(1 + 𝑥 2 ). Continuous but domain is not a closed and bounded interval

Note that ℎ is bounded as 0 < ℎ 𝑥 ≤ 1, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ. But ℎ doesn’t attains its bounds.

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