Page1- acknowledgement

Page2- index

Page15- bibliography

Cover the project with white chart paper

Page 3

Chemical bond
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together
and stabilises them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical
bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the
strength of the chemical bonds between their constituents; the stronger the bonding
between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound will be.

The opposite also holds true; if the chemical bonding between the constituents is weak,
the resulting compound would lack stability and would easily undergo another reaction
to give a more stable chemical compound (containing stronger bonds). To find stability,
the atoms try to lose their energy.

Whenever matter interacts with another form of matter, a force is exerted on one by the
other. When the forces are attractive in nature, energy decreases. When the forces are
repulsive in nature, energy increases. The attractive force that binds two atoms together
is known as a chemical bond.
Periodic properties refer to the trends or patterns exhibited by elements in
the periodic table as a result of variations in their atomic structure. These properties play a
significant role in determining the types of chemical bonds that elements can form. Here are
some periodic properties and their definitions:

1. Electronegativity: Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons

towards itself when it forms a chemical bond. It increases across a period from left to
right and decreases down a group in the periodic table. Elements with high
electronegativity tend to form ionic or polar covalent bonds.
2. Ionization Energy: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from
an atom in its gaseous state. It generally increases across a period from left to right and
decreases down a group. Elements with high ionization energies tend to form ionic bonds
by losing electrons.
3. Atomic Size (Atomic Radius): Atomic size refers to the distance from the nucleus of an
atom to its outermost electron. It generally decreases across a period from left to right and
increases down a group. Elements with smaller atomic sizes tend to form covalent bonds
by sharing electrons.
4. Electron Affinity: Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when an electron is
added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. It generally increases across a period from
left to right and decreases down a group. Elements with high electron affinities tend to
form ionic bonds by gaining electrons.
5. Metallic Character: Metallic character refers to the level of metallic properties exhibited
by an element. It generally decreases across a period from left to right and increases
down a group. Elements with high metallic character tend to form metallic bonds.
6. Valence Electrons: Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
The number of valence electrons influences the type of bond an atom can form. For
example, elements with one or two valence electrons tend to form ionic bonds by losing
electrons, while elements with several valence electrons tend to form covalent bonds by
sharing electrons.
Page 4 Electrovalent Bond
Electrovalent bonds are produced when electrons are transferred from atoms of one
element to atoms of another element, producing positive and negative ions. The bond
which is formed by the transfer of electrons between the atoms is called electrovalent
bond or ionic bond. Electrovalent bonds are only formed between metals and non-
metals. Electrovalent bonds are not formed between two non-metals.

In simple words electrovalent bond involves the transference of a certain number of

electrons to another dissimilar atom which has a tendency to gain electrons so that both
acquire stable inert gas configurations. The electrostatic attraction always tends to
decrease the potential energy. Hence, the potential energy of the system is much less
than it was before the formation of an ionic bond.

DRAW NaCl, MgCl2 and CaO using electron dot

diagram
Page 5 What Is Covalent Bond?
Elements having very high ionisation energies are incapable of transferring electrons,
and elements having very low electron affinity cannot take up electrons. The atoms of
such elements tend to share their electrons with the atoms of other elements or with
other atoms of the same element in a way that both the atoms obtain octet configuration
in their respective valence shells, and thus achieve stability. Such association through
sharing of electron pairs among different or same kinds is known as Covalent Bond.

A covalent bond is formed by the equal sharing of electrons from both participating atoms. The

pair of electrons participating in this type of bonding is called a shared pair or bonding pair.

Covalent bonds are also called molecular bonds. Sharing of bonding pairs will ensure that the

atoms achieve stability in their outer shell, which is similar to the atoms of noble gases.

coval

ent

Covalent bonding can be achieved in two ways:

 Sharing of electrons between atoms of the same kind, for example, formation of H2, Cl2,
O2, etc.
 Sharing of electrons between atoms of different kinds, for example, formation of CH4, H2O,
NH3, etc.

More to add
Page 6 types of covalent bonds btw identical
elements-
ChatGPT

Covalent bonds between identical molecules typically refer to the bonds that form between
atoms of the same element. These bonds can be classified into different types based on the
number of shared electron pairs between the atoms:

1. Single Covalent Bond (σ bond):

o Formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms.
o Examples include H-H (hydrogen molecule) and Cl-Cl (chlorine molecule).
2. Double Covalent Bond (σ bond + π bond):
o Formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms.
o In addition to the sigma (σ) bond, there is a pi (π) bond formed by the side-by-
side overlap of p orbitals.
o Example: O=O (oxygen molecule).
3. Triple Covalent Bond (σ bond + 2π bonds):
o Formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons between two atoms.
o Includes one sigma (σ) bond and two pi (π) bonds.
o Example: N≡N (nitrogen molecule).

These bonds are characterized by the overlap of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals,
which determine the strength and stability of the bond. In all cases, the bonding electrons are
shared between the atoms involved, contributing to the overall stability of the molecule.

btw different elements-

Covalent bonds between different molecules can occur in several forms, depending on the nature of the

molecules and the atoms involved. Here are the common types:

1. Hydrogen Bonds:
o Hydrogen bonds form between a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative
atom (like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) in one molecule and a lone pair of
electrons on another electronegative atom in a different molecule.
o Example: Hydrogen bonding between water molecules (H-O···H-O).
2. Van der Waals Interactions:
o Van der Waals interactions are weak attractive forces between molecules due to
temporary dipoles that arise from fluctuations in electron distribution around
atoms.
o Example: London dispersion forces between noble gas atoms (e.g., interactions
between helium atoms).
3. π-π Interactions:
o π-π interactions are attractive forces between the π-electron clouds of aromatic
rings or conjugated systems in different molecules.
o These interactions contribute to the
stacking of aromatic molecules in
crystals or aggregates.
o Example: π-π interactions between
benzene rings in different molecules.

These types of interactions play crucial roles in

molecular recognition, crystal packing, and the overall
stability of molecular assemblies in various chemical
and biological processes.

Diagram formation of H2 Cl2

O2 and CH4 also
Page 7 Types of covalent bonds

Single Bond:

Definition:

 A single bond is a type of covalent bond where two atoms share one pair of electrons.
 It is represented by a single line (e.g., H-H for hydrogen molecule, C-C for ethane).

Explanation:

 In a single bond, each atom contributes one electron to form a shared pair. The shared
pair of electrons occupies the space between the two nuclei, holding the atoms together.
 Single bonds are relatively flexible and allow some rotation around the bond axis, which
is important for the structural flexibility of many organic molecules.
 Examples include the bond between hydrogen atoms in hydrogen gas (H₂) and the bond
between carbon atoms in saturated hydrocarbons like methane (CH₄) and ethane (C₂H₆).
Double Bond:

Definition:

 A double bond is a type of covalent bond where two atoms share two pairs of electrons.
 It is represented by a double line (e.g., O=O for oxygen molecule, C=C for ethylene).

Explanation:

 In a double bond, there are two regions of electron density between the bonded atoms.
These consist of one sigma (σ) bond and one pi (π) bond:
o Sigma (σ) bond: This is formed by the direct overlap of atomic orbitals between
the two atoms, similar to a single bond.
o Pi (π) bond: This is formed by the side-by-side overlap of p orbitals that are
perpendicular to the axis of the sigma bond. Pi bonds are weaker than sigma
bonds and restrict rotation around the bond axis.
 Double bonds are typically shorter and stronger than single bonds due to the additional
overlap of electron orbitals.
 Examples include the double bond between oxygen atoms in oxygen gas (O₂) and the
double bond between carbon atoms in ethylene (C₂H₄).

Triple Bond:

Definition:

 A triple bond is a type of covalent bond where two atoms share three pairs of electrons.
 It is represented by a triple line (e.g., N≡N for nitrogen molecule, C≡C for acetylene).

Explanation:

 In a triple bond, there are three regions of electron density between the bonded atoms:
one sigma (σ) bond and two pi (π) bonds:
o Sigma (σ) bond: Similar to single and double bonds, formed by the direct overlap
of atomic orbitals.
o Pi (π) bonds (two): Formed by the side-by-side overlap of p orbitals in addition
to the sigma bond. These pi bonds are above and below the sigma bond axis and
are oriented perpendicular to each other.
 Triple bonds are even shorter and stronger than double bonds due to the additional
electron density and overlap of orbitals.
 Examples include the triple bond between nitrogen atoms in nitrogen gas (N₂) and the
triple bond between carbon atoms in acetylene (C₂H₂).

Comparison:
  Strength and Length: Generally, as the number of bonds increases (single to double to
triple), the bond becomes shorter and stronger due to increased overlap of electron
orbitals.
 Rotational Freedom: Single bonds allow free rotation around the bond axis, whereas
double and triple bonds restrict rotation due to the presence of pi bonds.
 Applications: Double and triple bonds are crucial in organic chemistry for defining the
reactivity and properties of molecules, especially in conjugated systems and aromatic
compounds.

In summary, single, double, and triple bonds are fundamental in understanding the structure,
properties, and reactivity of molecules, particularly in organic chemistry and materials science.
They provide a framework for explaining how atoms share electrons to form stable covalent
bonds.
Page 8 to 10 Covalent bonds Polar and non polar
Polar Covalent Bond:

Definition:

 A polar covalent bond is a type of covalent bond between atoms where the electrons
forming the bond are unequally distributed.
 This unequal distribution of electrons results in one atom having a slightly negative
charge (δ⁻) and the other atom having a slightly positive charge (δ⁺), creating a dipole
moment.

Explanation:

 In a polar covalent bond, the sharing of electrons between atoms is not equal due to
differences in electronegativity—the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.
 The more electronegative atom (which has a higher affinity for electrons) will attract the
shared electrons more strongly, acquiring a partial negative charge (δ⁻). Conversely, the
less electronegative atom will have a partial positive charge (δ⁺).
 The degree of polarity in a covalent bond depends on the difference in electronegativity
between the two atoms. If the electronegativity difference is significant (typically greater
than 0.4 on the Pauling scale), the bond is considered polar.
 Examples include the bond between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water (H-O) and the
bond between hydrogen and chlorine atoms in hydrochloric acid (H-Cl).

Properties:

 Polar covalent bonds result in molecules with a permanent dipole moment, meaning they
have regions of partial positive and negative charges.
 These dipoles can influence the physical properties of substances, such as their solubility
in polar solvents like water and their ability to participate in hydrogen bonding.
 Polar covalent bonds often lead to asymmetrical distribution of electron density within
molecules, affecting their chemical reactivity and interactions with other molecules.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond:

Definition:

 A nonpolar covalent bond is a type of covalent bond where the electrons forming the
bond are shared equally between the atoms involved.
 There is no significant difference in electronegativity between the atoms, resulting in a
symmetrical distribution of electron density.

Explanation:
  In a nonpolar covalent bond, the atoms involved have similar electronegativities, so they
share electrons equally.
 Because the electron density is evenly distributed, there are no partial charges (δ⁻ or δ⁺)
on either atom in the bond.
 Nonpolar covalent bonds commonly occur between atoms of the same element (e.g., H-
H, Cl-Cl) or between different elements that have similar electronegativities (e.g., C-H
bonds in hydrocarbons).
 These bonds are characterized by a balanced sharing of electrons, resulting in molecules
with no permanent dipole moment.

Properties:

 Molecules with nonpolar covalent bonds typically do not exhibit strong dipole-dipole
interactions or hydrogen bonding.
 They are often hydrophobic (repel water) and tend to be insoluble in polar solvents but
soluble in nonpolar solvents.
 Nonpolar covalent bonds are important in organic chemistry, where they contribute to the
structure and properties of hydrocarbons and other nonpolar compounds.

Comparison:

 Electronegativity Difference: Polar covalent bonds arise from a significant difference in

electronegativity (typically > 0.4), while nonpolar covalent bonds occur when the
electronegativity difference is minimal (≤ 0.4).
 Electron Density: Polar covalent bonds have an uneven distribution of electron density,
leading to partial charges, whereas nonpolar covalent bonds have an even distribution of
electron density with no partial charges.
 Examples: Water (H₂O) exemplifies polar covalent bonds due to the unequal sharing of
electrons between hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Conversely, molecular nitrogen (N₂)
demonstrates nonpolar covalent bonds, as the electronegativities of the nitrogen atoms are
closely matched.

Understanding the distinction between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds is crucial for
comprehending the behavior of molecules in various chemical and biological contexts, including
solubility, reactivity, and intermolecular interactions.

Illustrate CCl4 HCl H2O and ammonia

Page 11 to 12- Coordinate bond

Formation of Ammonium Ion

The nitrogen atom in Ammonia donates its electron pair to the empty orbital of the
H+ ion; thus, nitrogen is the donor, H+ is the acceptor, and a co-ordinate bond is formed

Formation of Hydronium Ion

An oxygen atom in water donates its one pair of electrons to the vacant orbital of the
H+ ion; thus, a dative bond is formed oxygen atom is the donor atom and the H+ is the
acceptor atom.

Use electron dot and lime structure

Properties of Coordinate Compounds
1. They have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds.
2. Some of these compounds exhibit isomerism.
3. Sharing of electrons takes place in a definite direction; hence, it is a directional bond.
4. It is weaker than Ionic bonding.

Coordinate Bond (Dative Bond):

Definition:

 A coordinate bond, also known as a dative bond, is a type of covalent bond where both
electrons shared between two atoms come from the same atom.
 In other words, one atom donates a pair of electrons to be shared with another atom,
which accepts these electrons.

Explanation:

 Coordinate bonds typically form when one atom has a lone pair of electrons that it can
donate to another atom that has an electron-deficient site (such as an empty orbital or a
positive charge).
 The atom donating the lone pair of electrons is called the donor atom, while the atom
accepting the electrons is called the acceptor atom.
 The bond is represented by an arrow (→) pointing from the donor atom (source of the
lone pair) to the acceptor atom (recipient of the lone pair).
 Coordinate bonds are often found in coordination complexes (hence the name) and in
reactions involving Lewis acids and bases.
 Examples include the formation of the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), where ammonia (NH₃)
donates a lone pair of electrons to a proton (H⁺).

Properties:

 Coordinate bonds are stronger than typical covalent bonds because both electrons in the
bond come from the same atom, leading to a more stable bond.
 They are directional, meaning the donor atom directs the shared electron pair towards the
acceptor atom.
 Coordinate bonds are transient in many cases, formed during specific reactions and often
dissociating afterwards.

Lone Pair of Electrons:

Definition:

 A lone pair of electrons refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not involved in
bonding with other atoms.
  These electrons are typically found in the outermost electron shell (valence shell) of an
atom.

Explanation:

 In a molecule or ion, atoms may have pairs of electrons that are not shared with another
atom to form a bond.
 Lone pairs of electrons exert a repulsive force on other electrons around them,
influencing the shape and geometry of molecules.
 They are crucial in determining the reactivity and properties of molecules, as they can
participate in chemical reactions by forming bonds with other atoms or ions.
 Examples include the lone pairs on oxygen atoms in water (H₂O), which contribute to the
molecule's bent shape, and the lone pair on the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH₃), which
contributes to its pyramidal shape.

Properties:

 Lone pairs of electrons are more localized around the atom compared to bonding
electrons, which are shared between atoms.
 They can influence the polarity and molecular geometry of compounds, affecting their
physical and chemical properties.
 Lone pairs are often involved in intermolecular interactions, such as hydrogen bonding in
molecules like water and ammonia.

Comparison:

 Origin: Coordinate bonds originate from the donation of a lone pair of electrons from
one atom to another, while lone pairs are electrons that are not shared in a bond.
 Function: Coordinate bonds facilitate the formation of specific molecular complexes and
are involved in Lewis acid-base reactions, while lone pairs contribute to the structure and
reactivity of molecules.
 Representation: Coordinate bonds are represented by an arrow pointing from the donor
atom to the acceptor atom, while lone pairs are typically shown as pairs of dots or lines
around the atom in Lewis structures.

Understanding coordinate bonds and lone pairs of electrons is fundamental in understanding the
behavior of molecules in chemical reactions and their structural arrangements. They play key
roles in determining the stability, geometry, and reactivity of compounds in various fields of
chemistry.
Page 13 to 14 Research

Important Theories on Chemical Bonding

Albrecht Kössel and Gilbert Lewis were the first to explain the formation of chemical
bonds successfully in the year 1916. They explained chemical bonding on the basis of
the inertness of noble gases.

Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding

 An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the inner electrons)
and the outer shell.
 The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
 The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube which surround
the ‘Kernel’.
 The atoms have an octet configuration, i.e., 8 electrons in the outermost shell, thus
symbolising a stable configuration.
 Atoms can achieve this stable configuration by forming chemical bonds with other atoms.
This chemical bond can be formed either by gaining or losing an electron(s) (NaCl, MgCl2)
or, in some cases, due to the sharing of an electron (F2).
 Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the valence electrons, take part
in the formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used specific notations, better known as
Lewis symbols, to represent these valence electrons.
 Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in the
corresponding Lewis symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence electrons).

Lewis symbols for lithium (1 electron), oxygen (6 electrons) and neon (8 electrons) are
given below.

Here, the number of dots that surround the respective symbol represents the number of
valence electrons in that atom.
Kossel’s Theory of Chemical Bonding
 Noble gases separate the highly electronegative halogens and the highly electropositive
alkali metals.
 Halogens can form negatively charged ions by gaining an electron. Whereas alkali metals
can form positively charged ions by losing an electron.
 These negatively charged ions and positively charged ions have a noble gas configuration,
that is, 8 electrons in the outermost shell. The general electronic configuration of noble
gases (except helium) is given by ns2np6.
 As unlike charges attract each other, these unlike charged particles are held together by a
strong force of electrostatic attraction existing between them. For example, MgCl2 –
magnesium ions and chlorine ions – are held together by the force of electrostatic attraction.
This kind of chemical bonding existing between two, unlike charged particles, is known as an
electrovalent bond.

Explanation of Kossel-Lewis Approach

In 1916, Kossel and Lewis succeeded in giving a successful explanation based upon
the concept of an electronic configuration of noble gases about why atoms combine to
form molecules. Atoms of noble gases have little or no tendency to combine with each
other or with atoms of other elements. This means that these atoms must have stable
electronic configurations.

Due to the stable configuration, the noble gas atoms neither have any tendency to gain
nor lose electrons and, therefore, their combining capacity or valency is zero. They are
so inert that they do not even form diatomic molecules and exist as monoatomic
gaseous atoms.

⇒ Also Read
 Fajan’s rule
 VSEPR Theory
 Lesser known bonds

1. Three-center Two-electron Bonds:

o This type of bond involves sharing of electrons among three atoms, where two
electrons are delocalized over three nuclei.
o It is often found in boron hydrides (boranes) and other electron-deficient
compounds.
o Example: B₂H₆ (diborane), where two hydrogen atoms bridge between two boron
atoms, forming a three-center two-electron bond.
2. Charge-Transfer Complexes:
o Charge-transfer complexes occur when electrons are transferred from one
molecule or ion (donor) to another (acceptor), forming a complex stabilized by
electrostatic interactions.
o These complexes can exhibit distinct spectral properties and may be important in
biological systems and materials science.
o Example: Formation of complexes between metal ions and ligands in coordination
chemistry.
3. Excited State Complexes:
o In excited state complexes, molecules form bonds or interactions that are transient
and occur in excited electronic states.
o These complexes are important in photochemistry and photophysics, where
molecules absorb light and undergo temporary changes in bonding and structure.
o Example: Excited state complexes formed during fluorescence or
phosphorescence processes.
4. Beryllium Bonds:
o Beryllium bonds involve interactions between beryllium atoms and electron-rich
ligands, where beryllium acts as a Lewis acid due to its low electronegativity.
o These bonds are similar to coordinate bonds but specific to beryllium compounds.
o Example: Beryllium complexes with organolithium compounds or other electron-
donating ligands.
5. Bridge Bonds:
o Bridge bonds occur when two atoms or groups are bridged by a single atom or a
small group of atoms, forming a direct bond between them.
o These bonds are often found in coordination complexes and metal clusters.
o Example: Bridging ligands in transition metal complexes, such as μ-oxo or μ-
hydroxo bridges.
6. Hapticity Bonds (η-Bonds):
o Hapticity bonds involve the coordination of a ligand to a metal center through
multiple atoms of the ligand simultaneously, forming a bond termed η-bond.
o These bonds are common in organometallic chemistry and can influence the
reactivity and stability of metal complexes.
o Example: Cyclopentadienyl (C₅H₅⁻) ligand coordinating to transition metals in
sandwich compounds like ferrocene (Fe(η⁵-C₅H₅)₂).
These types of chemical bonds and interactions represent specialized bonding situations that
occur in specific chemical contexts, contributing to the diversity and complexity of chemical
systems studied in chemistry and related fields.