Electric and Hybrid Vehicle 2023

Q.1 Choose the correct option of the following (Any seven question only):
(a) Form where tractive effort is generated in EV.
(i) Battery
(ii) Converter
(iii) Shaft
(iv) Motor
(b) What purpose does a generator serve in a hybrid vehicle?
(i) It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
(ii) It converts chemical energy into electrical energy
(iii) It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
(iv) None of the above
(c) When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that
is always directed.
(i) Upwards
(ii) Downwards
(iii) Left ways option
(iv) Right ways
(d) The Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV) system consists of which volt?
(i) 12 V
(ii) 48 V
(iii) 160 V
(iv) None of the above
(e) Which strategy is not used in Energy management strategy system?
(i) Optimization based
(ii) Rule based
(iii) Global optimization strategy
(iv) Regression method
(f) Grade ability is defined as the maximum…........ angle that the vehicle can overcome in
the whole speed range.
(i) Grade
(ii) Raise
(iii) Slope
(iv) Plane
(g ) Which Battery are preferred for EV
(i) Lead-acid (Pb-acid)
(ii) Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
(iii) Sodium-sulphur (NaS)
(iv) Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
(h) What is the unit of charge capacity in a battery
(i) Ahr
(ii) Whr
(iii) W/hr
(iv) W/Ahr
(i) In which vehicle system lowest size of a battery is used
(i)-Micro hybrid
(ii) Mild hybrid
(iii) Series hybrid
(iv) Parallel hybrid
(j) There is main reason for which the automotive manufacturers are developing and selling
HEVS.
(i) Reduction of CO2 emission.
(ii) Direction of exhaust gas toxic emission.
(iii) Improvement of power train dynamics
(iv) All of the above.
Q.2 What is difference between ICE and HEV? Explain the power flow block diagram for
series and parallel HEV in detail.
Feature Internal Combustion Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
Engine (ICE) Vehicle
Power Source Internal combustion engine Internal combustion engine + electric motor
(gasoline or diesel) and battery
Fuel Higher due to reliance on Lower due to electric motor assistance
Consumption fossil fuels
Emissions Higher CO2 and other Lower CO2 and pollutants
pollutants
Components Fuel tank, engine, Smaller engine, electric motor, battery pack,
transmission, exhaust power electronics, regenerative braking
system system
Energy None, kinetic energy lost Regenerative braking captures and stores
Recovery as heat during braking energy in the battery
Operation Runs solely on fuel from Can run on electric power alone for short
combustion engine distances, or combine both sources for
optimized performance
Efficiency Typically lower Typically higher due to electric motor
assistance and regenerative braking
Maintenance Generally straightforward More complex due to additional components,
but frequent but often less wear on the engine

Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid

In the series hybrid system, there are four operating modes based on the power flow:

• • Mode 1: During startup (Figure 1a), normal driving or acceleration of the series HEV, both
the ICE and battery deliver electric energy to the power converter which then drives the
electric motor and hence the wheels via transmission.

• Mode 2: At light load (Figure 1b), the ICE output is greater than that required to drive
the wheels. Hence, a fraction of the generated electrical energy is used to charge the battery.
The charging of the batter takes place till the battery capacity reaches a proper level.

• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 1c), the electric motor acts as a generator,
which converts the kinetic energy of the wheels into electricity and this, is used to charge the
battery.

• Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator even when the
vehicle comes to a complete stop (Figure 1d).
Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four modes of operation are

• • Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration (Figure 2a) ; both the ICE and the EM
share the required power to propel the vehicle. Typically, the relative distribution between the
ICE and electric motor is 80-20%.

• Mode 2: During normal driving (Figure 2b), the required traction power is supplied by the
ICE only and the EM remains in off mode.

• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 2c), the EM acts as a generator to charge
the battery via the power converter.

• Mode 4: Under light load condition (Figure 2d), the traction power is delivered by the ICE
and the ICE also charges the battery via the EM.
Q.3 Explain the mathematical modelling to describe vehicle performance.

Vehicle performance

The performance of a vehicle is determined by the following factors:

• maximum cruising speed

• gradeability

• acceleration

Maximum Cruising Speed

The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising speed that the vehicle can achieve
with full power plant load on a flat road. The maximum speed of a vehicle is determined by the
equilibrium between the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance and maximum speed of the
power plant and gear ratios of the transmission. This equilibrium is:
 (30)

equation 30 shows that the vehicle reaches its maximum speed when the tractive effort, represented
by the left hand side term, equals the resistance, represented by the right hand side. The intersection
of the tractive effort curve and the resistance curve is the maximum speed of the vehicle, Figure 9.

Figure 9: Tractive effort of an electric motor powered vehicle with a single speed transmission and
its resistance

For some vehicles, no intersection exists between the tractive effort curve and the resistance curve,
because of a large power plant. In such a case the maximum speed of the vehicle is determined by
the maximum speed of the power plant. This maximum speed is given by
 (31)

Gradeability

Gradeability is defined as the grade angle that the vehicle can negotiate at a certain constant speed.
For heavy commercial vehicles the gradeability is usually defined as the maximum grade angle that
the vehicle can overcome in the whole speed range.

When the vehicle is driving on a road with relatively small grade and constant speed, the tractive
effort and resistance equilibrium can be expressed as

(32)

Hence,

(33)

where

(34)

The factor d is called the performance factor. When the vehicle drives on a road with a large grade,
the gradeability of the vehicle can be calculated as

(35)
Acceleration Performance

The acceleration of a vehicle is defined by its acceleration time and distance covered from zero speed
to a certain high speed on a level ground. The acceleration of the vehicle can be expressed as

(36)

where δ is the rotational inertia factor taking into account the equivalent mass increase due to the
angular moments of the rotating components. This mass factor can be written as

(37)

To determine the value of δ, it is necessary to determine the values of the mass moments of inertia
of all the rotating parts. In case the mass moments of inertia are not available then, the rotational
factor ( δ) can be approximated as:

(38)

The acceleration rate along with vehicle speed for a petrol engine powered vehicle with a four gear
transmission and an electric motor powered vehicle with a single gear transmission are shown
in Figure 10 and Figure 11 respectively.
 •

Figure 10: Acceleration rate of a petrol engine powered vehicle with four gears

Figure 11: Acceleration rate of an electric machine powered vehicle with a single gear

From Equation 36 , the acceleration time ta and distance Sa from a lower speed V1 to a higher
speed V2 can be expressed as
 (39)

and

(40)

The power plant torque Tp in equation 39 and equation 40 is a function of speed of the power
plant. The speed of the power plant is in turn a function of the vehicle speed and gear ratio of the
transmission. Hence, analytical solution of equation 39 and equation 40 is not possible. Numerical
methods are usually used to solve these equations.

Q.4 (a) Brief the history of hybrid and electric vehicle.

Figure 3: Historical development of automobile and development of interest and activity in the EV
from 1890 to present day. Electric Vehicle merged into hybrid electric vehicle.

1769

The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot and constructed by M.
Brezin that could attain speeds of up to 6 km/hour. These early steam-powered vehicles were so
heavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong as iron.
1807

The next step towards the development of the car was the invention of the internal combustion engine.
Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first internal combustion engine in, using a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy.

1825

British inventor Goldsworthy Gurney built a steam car that successfully completed an 85 mile round-
trip journey in ten hours time.

1839

Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle .

1860

In, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Frenchman, built the first successful two-stroke gas driven
engine .

1886

Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab , using a battery with 28 cells and a
small electric motor, was introduced in England.

1888

Immisch & Company built a four-passenger carriage, powered by a one-horsepower motor and 24-
cell battery, for the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In the same year, Magnus Volk in Brighton, England
made a three-wheeled electric car. 1890 – 1910 (Period of significant improvements in
battery technology)

Invention Of hybrid vehicle

1890

Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna, Austria, commissioned Ferdinand Porsche to design an
electric vehicle. Porsche's first version, the Lohner-Porsche Elektromobil, used electric motors
and a gasoline engine to extend its range, reaching 38 miles.

Early Hybrid Vehicles

1900

Porsche's 1900 Paris Exposition hybrid car utilized a gasoline engine and electric engine,
resulting in a series of motors and a gasoline engine, a method still in use today.

1915
Woods Motor Vehicles developed the Dual Power hybrid vehicle, the second in the market,
using an electric battery motor for low speeds and a gasoline engine for maximum speed.

1918

The Woods Dual Power was the first hybrid to go into mass production . In all, some 600 models
were built by. However, the evolution of the internal combustion engine left electric power a marginal
technology

1960

Victor Wouk worked in helping create numerous hybrid designs earned him the nickname of the
“Godfather of the Hybrid”. In 1976 he even converted a Buick Skylark from gasoline to hybrid.

1978

Modern hybrid cars utilize the regenerative braking system, which collects power from the
electric motor to recharge the car's batteries. Developed in 1978 by David Arthurs, this system
has significantly advanced hybrid vehicle manufacturing, allowing cars to offer 75 miles per
gallon and is still widely used in home conversions.

Modern Period of Hybrid History

In the last decade, consumers have increasingly embraced hybrid cars as an alternative to ICE-
driven vehicles, seeking cost savings and environmental benefits, as they seek to reduce gas costs
and environmental impact.

1990s

Automakers took a renewed interest in the hybrid, seeking a solution to dwindling energy supplies
and environmental concerns and created modern history of hybrid car

1993

In USA, Bill Clinton's administration recognized the urgency for the mass production of cars powered
by means other than gasoline. Numerous government agencies, as well as Chrysler, Ford, GM, and
USCAR combined forces in the PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles), to create cars
using alternative power sources, including the development and improvement of hybrid electric
vehicles.

1997

The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass production and hybrid production and
consumer take up has continued to go from strength to strength over the decades.

2000
Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market hybrids to go on sale in the United
States, with dozens of models following in the next decade. The Honda Insight and Toyota Prius were
two of the first mainstream Hybrid Electric Vehicles and both models remain a popular line.

2005

A hybrid Ford Escape, the SUV, was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford essentially swapped patents
with one another, Ford gaining a number of Toyota patents relating to hybrid technology and Toyota,
in return, gaining access to Diesel engine patents from Ford.

Present of Hybrid Electric vehicle

Toyota is the most prominent of all manufacturers when it comes to hybrid cars. As well as the
specialist hybrid range they have produced hybrid versions of many of their existing model lines,
including several Lexus (now owned and manufactured by Toyota) vehicles. They have also stated
that it is their intention to release a hybrid version of every single model they release in the coming
decade. As well as cars and SUVs, there are a select number of hybrid motorcycles, pickups, vans,
and other road going vehicles available to the consumer and the list is continually increasing.

Future of Hybrid electrical vehicle

Since petroleum is limited and will someday run out of supply. In the arbitrary year 2037, an estimated
one billion petroleum-fueled vehicles will be on the world's roads. gasoline will become prohibitively
expensive. The world need to have solutions for the “ 400 million otherwise useless cars” . So
year 2037 “gasoline runs out year” means, petroleum will no longer be used for personal mobility. A
market may develop for solar-powered EVs of the size of a scooter or golf cart. Since hybrid technology
applies to heavy vehicles, hybrid buses and hybrid trains will be more significant.

(b) Compare the performance and characteristics of Electric Vehicle (EV) and HEV.

a comparison of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) in table format:

Feature Electric Vehicle (EV) Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

Power Source Electric motors powered by Combines internal combustion
battery engine and electric motor/battery
Fuel Efficiency Very high efficiency, no High efficiency, lower emissions
tailpipe emissions than conventional vehicles
Range Typically shorter range, Longer range than pure EVs due to
improving with battery dual power sources
technology
Charging Requires access to charging Refuels at gasoline stations, no
infrastructure charging needed
Performance Quick acceleration, smooth Generally good acceleration,
and quiet operation operates with engine noise
Maintenance Lower maintenance (fewer More complex drivetrain, higher
parts, no oil changes) potential maintenance costs
 Emissions Zero tailpipe emissions Lower emissions than traditional
vehicles, but higher than EVs when
using gasoline
Driving Experience Silent operation, instant Engine noise when using internal
torque combustion engine
Fueling/Charging Requires charging Uses existing gasoline stations for
Infrastructure infrastructure refueling

Q.5 (a) Draw and explain ideal traction power plant characteristics of various power plants
and various power source characteristics used in electric and hybrid electric vehicles?

Drive train Configuration

An automotive drive train is shown in Figure 1 . It consists of:

• • a power plant

• a clutch in a manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission

• a gear box

• final drive

• differential shaft

• driven wheels

The torque and rotating speed from the output shaft of the power plant are transmitted to the driven
wheels through the clutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential and drive shaft.

The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple or decouple the gearbox to the power plant. The
torque converter in an automatic transmission is hydrodynamic device, functioning as the clutch in
manual transmission with a continuously variable gear ratio.

The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft for the power plant
torque-speed profile to match the requirements of the load. The final drive is usually a pair of gears
that supply a further speed reduction and distribute the torque to each wheel through the differential.
 •

• Figure 1: An automobile power train

Vehicle power plant

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of the vehicle:

• • Maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground contact can support

• Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the power plant can produce with the given
driveline gear ratios.

The smaller of these factors will determine the performance potential of the vehicle. Usually it is the
second factor that limits the vehicles performance.

The classification of various types of power plants used in a vehicle is shown in Figure 2 .
Figure 2: Classification of vehicle power plat

In selecting a suitable power plant, the following factors are considered:

• • Operating performance

• Economy

• Environment friendliness

For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is constant power
output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque varies hyperbolically with respect to speed
as shown in Figure 3 . This ideal performance characteristic of the power plant will ensure that the
maximum power is available at any vehicle speed, thus resulting in optimal vehicle performance. In
practice however, the torque is constrained to be constant a low speeds. This is done so as not to be
over the maxima limited by the adhesion between the tyre-ground contact areas. The internal
combustion (IC) engines are the most commonly used power plants for the land vehicles. In hybrid
and electric vehicle technology, the electric motor is used.

• Figure 3: Ideal performance characteristics for a vehicle power plant

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engines used in the vehicles are based on two principles:

• spark ignition ( petrol engines ) principle

• Diesel principle.
The key features of the ICs based spark ignition principle are:

• high power/weight ratio

• good performance

• low combustion noise.

The disadvantages of are the ICs based spark ignition principle are:

• quality of fuel required

• higher fuel consumption.

The advantages of the diesel engines are:

• low fuel consumption

• low maintenance requirement due to absence of ignition system

• low fuel quality required

The disadvantages of the diesel engine are

• high level of particulate emission

• greater weight and higher price

• higher levels of noise

The two typical characteristic curves used to describe the engine characteristic are:

• torque vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)

• power vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)

These two characteristic curves are shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4 the following nomenclature is
used:
Various indices are used to facilitate comparison between different types of engine. The two most
important indices are:

• torque increase (torque elasticity) defined as

(1)

• engine speed ratio defined as

(2)
 • Figure 4: Characteristic curves of an internal combustion engine

The higher value of the product τv better engine power at low and medium engine speeds. This in
turn means less frequent gear changing.

Electric Motor

The electric motors have are ideal for vehicle application because of the torque speed characteristics
of the motors (Figure 5). Electric motors are capable of delivering a high starting torque. It is very
important to select proper type of motor with a suitable rating. For example, it is not accurate to
simply refer to a 10 h.p. motor or a 15 h.p. motor, because horsepower varies with volts and amps,
and peak horsepower is much higher than the continuous rating.
 •

Figure 5: Torque vs. speed and power vs. speed characteristics of electric motor

It is also confusing to compare electric motors to IC engines, since electric motors are designed for a
continuous rating under load and IC engines are rated at their peak horsepower under loaded
condition. The commonly used motors in EVs are:

• AC motors

• Permanent magnet (PM) motors

• Series wound DC motors

• Shunt wound DC motors

The DC series motors were used in a number of prototype Electric Vehicle (EVs) and prior to that
mainly due to the ease of control. However, the size and maintenance requirements of DC motors are
making their use obsolete. The recent EVs and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) use AC, PM and
Switched Reluctance motors. A classification of motors used in EVs is shown in Figure 6.
 • Figure 6: Classification of electric motors used in EVs

The AC Induction Motor (IM) technology is very mature and significant research and development
activities have taken place in the area of induction motor drives. The control of IM is more complex
than DC motors, but the availability of fast digital processors, computational complexity can easily be
managed. The competitor to the induction motor is the permanent magnet (PM) motor. The
permanent magnet motors have magnets on the rotor, while the stator construction is same as that
of induction motor. The PM motors can be surface mounted type or the magnets can be inset within
the rotor. The PM motors can also be classified as sinusoidal type or trapezoidal type depending on
the flux density distribution in the air gap. Permanent magnet motors with sinusoidal air gap flux
distribution are called Permanent Magnet synchronous Motors (PMSM) and the with trapezoidal air
gap flux distribution are called Brushless DC (BLDC) motors.

(b) Explain the different power flow control modes of a typical parallel hybrid system with
the help of block diagrams?

Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four modes of operation are

• • Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration (Figure 2a) ; both the ICE and the EM
share the required power to propel the vehicle. Typically, the relative distribution between the
ICE and electric motor is 80-20%.

• Mode 2: During normal driving (Figure 2b), the required traction power is supplied by the
ICE only and the EM remains in off mode.

• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 2c), the EM acts as a generator to charge
the battery via the power converter.

• Mode 4: Under light load condition (Figure 2d), the traction power is delivered by the ICE
and the ICE also charges the battery via the EM.
Q.6 (a) Give the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells? What is meant by c-rating of a
battery?

Advantages of Fuel Cells:

1. High Efficiency:
o Fuel cells can convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy with high
efficiency, especially at part loads.
2. Low Emissions:
o The primary by-products of hydrogen fuel cells are water and heat, leading to zero
harmful emissions such as CO2, NOx, and particulate matter.
3. Renewable and Clean:
o Hydrogen can be produced from renewable energy sources, making fuel cells a
sustainable option for the future.
4. Quiet Operation:
o Fuel cells operate silently, reducing noise pollution compared to internal
combustion engines.
5. Scalability and Versatility:
 oFuel cells are versatile and can be scaled for different applications, from small
portable devices to large power plants and vehicles.
6. Fast Refueling:
o Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles can be refueled quickly, similar to gasoline or diesel
vehicles, providing convenience over battery electric vehicles that require longer
charging times.

Disadvantages of Fuel Cells:

1. Hydrogen Production and Infrastructure:

o Producing, storing, and transporting hydrogen can be challenging and expensive.
The current infrastructure for hydrogen refueling is limited.
2. Cost:
o Fuel cell technology and hydrogen production are still costly compared to
conventional energy sources and battery electric vehicles. This includes the cost
of fuel cells themselves and the associated infrastructure.
3. Hydrogen Storage:
o Storing hydrogen safely and efficiently is complex due to its low energy density
by volume and the need for high-pressure or cryogenic storage solutions.
4. Durability and Longevity:
o Fuel cells have issues related to durability and longevity, with performance
degradation over time and under certain operating conditions.
5. Energy Source for Hydrogen:
o If hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels, it negates the environmental benefits.
Producing hydrogen via electrolysis using renewable energy is preferred but still
more expensive.
6. Technological Maturity:
o While significant progress has been made, fuel cell technology is still less mature
than other alternatives like battery electric vehicles, leading to less market
penetration and consumer acceptance.

The C-rating of a battery is a measure of the rate at which a battery can be charged or discharged
relative to its maximum capacity. It indicates how quickly a battery can deliver or accept energy
without damaging the battery or reducing its lifespan.

Explanation of C-Rating:

1. Definition:
o The C-rating is a multiple of the battery’s capacity (in ampere-hours, Ah). It
describes the current at which the battery can be safely charged or discharged.
2. Discharge C-Rating:
o A 1C discharge rate means the battery will discharge its entire capacity in one
hour.
o A 2C discharge rate means the battery will discharge its entire capacity in half an
hour.
 oA 0.5C discharge rate means the battery will discharge its entire capacity in two
hours.
3. Charge C-Rating:
o Similar to discharge, the charge C-rating describes how quickly a battery can be
recharged.
o A 1C charge rate means the battery can be charged to its full capacity in one hour.
o A 2C charge rate means the battery can be charged to its full capacity in half an
hour.
o A 0.5C charge rate means the battery can be charged to its full capacity in two
hours.

Formula:

• Current (I) = Capacity (C) x C-rating

For example, if a battery has a capacity of 10Ah:

• At a 1C rate, the current would be 10 Ah×1 C=10 A10 \text{ Ah} \times 1 \text{ C} = 10
\text{ A}10 Ah×1 C=10 A.
• At a 2C rate, the current would be 10 Ah×2 C=20 A10 \text{ Ah} \times 2 \text{ C} = 20
\text{ A}10 Ah×2 C=20 A.
• At a 0.5C rate, the current would be 10 Ah×0.5 C=5 A10 \text{ Ah} \times 0.5 \text{ C}
= 5 \text{ A}10 Ah×0.5 C=5 A.

Importance of C-Rating:

1. Performance:
o The C-rating affects how much current the battery can supply for a given load,
impacting the performance of the device or system using the battery.
2. Safety:
o Exceeding the recommended C-rating can cause overheating, battery damage, or
even safety hazards like fires or explosions.
3. Battery Life:
o Operating within the recommended C-rating helps preserve the battery's lifespan
and maintain its capacity over time.
4. Application Suitability:
o Different applications require different C-ratings. High-drain applications like
electric vehicles or drones need batteries with high C-ratings, while low-drain
applications like remote controls can use batteries with lower C-ratings.

(b) With the help of block diagram, explain the battery management supporting system of
hybrid vehicle.
each component and its function:

Battery Management

This is the overarching system that encompasses all the functionalities required to manage the
battery pack effectively.

Battery State

• State Determination: This component is responsible for determining the current state of
the battery. This includes the state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and state of
function (SOF). It uses data from the battery monitoring system to make these
determinations.

Battery Monitoring

• Data Acquisition: This subcomponent collects data on various parameters such as

current, voltage, and temperature from the battery pack.
o Current: Measures the current flowing into or out of the battery.
o Voltage: Measures the voltage across the battery pack.
 o Temperature: Monitors the temperature of the battery pack to prevent
overheating and to maintain optimal performance.
• Safety Protection: This subcomponent ensures the safety of the battery pack by
monitoring for conditions that could lead to failures or hazardous situations. It acts on
data provided by the data acquisition system to prevent overcharging, over-discharging,
overheating, and short circuits.

Thermal Management

This system is responsible for maintaining the battery at an optimal temperature range. Proper
thermal management is crucial for battery efficiency, performance, and longevity. It can include
cooling systems (such as liquid or air cooling) and heating elements.

Communication

This component handles the exchange of information between the battery management system
and other vehicle systems or external devices. It ensures that all necessary data is transmitted and
received accurately and timely.

User Interface

This interface allows the user (driver or technician) to interact with the battery management
system. It can display critical information such as battery status, errors, and warnings.

Electrical Control

This component is responsible for managing the electrical aspects of the battery system. It
includes controlling the flow of power to and from the battery, ensuring that charging and
discharging processes are carried out safely and efficiently.

Integration

All these components are integrated to work together seamlessly. The data flows from the battery
monitoring system to the state determination unit, which then informs the user interface and
electrical control. Safety protection mechanisms are in place to react to any anomalies, and
thermal management ensures the battery operates within safe temperature limits. Communication
links all these subsystems, ensuring coherent operation and data exchange.

Q. 7 (a) Under what condition a pure EV can be chosen as a best option compared to
hybrid vehicles considering the impact on climate change?

Choosing a pure Electric Vehicle (EV) over a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) can be considered
the best option under the following conditions, especially when considering the impact on
climate change:
1. Clean Energy Source for Charging:

• Renewable Energy: If the electricity used to charge the EV comes from renewable
sources such as solar, wind, or hydroelectric power, the overall carbon footprint is
significantly reduced compared to charging with electricity generated from fossil fuels.
• Green Grid: Regions with a high percentage of renewable energy in their electricity grid
make EVs a more climate-friendly option compared to HEVs.

2. Driving Patterns and Range Requirements:

• Daily Commutes and Short Trips: If the majority of the driving involves daily
commutes or short trips within the range of the EV, this reduces the need for hybrid
technology which relies on both electric and internal combustion engines.
• Access to Charging Infrastructure: Availability of charging stations at home, work,
and public places supports the practical use of EVs, making them more viable.

3. Local Environmental Policies and Incentives:

• Government Incentives: Financial incentives, tax rebates, and subsidies for EV

purchases can make them more cost-effective compared to HEVs.
• Low Emission Zones: In cities with low emission zones or strict pollution controls, EVs
can have unrestricted access and avoid penalties imposed on vehicles with internal
combustion engines.

4. Total Cost of Ownership:

• Lower Operating Costs: EVs typically have lower operating costs due to fewer moving
parts, reduced maintenance, and lower fueling costs compared to gasoline.
• Battery Longevity: Advances in battery technology are extending the lifespan of EV
batteries, reducing the frequency and cost of replacements.

5. Technological Advances:

• Improved Battery Technology: Higher energy density and faster charging capabilities
reduce range anxiety and improve the convenience of EVs.
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology: EVs can support the grid by feeding stored energy
back during peak demand times, promoting renewable energy integration.

6. Climate and Environmental Goals:

• Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Pure EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions,
contributing significantly to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate
change.
• Air Quality Improvement: EVs help improve local air quality by eliminating pollutants
such as NOx and particulate matter emitted by internal combustion engines.
7. Corporate and Individual Sustainability Goals:

• Corporate Fleets: Companies with sustainability goals may choose EVs for their fleets
to reduce their carbon footprint.
• Consumer Preferences: Environmentally conscious consumers may prefer EVs for their
lower impact on climate change and sustainability.

(b) What superior characteristics of super capacitors make it more suitable for electric
vehicle applications?

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors or electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs),

possess several superior characteristics that make them highly suitable for electric vehicle (EV)
applications. These characteristics include:

1. High Power Density:

o Rapid Charging and Discharging: Supercapacitors can charge and discharge
much faster than traditional batteries. This high power density makes them ideal
for applications requiring quick bursts of energy, such as regenerative braking and
acceleration in EVs.
o Efficiency in Energy Transfer: The ability to efficiently transfer energy quickly
helps improve overall vehicle performance.
2. Long Cycle Life:
o Durability: Supercapacitors can withstand millions of charge and discharge
cycles without significant degradation. This longevity surpasses that of traditional
batteries, reducing the need for frequent replacements.
o Low Maintenance: Due to their long cycle life, supercapacitors require less
maintenance over time, lowering the overall cost of ownership.
3. Wide Operating Temperature Range:
o Temperature Tolerance: Supercapacitors can operate effectively in a wide range
of temperatures, from very low to high. This makes them reliable in various
climatic conditions without significant performance loss.
4. High Efficiency:
o Energy Efficiency: Supercapacitors have a high efficiency rate (typically around
95%), meaning that very little energy is lost during the charge and discharge
process. This efficiency is beneficial for maximizing the energy recovered during
regenerative braking.
5. Low Internal Resistance:
o Minimized Heat Generation: The low internal resistance of supercapacitors
results in minimal heat generation during operation. This reduces the need for
extensive cooling systems, making the overall system more efficient and compact.
6. Environmental Friendliness:
o Materials and Manufacturing: Supercapacitors are often made from more
environmentally friendly materials compared to traditional batteries, and their
manufacturing process can have a lower environmental impact.
o Recycling: The materials used in supercapacitors are generally easier to recycle,
contributing to more sustainable energy storage solutions.
Application in Electric Vehicles:

1. Regenerative Braking:
o Supercapacitors excel in capturing and storing energy during regenerative braking
due to their rapid charging capabilities. This stored energy can then be used to
assist in acceleration or power auxiliary systems, improving overall energy
efficiency.
2. Start-Stop Systems:
o In hybrid and electric vehicles, supercapacitors can quickly provide the necessary
power for start-stop systems, enhancing fuel efficiency and reducing emissions.
3. Power Boosts:
o Supercapacitors can provide short-term power boosts needed for acceleration,
reducing the strain on the primary battery and improving vehicle performance.
4. Load Leveling:
o By balancing the load on the battery during high power demand periods,
supercapacitors help prolong the battery's life and enhance overall system
reliability.

Q.8 (a) Explain the working of a switched reluctance motor with proper diagram.
(b) Discuss the working of BLDC motor. Also draw its construction.
Done
Q.9 Write short notes an any two of the following:
(a) Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are a type of electric vehicle that rely entirely on battery power
for propulsion, with no internal combustion engine. They offer several advantages and
considerations, particularly when it comes to their impact on climate change and overall
sustainability.

Key Features of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs):

1. Power Source:
o Battery: BEVs are powered exclusively by electric batteries, which store and
deliver energy to the electric motors.
o Charging: Batteries are recharged through external electric sources, typically via
home chargers, public charging stations, or rapid chargers.
2. Electric Motor:
o Propulsion: BEVs use one or more electric motors to drive the wheels, providing
smooth and efficient acceleration.
 o Regenerative Braking: This system recovers energy during braking and feeds it
back into the battery, enhancing efficiency.
3. Zero Emissions:
o Tailpipe Emissions: BEVs produce no tailpipe emissions, contributing to
improved air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
o Lifecycle Emissions: The overall emissions depend on the energy mix used to
generate the electricity for charging.

Advantages of BEVs:

1. Environmental Benefits:
o Zero Tailpipe Emissions: Eliminates pollutants such as CO2, NOx, and
particulate matter.
o Climate Impact: Reduces greenhouse gas emissions, particularly when charged
with renewable energy.
2. Efficiency:
o Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion
engines, converting more of the stored energy into propulsion.
o Regenerative Braking: Enhances efficiency by capturing and reusing energy.
3. Lower Operating Costs:
o Fuel Costs: Electricity is generally cheaper than gasoline or diesel.
o Maintenance: Fewer moving parts result in lower maintenance costs (e.g., no oil
changes, fewer brake replacements).
4. Quiet Operation:
o Noise Reduction: BEVs operate quietly, reducing noise pollution.
5. Performance:
o Instant Torque: Electric motors provide instant torque, resulting in quick
acceleration and responsive performance.

Disadvantages of BEVs:

1. Range Limitations:
o Driving Range: BEVs typically have a shorter range compared to vehicles with
internal combustion engines or hybrids, though this is improving with
advancements in battery technology.
2. Charging Infrastructure:
o Availability: Limited access to charging stations can be a barrier, especially in
rural or underdeveloped areas.
o Charging Time: Charging a BEV can take longer than refueling a gasoline
vehicle, particularly with standard chargers.
3. Battery Cost and Lifespan:
o Initial Cost: The cost of batteries can make BEVs more expensive upfront.
o Degradation: Over time, battery capacity can degrade, reducing range and
performance.
4. Energy Source for Charging:
 o Electricity Mix: The environmental benefits depend on the source of electricity.
Charging with coal-generated electricity has a higher carbon footprint compared
to renewable sources.

Impact on Climate Change:

1. Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

o Direct Emissions: BEVs produce no tailpipe emissions, significantly reducing
direct greenhouse gas emissions.
o Indirect Emissions: The carbon footprint of BEVs depends on the electricity
mix. Charging with renewable energy sources results in the lowest overall
emissions.
2. Support for Renewable Energy Integration:
o Grid Stability: BEVs can support grid stability through Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
technology, where they feed stored energy back to the grid during peak demand.
3. Sustainable Urban Mobility:
o Air Quality Improvement: Widespread adoption of BEVs can improve urban air
quality, reducing health issues associated with air pollution.
o Noise Reduction: BEVs contribute to quieter cities, enhancing quality of life.

When BEVs are the Best Option:

• Clean Energy Availability: When the local electricity grid is heavily reliant on
renewable energy sources.
• Urban and Suburban Settings: Where daily driving distances are within the range of
most BEVs and charging infrastructure is more developed.
• Environmental Policies: In regions with strong incentives for zero-emission vehicles
and stringent emission regulations.
• Sustainability Goals: For individuals and organizations prioritizing sustainability and
reducing their carbon footprint.

(b) Flywheel based Energy storage system

• Flywheels are devices used for storing energy, such as a plane disc spinning about its axis.
• The kinetic energy of the spinning disc is released when the flywheel slows down.
• The energy can be captured by connecting an electrical generator directly to the disc, which can
drive the vehicle motors.
• The flywheel can be re-accelerated, acting as a regenerative brake, or connected to the vehicle
wheels via a gearbox and a clutch.
• The total amount of energy stored is given by the formula:

E = 0.5Iω2 (1)
• The flywheel's energy storage capacity is limited by the tensile strength of the material it is
made from.
• Flywheels have a high specific power and are relatively easy to get energy to and from the
flywheel.
• Despite the low specific energy, there are major safety concerns due to the risk of explosion
and the gyroscopic effect of a disc rotating at high speeds.
• Despite the lack of success for vehicle energy storage, flywheels can be used in electric
vehicles for regenerative braking systems, especially in hybrids.

(c) EV motor sizing

vehicle. The process involves determining the appropriate motor power and torque to meet the
vehicle's performance requirements. Here are the key considerations and steps involved in sizing
an EV motor:

Key Considerations:

1. Vehicle Specifications:
o Vehicle Weight: Including passengers and cargo.
o Aerodynamics: Drag coefficient (Cd) and frontal area (A).
o Rolling Resistance: Rolling resistance coefficient (Crr) and tire characteristics.
o Desired Performance: Acceleration, top speed, and gradeability (ability to climb
inclines).
2. Driving Conditions:
o Urban vs. Highway Driving: Different driving conditions require different
torque and power characteristics.
o Terrain: Flat vs. hilly terrain impacts the required motor performance.
 o Climate: Temperature can affect motor efficiency and battery performance.
3. Powertrain Configuration:
o Single Motor vs. Dual Motor: Dual-motor setups can provide better performance
and all-wheel drive capability.
o Gearbox: Whether a single-speed or multi-speed gearbox is used.

Steps for Motor Sizing:

1. Calculate Required Torque:

o Starting Torque: Determine the torque required to start the vehicle from a
standstill.
o Acceleration Torque: Calculate the torque needed to achieve the desired
acceleration.
o Climbing Torque: Determine the torque required to climb the maximum
expected grade.

The total required torque can be calculated using the following formulae:

o Traction Force (F):

F=Vehicle Mass×(Acceleration+g×sin(θ)+Crr×g×cos(θ))

where Crr is the gravitational constant (9.81 m/s²) and θ is the incline angle.

o Torque (T):

T=F×Wheel Radius

2. Calculate Power Requirements:

o Power (P):

P=T×ω/9550

where ω is the angular velocity (RPM).

o Consider peak power for acceleration and continuous power for cruising.
3. Motor Selection:
o Choose a motor that meets or exceeds the calculated torque and power
requirements.
o Ensure the motor operates efficiently within the expected RPM range.
4. Battery Compatibility:
o Ensure the battery can supply the required power and voltage for the chosen
motor.
o Verify that the battery capacity supports the desired range and performance.

(d) Permanent magnet DC motor

A Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a type of electric motor that uses permanent magnets
to produce the magnetic field required for operation. PMDC motors are widely used in various
applications due to their simplicity, reliability, and efficiency.

Key Features of PMDC Motors:

1. Construction:
o Stator: Contains permanent magnets that create a constant magnetic field.
o Rotor (Armature): Consists of a coil wound around an iron core, which rotates
inside the magnetic field created by the stator.
o Commutator: A segmented device that switches the direction of current through
the armature windings, ensuring continuous rotation.
o Brushes: Conductive carbon or metal elements that maintain electrical contact
with the commutator segments.
2. Working Principle:
o When a DC voltage is applied to the motor terminals, current flows through the
armature windings.
o The interaction between the current-carrying armature conductors and the
magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets generates a force (Lorentz
force), causing the rotor to turn.
o The commutator and brushes switch the current direction at the appropriate times
to maintain unidirectional torque.

Advantages of PMDC Motors:

1. Simplicity:
o PMDC motors have a straightforward design with fewer components, making
them easy to manufacture and maintain.
2. Efficiency:
o Permanent magnets provide a constant magnetic field without the need for
external excitation, reducing power losses and improving efficiency.
3. Compactness:
o The absence of field windings and associated components allows for a more
compact motor design.
4. High Starting Torque:
o PMDC motors can produce high starting torque, making them suitable for
applications requiring rapid acceleration.
5. Reliability:
o Fewer components and the absence of field windings reduce the likelihood of
failure and increase reliability.

Disadvantages of PMDC Motors:

1. Brush Wear:
o The brushes and commutator experience wear over time, necessitating periodic
maintenance and replacement.
 2. Limited Speed Range:
o The speed of a PMDC motor is limited by the commutation process, which may
not be suitable for very high-speed applications.
3. Demagnetization:
o Permanent magnets can be susceptible to demagnetization if exposed to high
temperatures or excessive currents.
4. Fixed Field:
o The magnetic field strength is fixed, limiting the motor's ability to adjust
performance dynamically compared to motors with field windings.

Applications of PMDC Motors:

1. Automotive:
o Used in windshield wipers, electric windows, and starter motors.
2. Industrial:
o Employed in conveyor belts, pumps, and small machinery.
3. Consumer Electronics:
o Found in toys, power tools, and small household appliances.
4. Robotics:
o Utilized in small robots and actuators due to their high torque and efficiency.