RADIOGRAPHY

Radiography
“Radio-Radiations” & “Graph- Recording”

Industrial Radiography uses two types (sources) of Radiations

1. X-radiation( X-Rays) using X-ray tube & generators.
2. Gamma radiation using Radio Isotopes like
Iridium-192( 192 Ir 77 ) derived from 191 Ir 77 (Stable)
&
Cobalt-60(60Co 27) derived from 59Co 27

https://youtu.be/KYDil96NR5Q

www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsaTx5-
KLT8&list=TLPQMDUxMjIwMjK_nvG0Z2iSXQ&index=2

https://youtu.be/hR0BuwVxah8
 X-rays & Gamma rays Differences.
X-RAYS GAMA RAYS
X-RAY GENERATORS-X-rays are PRODUCT OF Radioactive Atoms-
produced when electrons strike a Gamma rays originate from the
ORIGIN target or when electrons rearrange settling process of an excited
within an atom. nucleus of a Radionuclide after it
undergoes Radioactive decay
X-rays are generated when an electron Depending upon the ratio of neutrons
is accelerated and then made to to protons within its nucleus an isotope
rapidly decelerate, usually due to of a particular element may be stable or
interaction with other atomic particles unstable. Over time, the nuclei of
unstable isotopes spontaneously
2 different atomic processes that can disintegrate, or transform, in a process
produce X-ray photons. known as Radioactive decay
. Various types of radiation may be
PROCESS 1. Bremsstrahlung radiation, emitted from the nucleus and/or its
2. K-shell or characteristic emission. surrounding electrons when an atom
experiences radioactive decay
Both processes involve a change in the . Nuclides which undergo radioactive
energy state of electrons. decay are called Radionuclides
. Any material which contains
measurable amounts of one or
more radionuclides is a Radioactive
material
To produce X-radiation electricity To produce Gama-radiation
REQUIREMENT required not the Radioactive source. source(Radioactive Material)
required not the electricity
 BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION
Bremsstrahlung (German: “Braking Radiation”)
Electromagnetic Radiation given off by free electrons that are
deflected (Accelerated) in the electric fields of charged particles
(especially electrons) in the vicinity of the strong electric fields of
atomic nuclei.
Bremsstrahlung x-rays produce a continuous x-ray spectrum
K-shell or characteristic emission. This energy emission happens
when a fast-moving electron collides with a K-shell electron, the
electron in the K-shell is ejected (provided the energy of the
incident electron is greater than the binding energy of K-shell
electron) leaving behind a 'hole‘(CORE HOLE). After the electron
has been ejected, the atom is left with a vacant energy level, outer
shell electrons then fall into the inner shell emitting quantized
Photons with an energy level equivalent to the energy difference
between the higher and lower states. Each element has a unique
set of energy levels, and thus the transition from higher to lower
energy levels produces X-rays with frequencies that are
characteristic to each element.
 ENERGY
• Energy (X & Gama)radiation is responsible for its ability to penetrate matter
• Higher energy radiation can penetrate more and higher density matter than low
energy radiation. The energy of ionizing radiation is measured in electron volt (eV)
• One electron volt is an extremely small amount of energy so it is common to use
kilo electron Volts (keV) & Mega electron Volt (MeV).
• An electron volt is a measure of energy, which is different from a volt “which is a measure
of the electrical potential between two positions”. Specifically an electron volt is the
kinetic energy gained by an electron passing through a potential difference of one volt
• X-ray generators have a control to adjust the keV or the kV.

Gama Ray Isotopes have fixed energy level

• The energy of a radioisotope is a characteristic of the atomic structure of the material.
• Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60, which are 2 of the more common industrial Gamma ray
sources. These isotopes emit radiation in 2 or 3 discreet wavelengths.
• Cobalt-60 will emit 1.33 MeV and 1.17 MeV energy level Gamma rays.
• Iridium-192 will emit 0.31 MeV, 0.47 MeV, & 0.60 MeV energy level Gamma rays.
• It can be seen from these values that the energy of radiation coming from Co-60 is about
Twice the energy of the radiation coming from the Ir-192. From a radiation safety point of
view, this difference in energy is important because the Co-60 has more material
penetrating power
 ACTIVITY
• Activity (Gama) : The strength of a radioactive source which is
defined as “The rate at which the isotope decays”. Specifically, it
is the “Number of atoms that decay and emit radiation in one
second”.
• Radioactivity may be thought of as the volume of radiation
produced in a given amount of time. It is similar to the current
control on a X-ray generator.
• The International System (SI) unit for activity is the Becquerel
(Bq), which is that quantity of radioactive material in which
one atom transforms per second. The Becquerel is a small unit,
In practical situations, radioactivity is often quantified in
Kilo(103)Becquerel's (kBq) or Mega(106) Becquerel's, (MBq) or
Giga(109) Becquerel's (GBq).
• The Curie (Ci) is also commonly used as the unit for activity of a
particular source material. The curie is a quantity of radioactive
material in which
3.7 x 1010 (37 x 109) atoms Transform/Disintegrate per second.
 INTENSITY
• Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing
through a given area that is perpendicular to the
direction of radiation travel in a given unit of time.
• The intensity of an X-ray or gamma-ray source can
easily be measured with the right detector
• Since it is difficult to measure the strength of
a radioactive source based on its activity, which is the
number of atoms that decay & emit radiation in 1
second, the strength of a source is often referred to in
terms of its intensity
• Measuring the intensity of a source is sampling the
number of photons emitted from the source in some
particular time period, which is directly related to the
number of disintegrations in the same time period (the
activity).
 EXPOSURE
• The amount of ionization in air produced by
the radiation is called the Exposure
• Exposure is expressed in terms of a scientific unit
called Roentgen(R or r).
• The unit Roentgen is equal to the amount of
radiation that produces in one cubic centimeter(CC)
of dry air at 0°C & Standard atmospheric
pressure ionization of either sign equal to one
electrostatic unit of charge(esu).
• One way to measure the intensity of x-rays or
gamma rays is to measure the amount of ionization
they cause in air.
• Radiation detection safety devices used by
a Radiographer to measure exposure and present
the reading in terms of Roentgens or
Roentgens/hour, which is known as the Dose rate.
 SAFETY
• Radiation safety is important as
every profession has Risk involved
within it.
• “Mitigate or Minimize the Risk
& to Utilize the Radiation in
safety manner”.
Radiation safety involves 3 factors
• 1. TIME
• 2. DISTANCE
• 3. SHIELDING
 SAFETY factor TIME
• “Lesser the Time a person
spends at the area of Radiation,
Lesser will be the effect of
Radiation and lesser will be the
Dose and Dose Rate”.
• “NO DOSE OF RADIATION IS A SAFE DOSE”
 SAFETY factor DISTANCE
• Radiation while traveling always travel in
STRAIGHT LINE and follow Inverse Square Law.
• “Radlation intensity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source."
• Mathematically, it can be expressed as

where 𝑰𝟏 . 𝑫𝟏
𝟐
= 𝑰 𝟐 . 𝑫𝟐
𝟐

𝑰𝟏 Intensity at point 𝑫𝟏
&
𝑰𝟐 Intensity at point 𝑫𝟐
• Radiation intensity decreases with
increase in distance from the
source
 SAFETY factor SHILEDING
• Radiation shielding is the usage of
Radiation Absorber material to minimize
and Reduce the Radiation Exposure to
the personnel working in the field as
well as Public.
• Generally for X-rays and Gama-Rays
below mentioned materials are used as
shielding material.
• Concrete
• Lead
• Tungsten
 SAFETY factor SHILEDING
• For Stationery Exposure facility Exposure
rooms are built with Concrete.
• For cabinet type Exposure facility Lead(Pb) is
used as Shielding material.
• Tungsten (As material is very costly) used in
Beam Directional Collimators to minimize the
spread of the Radiation Beam.
• Shielding material thickness changes with the
energy/Isotope used to generate Radiation.
 HVL & TVL
Half-Value Layer (HVL), or
Half-Value Thickness(HVT), is the
thickness of the material at which the
Intensity of Radiation entering is
reduced by one half (1/2).
TVL- Tenth-Value Layer (TVL)
or Tenth-Value Thickness(TVT), is the
thickness of the material at which the
Intensity of Radiation entering is
reduced by one by Tenth of its initial
intensity (1/10).
 Different HVL & TVL for Different
Radiation Energy(Voltage) X-rays
Peak Voltage Half value Layer – mm(Inch)↓ Tenth value Layer – mm(Inch)↓
(kVp)↓ Lead Concrete Lead Concrete

50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170) 0.198 (0.066) 14.256(0.561)

100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595) 0.891 (0.033) 49.83 (1.9635)

150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879) 0.99 (0.0396) 73.656 (2.9007)

200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984) 1.716 (0.0693) 82.5 (3.2472)

250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102) 2.904 (0.1155) 92.4 (3.6366)

300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21(1.229) 4.851 (0.1815) 102.993 (4.1217)

400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299) 8.25 (0.3234) 108.9 (4.2867)

1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75) 26.07 (1.03) 146.685 (5.775)

3.3 (HVT)HVL= 1(TVT) TVL.

• CAUTION: While using Isotopes risk of
Leakage Radiation will always there which
shall be within Permissible Leakage level as
per AERB regulations.
• While using X-ray generators no leakage
Radiation is present unless when beam of
X-rays are ON.
“Whenever and Wherever there is Radiation,
it cannot be bring down to ZERO and Will Never
become ZERO”
 RADIATION MONITORING
• VERY IMPORTANT TO MONITOR RADIATION
BECAUSE
• “RADIATIONS CANNOT BE SEEN”.
• “RADIATION CANNOT BE SMELLED”.
• “RADIATION CANNOT BE FEELED”.
• Radiation can only be monitored using
special monitoring devices and are called as
“RADIATION MONITORS”.
 RADIATION MONITORS
Personnel Monitoring is essential to measure Dose
imparted to individual in the Radiation Area, & can
be monitored Individually by using
• TLD (Thermal Luminescent Dosimeters) Badges.
• Dosimeters.
Area Monitoring is essential to measure the
Radiation Intensity by using
• Radiation Survey Meters which measures the
Radiation Intensity at a particular place and particular point .
• Radiation Area Zone monitors which measures the
Radiation Intensity all along the area all the time .
 DOSE
• X rays, Gama, Photons are Indirectly
Ionizing Radiation due to
Release of charged particle and Transfer of Energy.
measured in KERMA
• KERMA-Kinetic Energy Released in the Medium Air
RAD.
• Earlier it was measured in
(Radiation Absorbed Dose)
• Unit of Measurement is Joules Per Kg or
SI Unit of measurement is Gray ( Gy ).
100 Rad= 1Gy
 EQUIVALENT DOSE
. Biological damage caused by the Radiation depends on the
Nature of Radiation, Their specific Ionizations and LET.
(Linear Energy Transfer)

. Biological damage produced by the same dose of Different

Radiation may be Different.

. Equivalent dose accounts for the different biological

effectiveness of different types of Radiation

Unit of Equivalent Dose is SIEVERT

 Effective Dose
Tissue / organ Wt Ht
Bone marrow (red), Colon, Lung, Stomach, 0.12 0.72
Breast, Reminder Tissues
Gonads 0.08 0.08
Bladder, Esophagus, Liver, Thyroid glands 0.04 0.16
Bone surface, Brain, Salivary glands, Skin. 0.01 0.04

Ht is the Equivalent Dose in the Tissue T which is 1 for X-rays, Gama

rays.

Effective Dose(E) is given by

Tissue weighing factor (Wt) X Equivalent Dose (Ht)

 CELL BIOLOGY
– Cell : Basic unit of life
– Human being : Multi-cellular organism (about 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒
cells)
– Cell structure: Nucleus, Cytoplasm & Cell
membrane.
– Two types of cells in Human body.
• SOMATIC CELLS
• Constitute various tissues such as brain, lungs, skin,
kidney, eye etc.
• Consists of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
• GERM CELLS (Reproductive Cells)
• Cells, which participate in reproductive process i.e.
• Male:Sperm Female: Ova (only 23 chromosomes)

• Consist of 23 chromosomes (not in pair)

 DO’s & DONT’s
• NEVER FORGET TO WEAR TLD BADGE DURING WORK.
• Anybody who handles Radiation is entitled to have a TLD badge.
• Use Of Radiation Monitors Is Must.
• Never plan radiographic work without a suitable radiation monitor.
• The control badge provided at each site along with personnel
badges must be kept in a radiation free zone “( Away from the area
where the radiography sources are used/stored)”.
• Check everything before starting the day's work as well as
during the course of work and after completion of work.
• Inform & Educate Co-Workers about Radiation Hazards & to
practice with Better Safe Work Practices.
• In case of accidents such as radiation Incident, report the matter,
immediately to the Superiors(RSO) and subsequently, Superiors
inform to Head, Radiological Safety Division (RSD), Atomic
Energy Regulatory Board (AERB).
• Never carry or take home your TLD out of work area.
 RADIATION ACCIDENT & FACTORS
• WHAT IS A RADIATION ACCIDENT?
A situation in which there is an unintentional exposure to
ionizing radiation or radioactive contamination.
The main factor which contribute is HUMAN ERROR
&
1. Failure to use survey meter [Failure to monitor].
2. Equipment failure [failure to maintain the equipment's].
3. Safety procedures not followed [Ignorance about the
operation & handling].
4. Regulatory control lacking or inadequate.
5. Inadequate training.
6. Lack of safety awareness knowledge and program.
7. Taking things granted
 REASONS FOR UNUSUAL INCIDENTS

The following are some of the events which may lead to radiation
emergencies.
• Failure of Automatic Timer.
• Device Energized Accidentally.
• Radiographer's failure to terminate
Exposure (failure to monitor).
• Damaged or faulty or defeated safety
systems.
• Physical damage to shielding.
 HOW
How Can these be avoided?
TO AVOID
Many such incidents can be easily avoided, if
• The operators adopt proper & Better safe work practice.
• The hazard associated with such incidents would be less serious, if
only the people working with radiations, use radiation monitors
properly during their routine work.
Few points which help in minimizing the occurrence of a radiation
accident and associated hazard.
• Proper Safety training.
• Awareness of Hazard.
• Proper record of sources used and exposures given.
• Regular maintenance and checking of equipment.
• Confirming proper working and rectifying if defect is noticed.
• Periodical checking of system and mechanism.
• Availability of proper handling equipment's.
• Adopting routine monitoring procedure.
It should also be noted that if, in spite of all precautions if still
any unusual incident occurs, one should never become panicky
and never hide the issue.
• The operator should stop work with the equipment, report the
matter to his Superiors(RSO-Managers).
• Superior authorities(RSO) shall report to The Head, Radiological
Safety Division (RSD), Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB).
 FLAT PANEL DETECTOR
• Flat-panel detector is a modular composition of
individual functioning units that combine to
make the detection of X-rays possible.
• Very functional unit of the Flat Panel Detector a
very short radiation falls on the pixel array
whenever an X-ray image is taken while the
pixels collect and store this radiation until it is
read out. Also these pixels each include a
photodiode that uses the impacting X-rays to
generate an electrical charge. The pixels also
include a switch which has a
Thin-film Transistor (TFT) or
Indium Gallium Zinc Oxide (IGZO)
which are often utilized as a display technology.
 COMPUTER RADIOGRAPHY PANEL
• Computed Radiography Storage uses “ Phosphor
Systems” reusable plates which are coated with a Photo
Stimulatable Phosphor (PSP), a form of scintillator that absorbs
energy and retains a latent image when exposed to x-rays.

• CR is a commonly used system of digital radiographic imaging

that uses plates exposed by conventional Radiographic
Equipment and can be used like any x-ray cassette.
• The stored energy of the latent image is released as light
when the plate is scanned by a laser in an image plate reader.
The light produced is measured and digitized, yielding an
image that can be subjected to contrast and spatial frequency
enhancement and can be stored on magnetic or optical disks,
viewed on monitors, or printed on film with a laser printer.
• The imaging plates are erased by exposure to light and may be
reused almost immediately.
 FILM RADIOGRAPHY
Film radiography requires the development of the exposed film so that
the latent image becomes visible for viewing. It describes the general
characteristics of film, including speed, gradient, and graininess, and
the factors affecting film selection and exposure time.
X-ray film displays the radiographic image and consists of emulsion
(single side or double side) of silver halide like silver bromide (AgBr) is
most common which when exposed to light, produces a silver ion (Ag+)
and an electron. The electrons get attached to the sensitivity specks
and attract the silver ion. Subsequently, the silver ions attach and
clumps of metallic silver (black) are formed
Base: cellulose triacetate or polyester for support
Substratum: an adhesive layer containing gelatin and solvents that bind emulsion and
base
Emulsion: silver halide and gelatin, with some hardening agents is the main layer
where latent images are stored
Protective layer: gelatin, protects emulsion from damage
The total thickness of the film is about 0.25 mm.
 Cross section of film
Base: cellulose triacetate or polyester for support.
Substratum: an adhesive layer containing gelatin and
solvents that bind emulsion and base.
Emulsion: silver halide and gelatin, with some hardening
agents is the main layer where latent images are stored
Protective layer: gelatin, protects emulsion from damage
 FILM processing RADIOGRAPHY
Radiographic Film processing refers to a series of
steps to Convert the latent(Hidden yet to Develop)-
Temporary image (Invisible) formed during
exposure to Radiation on the film into an Active-
Visible Permanent image.
Developing Process It may be Manual or Automatic
involves 5 steps.
1. Developer
2. Rinsing and Stop Bath.
3. Fixing.
4. Washing.
5. Drying.
 UNSHARPNESS

Unsharpness is the loss of spatial

resolution in a radiographic image.
There are generally considered to be 3
types of unsharpness:
1. Geometric unsharpness(Ug),
2. Motion unsharpness(Um),
3. Photographic or System unsharpness.
 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS-Ug
Geometric Unsharpness (Ug) refers to the
“Loss of definition which is the result of
geometric factors of the radiographic
equipment and setup.
It occurs because the radiation does not originate
from a single point but rather over an area.
(We are not using any pointed source)
The 3 factors controlling Unsharpness are
1. Source size
2. Source to Object Distance(SOD)
3. Object to Detector Distance(ODD)
 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS Ug
Object-to-Detector Ug mm (inches)
Distance (t), mm( inch) maximum
Casting and Casting
salvage Welds t 0.203mm (0.008”)
≤12.7(0.5)
Casting and Casting
salvage Welds t 0.250mm (0.010”)
>12.7(0.5)
Metal joining
Processes, Fabrication
0.125mm (0.004”)
welds including EB and
Laser Welds
Factors contributing for Geometric Unsharpness
Source/Focal Spot size Shall be As small as possible

Source to Detector Distance Shall be As high as possible

Shall be As high as required and available
Source to Object Distance

Object to Detector Distance Shall be As low as required and available

 UNSHARPNESS
Motion Unsharpness can be controlled by
arresting and restricting movement of object
during image capturing.
System Unsharpness (previously called
photographic Unsharpness) is the result of the
detector system employed. Every detector type has
a limiting factor which determines its maximum
spatial resolution & In film systems it is the size of
the grains of photographic chemical.
Abrupt thickness in object Can’t Control

Angle between Source of Radiation &

As straight as possible and required
Area of Interest
 SOURCE-TO-DETECTOR DISTANCE
The minimum allowable Source-to-Detector Distance
shall be calculated by the following equation, using
the material thicknesses and unsharpness values in
the below table,
𝑭. 𝒕
𝑺𝑫𝑫 = +𝒕
𝑼𝒈
Where:
SDD = Source-to-Detector Distance ,
Ug = Geometric unsharpness,
F = Effective focal spot size
t = Distance from the source side of the object to the
Detector (ODD-Object to Detector Distance).
(regardless of whether or not the object is in contact
with the detector).
 RESOLUTION
Resolution in radiography refers to
“Ability of an imaging system to faithfully reproduce a
sharp edge that is present in the object”.
Spatial resolution in radiography refers to
“Ability of an imaging system to differentiate between two
nearby objects”.

In digital imaging, it depends on the size of the pixel used. A large pixel
size will be unable to resolve two nearby structures compared to small
pixel size.
“Smaller the detector element size(Pixel),
Higher is the Resolution”
 CONTRAST
Radiographic contrast is the Grey value(Density)
difference between neighboring regions on a plain
radiograph. High radiographic contrast is observed in
radiographs where grey differences are notably
distinguished.

Subject Contrast within the overall image depends

on differences in both the density of materials of the
object and the thickness difference in the objects.

“The greater the difference in either Density or

thickness of 2 adjacent areas of object leads to
greater contrast between those areas within the
image”.