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I
High Voltage Engineering

2022
T

fewest PYQ A

SOLUTIONS H

Sit
1.a.
Define impulse voltage' and draw its 90
⑰
characteristics. Peak Value
Iso
In high voltage engineering, an
impulse voltage is normally a -
unidirectional voltage which rises 50 50 +4
Orth 1 2t2 Time (MS)
quickly without appreciable
.

-
7 T1 - -
+2
oscillations, to a peak value and then
falls less rapidly to zero.
(b) What are the disadvantages of sphere gap for measurement of high
voltage?
Sphere gap measurements for high voltage can be influenced by
environmental factors, have limited accuracy compared to modern
methods, and may experience corona discharge issues at high voltages.
Regular calibration is essential for reliable results.

(c). What is Rogowski coil?

A Rogowski coil is a device used to measure

alternating current (AC) in electrical
systems. It's a flexible coil of wire without a
core, making it easier to install around a
conductor. The coil produces a voltage
proportional to the rate of change of
current, allowing it to accurately measure
AC currents, especially in situations where
traditional current transformers may be
challenging to apply.
A Rogowski coil, named after Walter Rogowski, is an electrical device
for measuring alternating current (AC) or high-speed current pulses.

(d) Name various tests to be carried out on CB.

Circuit breaker tests include checks for mechanical operation, insulation

resistance, contact resistance, dielectric strength, timing, short circuit
performance, endurance, charging mechanism, auxiliary circuits, partial
discharge, and, for SF6 breakers, gas leakage. These tests ensure proper
functionality, safety, and reliability.
(e) Mention various factors which affect breakdown of gases.
Gas breakdown is affected by gas type, pressure, temperature, electrode
characteristics, gap distance, gas purity, rate of voltage change, electrode
shape, and gas flow, impacting breakdown voltage in electrical systems.

(f) What is surge impedance loading?

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) is the maximum power a transmission line
can carry without causing significant waveform distortion, determined by
the match between surge impedance and line characteristic impedance. It
defines the line's maximum power transfer capability while preserving
system stability.

(g) What do you mean by 'treeing' and tracking' in solid dielectric?

In solid dielectrics, 'treeing' is the growth of tree-like structures within

the material, weakening insulation, while 'tracking' is the formation of
conductive paths on the surface, compromising insulating properties.

(h) What is corona discharge?

Corona discharge is a glow or hissing near high-voltage conductors caused
by ionization of surrounding air, occurring when the electric field is strong
but not enough for a spark. It's common in high-voltage systems and can
cause energy losses and interference.

(i) Mention the application of gases in electric power apparatus.

Gases are used in electric power apparatus for insulation (e.g., SF6),
cooling (e.g., hydrogen), arc quenching, partial discharge detection, and in
gas-insulated substations (GIS). They contribute to efficient, safe, and
reliable functioning of electrical equipment.

(j) What do you mean by CVT?

CVT stands for Capacitive Voltage Transformer, used in high-voltage power

systems for accurate voltage measurement using capacitance principles.
 2. (a) Explain the streamer theory of breakdown in air at atmospheric
pressure.

The streamer theory of breakdown in air at atmospheric pressure

describes the breakdown process as the initiation and growth of
conductive channels called streamers. It involves the following steps:

1. Initiation: When a strong electric field is applied, free electrons in

the air gain enough energy to cause ionization. Electrons collide with
neutral air molecules, generating positive ions and additional free
electrons. This initiates the formation of a conductive path called a
streamer.
2. Streamer Growth: The initial streamer, consisting of electrons and
positive ions, rapidly grows along the path of the electric field. As it
extends, it continues to ionize surrounding air molecules, creating
additional electrons and positive ions.
3. Leader Formation: Multiple streamers may develop, and if one
becomes dominant, it evolves into a leader. The leader is a well-
defined, conductive path through which current flows.
4. Avalanche Effect: The leader continues to propagate, and the
ionization process intensifies, creating an avalanche effect. This results
in a fully developed electric discharge or breakdown, forming a
continuous conductive channel between electrodes.

Streamer theory is particularly relevant to understanding the breakdown

phenomenon in air at atmospheric pressure, explaining how the ionization
process progresses from initiation to the establishment of a conductive
path, leading to electrical breakdown.
(b) The following observations were made in an experiment for determination
of dielectric strength of transformer oil. Determine the power law equation

(d)

his five
I

Va =

k-d dis ciiis

Step 1 : -

88 = K . 44 [i]
165 =
K 84 .

[ii]
equiis: (i) ,

= => 2 =

1875
In both side-
Taking
on

en2" =
en(1 875) .

=) a -
(n(z) =
2n(1 875)-

n 0 693 0 6286 - n 0 9068

= =

x .
.
=
.

from eq" (i)

9068)
*
410
.

88 = k 4 . =
88 = k - :. k =
25 03 .

Step-2 : -

135
=

kx 6" -
(iii)
-

212
=

Kx10" -
(iv]
Now
, eq" [IV]=(iii]

->
=

I = 2 57 .
=

2 :
674

en (1 57) en[(1 67)4] n- In(1 67) => n 0 88

=
=
= .
=> - . -

from eq" N , 135 =

kx6" = k =

27.9( : n =

0 -
88)

-+0
88=
.

Mavg 0
89/
=
.
.

+
2709
Kary .
=

=
26 . 46
-
3. (a) What is stressed oil volume theory? How, does it explain breakdown
in large volumes of commercial liquid dielectrics?

The Stressed Oil Volume (SOV) theory is a model used to explain the
breakdown phenomenon in large volumes of commercial liquid dielectrics,
such as transformer oil. It focuses on the distribution of electrical stress
within the insulating oil and how it leads to breakdown.

Explanation:
1. Electrical Stress: In electrical systems, the insulating oil is subjected to
varying levels of electrical stress due to the presence of electric fields.
The electric field is stronger near high-voltage electrodes.
2. Formation of Electrode Regions: The SOV theory emphasizes the
formation of specific regions within the oil volume, particularly near
the electrodes, where the electrical stress is highest. These regions are
termed “electrode regions.”
3. Ionization and Bubble Formation: In the electrode regions, the electric
field strength can become intense enough to cause ionization of the oil.
This ionization leads to the formation of bubbles, which are essentially
voids or gas pockets within the liquid dielectric.
4. Gas Bubble Growth: The ionization process and subsequent gas bubble
formation create a conductive path through the oil. As the breakdown
continues, these gas bubbles grow and eventually coalesce, forming a
continuous channel of ionized gas.
5. Arc Formation: Once the gas bubbles connect, a stable arc is
established, providing a low-resistance path for current flow. This
marks the completion of the breakdown process.

The Stressed Oil Volume theory helps explain how electrical stress
distribution within the oil contributes to the breakdown process.
Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for designing and maintaining
reliable high-voltage equipment that uses liquid dielectrics.
 3. (b) Discuss the effect of the following parameters on the breakdown
strength of liquids :
(i) Hydrostatic pressure
(ii) Solid impurities
(iii) Moisture content in the oil
(i) Hydrostatic Pressure:
• Effect: Higher hydrostatic pressure
tends to increase the breakdown strength
of liquids. Increased pressure compresses
the liquid dielectric, reducing the likelihood
of gas bubble formation and ionization.
• Explanation: Elevated pressure raises
the energy required for the formation of
bubbles and the initiation of breakdown.
This effect is particularly significant in
liquids where gas bubble formation plays a
role in breakdown, such as in transformer
oil.

(ii) Solid Impurities:

• Effect: The presence of solid impurities generally lowers the breakdown
strength of liquids.
• Explanation: Solid particles in the liquid can create local stress
concentrations, enhancing the probability of breakdown initiation. Additionally,
these particles may serve as sites for gas bubble formation or contribute to
partial discharges, reducing the overall breakdown strength.

(iii) Moisture Content in the Oil:

• Effect: Moisture content has a significant impact on the breakdown
strength of liquids.
• Explanation: Water molecules in the oil can undergo ionization more
easily than the oil molecules themselves. This leads to the formation of
charged species and accelerates the breakdown process. Higher moisture
content is associated with reduced breakdown strength and increased
susceptibility to electrical discharges.
 4.a. What is thermal breakdown' in solid dielectrics, and how
is it practically more significant than other mechanisms?

Thermal breakdown in solid dielectrics occurs when excessive heat causes

degradation of the insulation material, leading to a loss of dielectric
properties and eventual electrical breakdown. It is practically more
significant than other breakdown mechanisms in certain situations because:

1. Temperature Sensitivity: Solid dielectric materials often exhibit a

temperature-dependent decrease in breakdown strength. As the
temperature rises, the ability of the material to withstand electrical
stress diminishes, making it more susceptible to breakdown.
2. Long-Term Impact: Thermal breakdown is a gradual process that occurs
over time due to prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. This
contrasts with other breakdown mechanisms, which might lead to
sudden failures. The cumulative effect of thermal aging can compromise
the insulation’s integrity, especially in applications with continuous or
cyclic heating.
3. Continuous Operation: Electrical devices and systems may experience
continuous operation or cyclic loading, leading to persistent heating of
solid dielectrics. Over the long term, this thermal stress can
significantly contribute to material degradation, making thermal
breakdown a critical consideration for equipment reliability.
4. Material Specifics: Different solid dielectric materials have varying
susceptibilities to thermal breakdown. Polymers commonly used in
insulation can undergo thermal aging, impacting their performance over
time.

Practically, thermal breakdown is more significant in scenarios where

temperature plays a crucial role, and the gradual deterioration of insulation
properties is a concern. Effective thermal management and material
selection are essential strategies to mitigate the impact of thermal
breakdown in solid dielectrics.
5. (a) Explain one method of controlled tripping of impulse generators. Why is
controlled tripping necessary?
One method of controlled tripping of impulse generators involves the use of
a crowbar circuit.
Crowbar Circuit Method:
• In this method, a crowbar circuit is connected across the output
terminals of the impulse generator.
• The crowbar circuit consists of a high-speed switch (usually a thyristor)
that can be triggered to short-circuit the impulse generator terminals.
• When the crowbar circuit is activated, it provides a low-resistance path
for the impulse current, effectively shorting the output of the
generator.
• This rapid short-circuiting action helps to control and terminate the
impulse waveform, preventing excessive stress on the generator and
associated components.
Importance of Controlled Tripping:
Controlled tripping is necessary for several reasons:
1. Overvoltage Protection: Impulse generators produce high-voltage surges
for testing purposes. If these surges are not controlled and terminated
properly, they can lead to overvoltages that may damage the generator
or connected equipment.
2. Avoiding Reflections: Uncontrolled reflections of the impulse waveform
can occur if the generator is not properly terminated. These reflections
can interfere with the accuracy of test results and cause additional
stress on the equipment.
3. Protecting Components: Controlled tripping helps prevent excessive
stress on the generator’s components, such as capacitors and resistors,
ensuring their longevity and reliable operation.
4. Safety: The controlled tripping mechanism adds a layer of safety by
allowing operators to terminate the impulse waveform in a controlled
manner, reducing the risk of damage or injury.

In summary, controlled tripping, especially using methods like the crowbar

circuit, is essential for protecting the impulse generator, associated
components, and ensuring the safety and accuracy of high-voltage impulse
Crowback
Circuit
 6.a. What is a mixed potential divider? How
is it used for impulse voltage measurements?
A mixed potential divider is a device used for measuring high-voltage
impulses in electrical systems. It consists of a combination of resistive and
capacitive elements arranged in a specific configuration to divide the voltage
of an impulse signal accurately.

Components:
• Resistive Element: The resistive element provides a voltage drop
proportional to the current flowing through it. It is typically a high-
ohmic resistor.
• Capacitive Element: The capacitive element provides a voltage drop
proportional to the rate of change of the voltage. It is usually a
capacitive divider network.

Importance in Impulse Voltage Measurements:

• High Accuracy: Impulse voltages can have complex waveforms, and
accurately measuring them is crucial for assessing the performance of
insulation systems. The mixed potential divider enhances accuracy by
considering both resistive and capacitive effects.
• Reduced Load on Measuring Equipment: The mixed potential divider
reduces the load on the measuring instrument by dividing the impulse
voltage, making it suitable for high-voltage testing without overloading
the measurement equipment.
• Compensation for Capacitive Effects: Capacitive elements in the divider
help compensate for the capacitive nature of the system being measured,
ensuring that the measured voltage corresponds more closely to the actual
impulse voltage.

In summary, a mixed potential divider is a specialized arrangement of

resistive and capacitive elements designed for accurate impulse voltage
measurements, compensating for the time-dependent characteristics of the
impulse waveform and providing a more faithful representation of the
voltage under test.
7.a. Explain the high-voltage Schering bridge for the tans and capacitance
measurement of insulators or bushings.

The high-voltage Schering bridge is an electrical circuit used for

measuring the capacitance and dissipation factor (tan δ) of insulators, such
as bushings, at high voltages. This bridge is particularly employed for
testing insulation systems under conditions similar to those experienced in
actual operation.

Components of the High-Voltage Schering Bridge:

1. Unknown Capacitor (Cx): Represents the capacitance to be measured,

typically the capacitance of the insulator or bushing under test.
2. Standard Capacitor (Cs): Known reference capacitor with a known
capacitance value.
3. Resistance (R): A high-resistance element is introduced to balance the
bridge and ensure accurate measurements.
4. High-Voltage Source (V): Provides a high-voltage AC supply for the
test.
5. Detector (D): A detector or null indicator is used to determine when
the bridge is balanced.

Operation of the High-Voltage Schering Bridge:

1. Adjustment: The bridge is initially unbalanced. The resistance (R) and

the standard capacitor (Cs) are adjusted until the bridge reaches a
balanced state, indicated by the null point on the detector.
2. Balanced Condition: When balanced, the bridge equation is satisfied,
and the ratio of the unknown capacitance (Cx) to the standard
capacitance (Cs) is determined.

* =
where is the reactance of the unknown capacitance.
 3. Capacitance Measurement: By knowing the capacitance of the
standard capacitor (Cs) and the reactance (X), the capacitance of the
unknown insulator or bushing (Cx) can be calculated.
4.Dissipation Factor (tan δ) Measurement: The dissipation factor,
representing the power loss in the insulation system, can be calculated
using the bridge balance conditions. The angle of the bridge at the null
point provides information about the dissipation factor.

Advantages of the High-Voltage Schering Bridge:

• Suitability for High Voltages: The bridge is designed to handle high

voltages, making it suitable for testing insulation systems in high-voltage
applications.
• Accurate Measurements: Provides accurate capacitance and dissipation
factor measurements, essential for assessing the condition of insulation in
power equipment.
• Real Operating Conditions: Mimics actual operating conditions of
insulators or bushings, providing a more realistic evaluation of their
performance.

The high-voltage Schering bridge is a valuable tool for assessing the

insulation quality of power equipment, enabling engineers to make
informed decisions about the reliability and condition of insulators in high-
voltage applications.
8 (a) What are the causes for switching and power frequency overvoltages?
How are they controlled in power systems?

Causes for Switching and Power Frequency Overvoltages:

1.Switching Operations:
• Switching of Inductive Loads: Rapid switching of inductive loads can
cause overvoltages due to the inductance of the load, leading to voltage
spikes.
• Circuit Breaker Operations: Opening and closing of circuit breakers can
result in transient overvoltages due to the interruption of current.
2.Power Frequency Overvoltages:
• Load Changes: Rapid changes in load conditions can cause fluctuations
in the voltage magnitude.
• Faults: Short circuits or faults in the system can lead to voltage
increases.
• Resonance: Resonance between system capacitance and inductance can
amplify power frequency voltages.

Control Methods for Switching Overvoltages:

1.Use of Surge Arresters: Surge arresters, also known as surge

suppressors or lightning arresters, are installed to divert overvoltages to
ground. They act as a protection barrier against transient overvoltages.
2.Pre-insertion Resistors: Adding resistors during the switching operation
helps control the rate of rise of voltage (RRV) and limits the overvoltages
generated during switching.
3. Switching Devices with Controlled Closing: Controlled switching devices,
such as circuit breakers with pre-insertion resistors or controlled closing
mechanisms, can mitigate the effects of overvoltages during switching.
Control Methods for Power Frequency Overvoltages:

1.Voltage Regulators: Automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) maintain a

stable voltage level by adjusting the excitation of generators. They help
control power frequency overvoltages during load changes.
2.Shunt Reactors: Shunt reactors can be used to compensate for
capacitive effects in the system, reducing the risk of power frequency
overvoltages caused by resonance.
3. Tap Changers: On transformers, tap changers are used to adjust the
turns ratio and regulate the voltage, preventing excessive power frequency
overvoltages during load variations.
4.Load Shedding: Controlled load shedding is a strategy where non-
essential loads are disconnected during critical conditions, preventing
excessive voltage rise in the system.
5.Surge Arresters: In addition to controlling switching overvoltages,
surge arresters also provide protection against power frequency
overvoltages by diverting excess energy to ground.

By employing a combination of these control methods, power systems can

effectively manage and mitigate the impact of both switching and power
frequency overvoltages, ensuring the reliability and stability of the
electrical network.
 9. Write short notes on the following:
A. Protection against overvoltages
B. Switching surge voltage and its characteristics

A. Protection Against Overvoltages:

Overview:
Overvoltages in power systems can lead to insulation failure, equipment
damage, and system instability. Protection against overvoltages is crucial to
maintaining the reliability and safety of the electrical network.

Key Aspects:
1.Surge Arresters:
• Metal-oxide surge arresters are commonly used to divert excess
energy to ground during transient overvoltages.
• They provide a low-impedance path during surges, preventing damage
to equipment.
2.Voltage Limiting Devices:
• Devices like varistors and Zener diodes limit voltage levels and protect
against overvoltages.
• They are placed across sensitive equipment to clamp excessive voltages.
3. Grounding:
• Proper grounding of equipment and systems helps dissipate
overvoltages to the earth.
• Effective grounding minimizes the risk of equipment damage due to
transient voltage spikes.
4.Isolation Devices:
• Isolation transformers and surge suppressors isolate equipment from
high-voltage events.
• They prevent overvoltages from propagating through the system.
5.Monitoring Systems:
• Continuous monitoring of voltage levels helps detect abnormal
conditions.
• Alarms and protective actions can be triggered in response to
overvoltage events.
B. Switching Surge Voltage and Its Characteristics:

Overview:
Switching surge voltages are transient overvoltages that occur during
switching operations in power systems. These surges can lead to insulation
stress and equipment failure.

Characteristics:

1.Abrupt Voltage Changes:

• Switching operations, especially of inductive loads, result in abrupt
changes in voltage levels.
• These rapid changes can cause transient overvoltages.
2.Rate of Rise of Voltage (RRV):
• RRV is a critical parameter during switching surges.
• It represents the speed at which the voltage changes and can impact
the amplitude of the surge.
3. Frequency Content:
• Switching surges often have high-frequency components.
• The frequency content influences the behavior of the surge on the
system.
4.Amplitude Variations:
• The amplitude of switching surges can vary based on the type of
switching operation and the characteristics of the connected load.
5.Impact on Insulation:
• Switching surge voltages impose stress on insulation systems.
• Insulation breakdown can occur if the voltage exceeds the insulation
strength.

Protection Measures:

1.Surge Arresters:
• Metal-oxide surge arresters are effective in diverting switching surge
energy to ground.
• They provide a protective barrier against insulation stress.
2.Pre-insertion Resistors:
• Used to control the RRV and limit the amplitude of switching surges.
• Reduce the impact of abrupt voltage changes.
3. Controlled Switching Devices:
• Circuit breakers with controlled closing mechanisms ensure smoother
switching operations.
• Minimize the risk of transient voltage spikes.
4.Damping Networks:
• Employed to reduce resonance effects that can amplify switching surge
voltages.
• Damping networks absorb excess energy and minimize oscillations.

In conclusion, protection against overvoltages involves a combination of

devices such as surge arresters, voltage limiters, grounding, isolation, and
monitoring systems. Switching surge voltages require specific measures like
pre-insertion resistors, controlled switching, and damping networks to
mitigate their impact on power systems.

ab

9a
A solid specimen of dielectric has a dielectric constant of 4.2, and tan δ = 0.
001 at a frequency of 50 Hz. If it is subjected to an alternating field of 50
kV/cm, calculate the heat generated in the specimen due to the dielectric
loss.
Three 350 kV, 350 kVA testing transformers are connected in cascade and
have a short-circuit impedance of 5%. Determine (i) the full-load current,
(ii) the short-circuit current and (iii) the maximum capacitive load that can
be tested without exceeding the power rating.
A compensated resistance divider has its high-voltage arm consisting of a
series of resistance whose total value is 25 kilo-ohms shunted by a
capacitance of 400 pF. The LV arm has a resistance of 75 ohms. Calculate
the capacitance needed for the compensation of this divider.
The capacitance and loss angle of the above specimen were measured using
the same electrode setup. The capacitance and tan & with the specimen are
147 pF and 0-0012 respectively. The air capacitance of the electrode
system was 35 pF. What are the dielectric constant and complex permittivity
of Bakelite?
A Rogowski coil is to measure 20 kA peak current with a maximum di/dt
of 10⁴ A/μs. A 0-10 V electronic voltmeter is connected across the
integrating circuit of the coil. Estimate the mutual inductance of the coil
and resistance and capacitance of the integrating circuit to be used.