MS2 actually measure intended

concepts
LESSON 1 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AS A
METHOD OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY KEY CONSIDERATIONS ON CHOOSING
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO RESEARCH 1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
INQUIRY 2. TYPES OF INVESTIGATION
● QUANTITATIVE 3. RESEARCH CONTROL AND
- Instrument-based questions CONCERNS PREVENTING ON THE
- Statistical analysis DEPENDENT VARIABLE
- Survey and experiments 4. STUDY SETTING
● QUALITATIVE 5. SAMPLING UNIT OF ANALYSIS
- Emergent methods 6. TIME HORIZON
- Open-ended questions 7. DATA COLLECTION METHOD
- Interviews, case studies, and
ethnographies ● DESCRIPTIVE OR SURVEY
● MIXED METHODS RESEARCH
- both quantitative and qualitative methods - collecting data to answer
are used questions about the current
status of the subject or topic of
study
● People often argue about the good and
- collected thru: Questionnaires,
bad points of qualitative and quantitative
Face-to-face interview,
research, especially in social sciences
Telephone interview
which invoke “paradigm war”.
● CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
- attempts to determine
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH whether, and to what degree,
- analysis of data such as words a relationship exists between
(ex.interviews), pictures (ex.video), or two or more variables
objects (ex.artifacts) - establish a relationship (or
lack of it) or to use
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH relationships to make
- analysis of numerical data predictions
- a “formal, objective, systematic process in ● CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
which numerical data are utilized to obtain RESEARCH
information about world” (Burns and Grove - also known as ex-post facto
as cited by Cormack,1991) research
- involves comparing different
FEATURES: objectivity, deductiveness, groups on a dependent
generalizability, and numbers variable or outcome when the
independent variable cannot
APPROACHES: used to describe current be manipulated.
conditions, investigate relationships, and ● EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
study cause-and-effect relationships between - differs from causal-
or among phenomena comparative research in that
● DESCRIPTIVE OR SURVEY the researcher has control
RESEARCH over the independent variable
● CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH - a quantitative approach that
● CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE offers the highest level of
RESEARCH control over research
● EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH procedures

Why Quantitative Research?

● Standardized Methodologies LESSON 2 - FORMULATING THE RESEARCH
- Statistical techniques are PROBLEM, HYPOTHESIS AND
public CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- Methods of research can
disclosed so that anyone can RESEARCH PROBLEM
duplicate your findings - the first thing that a researcher thinks about
● Forces the investigator to think when planning a research project (although
about the measurement of key the TITLE and the INTRODUCTION that
variables and whether they come first on paper).
 - an interrogative statement that asks: “What JUSTIFYING RESEARCH PROBLEMS
relation exists between two or more ● Explaining what is unknown about the
variables?” problem.
- One fundamental principle in research is: “If ● Describing why the problem is significant.
one wants to solve a problem, one must ● Providing evidence that the problem warrants
generally know what the problem is.” study, including available statistics and
literature supporting the need for inquiry.
COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
● Not all problems are empirically testable, COMMON MISTAKES IN DEFINING RESEARCH
Metaphysical problems QUESTIONS
● Don’t know the sources for their research ● Very broad area of interest.
problem. ● Too narrow.
● Many problems but can’t decide which one to ● Cannot be measured (e.g. deeply religious
pursue. students perform better in school, there is life
● Some problems are very interesting but data after death, etc.).
needed are hard to obtain. ● Not interesting to the researcher.
● Don’t know the specific purpose in choosing
a particular research problem. SOME ERRORS IN PROBLEM STATEMENT
FORMULATION
MAJOR SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS ● Scientific problems should not involve moral
1. THEORIES or ethical judgments.
- an organized body of ● Value statements, indicated by words like
concepts, generalizations, and "should" or "ought," are not appropriate in
principles that can be problem statements.
subjected to investigation ● Methodological issues should not be listed as
(Gay and Airasian,2000) subproblems, as they pertain to techniques
2. PERSONAL EXPERIENCES rather than the core problem.
- the result of our
observation, ex. why does PROPOSITION vs. HYPOTHESIS
that happen, what causes ● PROPOSITIONS link concepts together with
that, would student’s specific relationships.
achievement improve if they ● HYPOTHESIS links variables together with
are given quizzes everyday, specific relationships.
etc. - a declarative statement that
3. REPLICATIONS expresses the relationship between
- doing it again, “stretch” the two or more measurable variables
findings of the original study - It specifies how these variables are
related and serves as a conjectural
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH statement guiding research inquiries.
PROBLEM
● It should be specific dealing only on one TURNING RESEARCH QUESTIONS INTO
specific aspect. TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS
● The problem should be empirically testable. ● Hypothesis should specify at least two
● The problem should always state relationship variables and the relationship between
between two or more variables. them and they should be measurable.
● It should be linked to a theory or at least ● Concepts contained in the proposition/theory
have a theoretical framework. are transformed into their measurable form
● It should: called variables.
a. be relevant with time
b. be related to a practical problem CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
c. fill a research gap ● A good hypothesis articulates the
d. permit generalization relationship between variables clearly and
e. sharpen the definition of an implies a method for testing this relationship.
importance concept or relationship ● It should be stated in operational terms,
f. create or improve an instrument for translating theoretical ideas into measurable
gathering and analyzing data terms for empirical investigation

CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

● Express relationship between variables 1. NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - It does
● Clear and unambiguous question format not tell us the direction of relationship
● Implies empirical testing possibilities between or among variables (that is,
whether direct or inverse). Example: There
 is a relationship between internet use and CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
time spent with the family. - an illustration of the proposed connections
2. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - It states between concepts or variables being studied.
very explicitly whether the relationship is - These concepts might be the ones directly
direct or inverse. Example: The more time involved in the research problem or derived
spent to internet, the lesser is the time spent from theoretical concepts.
for the family. - It differs from the theoretical framework by
being less abstract and is typically derived
from the theoretical framework.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- an exposition of the theory upon which the LESSON 3 - CONSTRUCTING THE RESEARCH
entire research process is anchored (Chua, DESIGN
1987).
- a collection of interrelated concepts, like a RESEARCH DESIGN
theory, but not necessarily well worked-out - the plan, structure, and strategy of
(Fabay, undated). investigation conceived so as to:
(a) obtain answers to research investigations
ELEMENTS OF A THEORY and (b) control variance.
● CONCEPT PLAN - the overall scheme or program of the
- fundamental building blocks of research which includes an outline of what
theories the investigator will do from writing the
- enable researchers to isolate and hypothesis and their operational implications
study specific features of the world to the final analysis of data.
- Abstractness is a special STRUCTURE - the outline, the scheme, the
characteristics paradigm of the operation of the variables.
● VARIABLE STRATEGY - the methods to be used to
- classifications into which empirical gather and analyze the data. It tells us how
observations can be categorized, the research objectives will be achieved.
representing measurable
characteristics of a person, object, or PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DESIGN
event. ● To provide answers to research questions
● DEFINITION ● To control variance (control mechanism)
- provide a framework of terms to
describe a phenomenon THE MAX-MIN-CON PRINCIPLE
- concepts can transcend specific ● MAXIMIZE SYSTEMATIC VARIANCE
contexts and become applicable to - SYSTEMATIC VARIANCE refers to
observable situations and events, the dependent variable influenced by
ensuring consistency in interpretation the independent variable
across investigators. ● MINIMIZE ERROR VARIANCE
● STATEMENT OF RELATIONS - ERROR VARIANCE refers to the
- also known as theoretical variability in measures caused by
statements, establish connections unpredictable random fluctuations.
between the concepts within a theory. ● CONTROL SYSTEMATIC EXTRANEOUS
These statements specify how events VARIANCE
represented by concepts are - EXTRANEOUS VARIANCE refers to
interconnected and offer an the influences of independent
interpretation of the relationships variables extraneous to the objectives
between events. of the study.’
● FORMAT
- theoretical format pertains to the WAYS TO CONTROL EXTRANEOUS VARIANCE
various ways in which theoretical - subject homogeneity, randomization,
statements are structured within a integrating extraneous variables as
theory. It encompasses the logical independent variables, subject matching, and
organization of propositions within the statistical control.
framework of a theory.
- 4 basic types of theoretical formats INTERNAL VALIDITY vs. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
are: ● INTERNAL VALIDITY
(a) Meta-theoretical scheme - cause
(b) Analytical scheme - refers to the extent to which a study
(c) Propositional scheme accurately measures what it intends
(d) Modeling scheme to measure, without any influence
from extraneous variables
 ● EXTERNAL VALIDITY ● PERSONAL INTERVIEW
- effect ● MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE
- refers to the extent to which the ● PANEL SURVEY INTERVIEW
findings of a study can be generalized ● TELEPHONE SURVEY
to other populations, settings, or
conditions beyond the specific CONTINUUM OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
context of the study

CONFOUNDING
- (may mga instance na pag researcher, ang
mga independent variable nababaliktad or
masakit ma analyze kung arin ang
independent/dependent)
- when an extra thing that wasn't controlled or
picked randomly is different from what's
being studied, making it unclear what's really
causing any changes observed.
LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN
- you need to test your subject one or more
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY times after initial testing
1. History
2. Maturation CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
3. Testing - the respondents may be tested in several
4. Instrumentation/Calibration times but across
5. Statistical Regression
6. Selection QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
7. Experimental Mortality - involves selecting groups upon which a
8. Reactive or interactive effects of pre- variable is tested without any random pre-
testing selection processes.
9. Interaction effects of selection biases and
experimental variable DOUBLE-BLIND EXPERIMENT
- testing without awareness in which group
CONTAMINATION they are placed
● DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - helps avoid the placebo effect
- anything in the experiment that could
guide subjects to expected outcome EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
● EXPERIMENTER EXPECTANCY - investigate possible cause-and-effect
- researcher behavior that guides
subjects to expected outcome (self- THREE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF
fulfilling prophecy) EXPERIMENT
1. MANIPULATION - The researcher does
RESEARCH DESIGN something to at least some of the
- the overall plan or structure that guides the participants in the research
research process, outlining how data will be 2. CONTROL - The experimenter introduces
collected, analyzed, and interpreted to one or more controls over the experimental
address the research questions or situation.
objectives. 3. RANDOMIZATION - The experimenter
assigns participants to different groups on a
RESEARCH METHOD random basis.
- the specific techniques, procedures, or tools
used to gather and analyze data within the
framework of the research design.
LESSON 4 - SELECTING A SAMPLE FROM THE
SURVEY RESEARCH POPULATION
- also known sample survey
- involves studying large and small populations SAMPLING DEFINITION
by selecting samples from the population to - Sampling is the process of selecting
explore the relative incidence, distribution, individuals for a study to represent a larger
and interrelations of sociological and group.
psychological variables. SAMPLING PURPOSE

TYPES OF SURVEY
 - To gather information from a subset that DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
reflects characteristics of the entire
population.

IMPORTANT CONCEPT/TERMINOLOGIES
● POPULATION: Group with common
characteristics.
● TARGET POPULATION: People study
results are generalized to.
● ACCESSIBLE POPULATION: Subset within
target population with researcher access.
● SAMPLE: Individuals, items, or events How Large Should The Sample Be?
selected from a population. - Sample size increases with larger
● OBSERVATION UNIT: Respondents populations.
providing study data.
● PARAMETER: Summary description of a SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR
variable in a population. - Larger samples result in smaller sampling
errors.
Important Sampling Principle - Smaller samples have greater sampling
● GENERALIZABILITY - Extent to error.
which study results apply to other
populations or situations. Avoiding Sampling Error and Sampling Bias
● Random sampling doesn't guarantee
WHY SAMPLE? representativeness.
● Allows the study of a large, heterogeneous ● Sampling error is inevitable in random
population. sampling.
● Saves time, money, and effort. ● Sampling bias results from non-random
● More effective, faster, cheaper, and provides selection and is the researcher's
more accurate and comprehensive responsibility.
information.
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A SAMPLE
PROBLEMS IN SAMPLING ● Obtaining a representative sample is crucial.
● Bias, lack of representation, or small sample ● Outliers can skew results.
can lead to invalid and unreliable ● Addressing biases in the sample is essential.
conclusions.
● Uncommon characteristics in respondents SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
may result in faulty conclusions. 1.PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
● Large populations with complex subsections - Techniques where all elements have an
complicate sampling. equal chance of being selected.
● Lack of researcher skills can introduce bias. - Randomized
● Simple Random Sampling
BASIC STEPS IN SAMPLING ○ Randomly selecting individuals with
● Identification of the population. an equal chance.
● Determination of the required sample size. ○ Advantage: Easy and minimal
● Selection of the sample through different knowledge needed.
sampling techniques or strategies. ○ Disadvantage: Requires a list of all
population members; may not
GUIDELINES in DETERMINING ADEQUATE represent the sample well.
SAMPLING ○ Use When: Population isn't widely
● Sample size varies with population size and spread
homogeneity. ● Systematic Sampling
● Greater accuracy and reliability require a ○ Selecting every kth unit from an
larger sample. ordered population.
○ Advantage: Administrative ease and
cost-effectiveness.
○ Disadvantage: Poor precision with
periodicity in the population.
○ Use When: No need for a sampling
frame.
● Stratified Sampling
○ Dividing the population into
subgroups and sampling from each.
 ○ Advantage: More precise sample;
represents desired strata. LESSON 5 - VARIABLES AND THEIR
○ Disadvantage: Requires names of all MEASUREMENT
population members.
○ Use When: Population is MEASUREMENT
heterogeneous. - is the assignment of numbers to objects or
● Cluster Sampling events (i.e., to observations) according to
○ Dividing the population into groups logically accepted rules.
and randomly selecting clusters. - The types of numbers to be assigned must
○ Advantage: Efficient; no need for a be isomorphic (i.e., have one-on-one
list of all elements. correspondence) to the nature of the object
○ Disadvantage: Less effective in or event.
ensuring representativeness; larger - Anything can be measured provided there is
sampling error. a rule. A RULE is a guide, a method, a
○ Use When: No available frames command that tells us what to do.
● Multi-Stage Sampling
○ Combining multiple sampling TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
techniques in two or more phases.
○ Advantage: More efficient and
flexible.
○ Disadvantage: Complexity in theory;
challenging for non-statisticians.
○ Use When: Need efficiency

2.NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

- Techniques where samples are not derived
through equal chances.
- Not randomized
● Quota Sampling
○ Picking samples to match
predetermined quotas.
○ Advantage: Simple and flexible.
○ Disadvantage: Not truly random;
uncertain results.
○ Use When: Setting specific quotas is ● CONSTANT - a measurement where
essential observations do not vary (ex. π).
● Purposive Sampling ● VARIABLE - a measurement where
○ Choosing samples based on specific observations vary. It could be either
criteria. qualitative or quantitative.
○ Advantage: Useful with other Qualitative- observations vary in
methods; up to researcher's kind (ex. sex).
judgment. Quantitative- observations vary
○ Disadvantage: Potential for biased in degree (ex. length and height).
selection. - a quantitative
○ Use When: Specific criteria or measurement maybe:
judgment is crucial Discrete - have a finite
● Accidental/Convenience Sampling number of values
○ Picking the most accessible subjects. Continuous - have an
○ Advantage: Quick and easy. infinite number of
○ Disadvantage: Not representative; values
lacks randomness.
○ Use When: Quick and easy access is
the priority TYPES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT
● Snowball Sampling ● QUESTIONNAIRE - a self-administered
○ Subjects refer to others, creating a measuring tool where questions and
chain. instructions are directed to the respondent
○ Advantage: Access to hard-to-reach without the need for an interviewer.
groups. ● INTERVIEW SCHEDULE - requires an
○ Disadvantage: Issues with interviewer to deliver questions and record
representativeness. responses from respondents, with
○ Use When: Accessing hard-to-reach instructions typically intended for trained
groups interviewers.
 ● INTERVIEW GUIDE - outlines topics to cover ● INTERVAL
during the interview rather than presenting a ○ Equal intervals, no true zero.
list of questions, allowing flexibility in the ● RATIO
order of discussion, unlike a questionnaire or ○ Equal intervals, true zero.
interview schedule.
● CHECKLIST OF DATA NEEDS - contains COMPOSITE INDICES CONSTRUCTION
the list of data to be collected by the - Combine several indicators into a single
researcher measure.
- Add, average, multiply, or divide individual
QUESTION TYPES values.
● DIRECT APPROACH - asking for
information straightforwardly
● INDIRECT APPROACH - asked as an
indirect way of getting at the information that
you need.

REPLY FORMS
● STRUCTURED - Answers within predefined
choices.
● FREE REPLY - Respondent freely answers,
suited for open-ended questions.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

● TESTING FOR RELIABILITY: Ensures
consistent instrument use.
○ Test-Retest, Alternate Form, Split-
Half methods.
● TESTING FOR VALIDITY: Ensures accurate
measurement of intended concept.
○ Face, Criterion-Related, Construct
Validity.

PRECISION VS. ACCURACY

● PRECISION - Smallest unit of measure.
● ACCURACY - How far off the measure is
from the target.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
● DICHOTOMY VS. POLYTOMY
○ Two vs. more than two values.
● QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE
○ Characteristics vs. degree/amount.
● CONTINUOUS VS. CATEGORICAL
○ Ordered vs. named categories.
● ACTIVE VS. ATTRIBUTE
○ Manipulated vs. measured.
● INDEPENDENT VS. DEPENDENT
○ Cause vs. effect.

DEFINING VARIABLES
● Constitutive Definition - Defines using
other concepts.
● Operational Definition - Specifies how
variables are measured.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
● NOMINAL
○ Mutually exclusive categories (e.g.,
sex).
● ORDINAL
○ Rank orders levels, no equal
intervals.