Assignment 6

1) What is Multiplexing in communication systems?

Ans. Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a
shared medium. If analog signals are multiplexed, it is Analog Multiplexing and if digital
signals are multiplexed, that process is Digital Multiplexing.
The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into several number of
logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data stream to be
transferred. The device that does multiplexing can be simply called as a MUX while the
one that reverses the process which is demultiplexing, is called as DEMUX.

Types of Multiplexers

There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further
divided into FDM, WDM, and TDM.

Analog Multiplexing
The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in nature. The
analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM.
This technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of data, for sending them on
a communication medium, as a single signal.

Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels through

a single cable, uses FDM.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in which many data streams of

different wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases,
the frequency of the signal decreases.
Example: Optical fiber Communications use the WDM technique, to merge different
wavelengths into a single light for the communication.

Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence the available data is in
the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a signal
over a single communication channel, with allotting one slot for each message. Of all the
types of TDM, the main ones are Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.

Synchronous TDM

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of
connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each
input line. In this technique, the sampling rate is common to all signals and hence the
same clock input is given. The mux allocates the same slot to each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and the clock
signal is also not in common. If the allotted device, for a time-slot, transmits nothing and
sits idle, then that slot is allotted to another device, unlike synchronous.

2) Draw the block diagram of a TDM system and explain each block.

Ans. TDM stands for Time Division Multiplexing. It is a multiplexing technique used in
telecommunications and data transmission to transmit multiple signals over a single
communication channel. In TDM, the available time is divided into discrete time slots, and
each input signal is assigned a specific time slot for transmission. By interleaving the data
from different sources in the time domain, TDM allows multiple signals to share the same
transmission medium.

In a TDM system, the input signals are sampled at regular intervals, and their samples are
transmitted sequentially during their respective time slots. The duration of each time slot
is typically fixed and equal for all input signals. By carefully synchronizing the transmitter
and receiver, the original signals can be reconstructed at the receiving end by extracting
and reassembling the data from their respective time slots.
In the above TDM block diagram, there is the number of LPFs at the beginning of the
system based on the no. of data inputs. Basically, these low-pass filters are anti-aliasing
filters that remove the aliasing of the data i/p signal. After that, the LPF’s output is given
to the commutator. According to the commutator’s rotation, the data inputs samples are
gathered through it. Here, the rate of revolution of the commutator is ‘fs’ therefore it
denotes the system’s sampling frequency.

Assume that we have ‘n’ data inputs, and then according to the revolution one after the
other, these data inputs will get multiplexed and transmitted above the common channel.
At the receiver end of the system, a decommutator is used which is synchronized at the
transmitting end by the commutator. So this de-commutator l at the receiving end divides
the time division multiplexed signal.

In the above system, the commutator & de-commutator should have the same rotating
speed in order to have precise demultiplexing of the signal at the end of the receiver.
Based on the revolution performed through the decommutator, the samples are gathered
through the LPF & the actual data input at the receiver is recovered.

Let the maximum frequency of signal ‘fm’ & the sampling frequency ‘fs’ then

fs ≥ 2fm

Therefore, the duration of time in between succeeding samples is given as,

If we consider that there are ‘N’ input channels, then a single sample is gathered from each
of the ‘N’ samples. Therefore, every interval will give us ‘N’ samples & the spacing among
the two can be written as Ts/N.

We know that basically pulse frequency is the number of pulses for each second which is
given as
Pulse frequency = 1/spacing between two samples
 = 1/ Ts/N =.N/Ts

We know that Ts = 1/fs, the above equation will become as;

= N/1/fs = Nfs.

For a time division multiplexing signal, the pulse for each second is the rate of signaling
that is denoted with ‘r’. So,

r = Nfs

3) Draw and Explain block diagram of FDM system. Draw the spectrum of the FDM
signal.

Ans. Spectrum of the FDM signal

4) Compare TDM & FDM

Ans.
 5) Describe the multiplexing hierarchy for an FDM system

In the FDM hierarchy, different levels of the multiplexer are shown in a combined manner.
The various levels are shown below:

● Level 1 denotes the “basic group” in which 12 voice channels are multiplexed
together.
● Level 2 is the “supergroup” in which 5 basic groups are multiplexed together
and as each basic group has 12 voice channels so in level 2 we have 60 voice
channels.
● Level 3 is the “master group” in which 10 supergroups are mixed together and
have up to 600 voice channels.
● Level 4 denotes the “jumbo group” which has 6 multiplexed master groups
and up to 3600 voice channels.

What is a Basic Group?

A group that has 12 multiplexed voice channels. These voice channel modulates the carrier
signal in the frequency range from 60 KHz to 108 KHz and is spaced at 4 kHz from each
other.
We use SSB modulation techniques so that we can save bandwidth.

The best application we can have is in television and radio systems where multiple signals
are transmitted over a single channel with different frequency slots.

Assignment 4
1) Explain i) Fidelity ii) Sensitivity iii) Selectivity with respect to AM receiver.

Ans. i) Fidelity in AM Receiver:

Fidelity refers to the accuracy and faithfulness with which an AM receiver reproduces the
original audio signal that was modulated onto the carrier wave. A high-fidelity receiver is
capable of faithfully reproducing the original audio waveform without significant
distortion or loss of quality.

ii) Sensitivity in AM Receiver:

Sensitivity is a measure of how well an AM receiver can detect and demodulate weak
signals. It represents the minimum input signal strength required for the receiver to
produce an acceptable output. A highly sensitive receiver is capable of detecting and
recovering weak signals, allowing for better reception of distant or weak radio stations.

iii) Selectivity in AM Receiver:

Selectivity refers to the ability of an AM receiver to select and separate the desired radio
signal from other unwanted signals and interference present in the environment. It is the
receiver's ability to discriminate between different radio stations or channels that are
closely spaced in frequency. A receiver with good selectivity can effectively reject
adjacent channel interference and noise, allowing for clear reception of the desired signal.
2) Explain the concept of Image frequency and Double spotting and also explain how to

reject image frequency.

Ans.

Double spotting

● Double spotting is a condition where the same desired signal is detected at two
nearby points on the receiver tuning dial.
● One point is the desired point while the other is called the spurious or image point.
It can be used to determine the IF of an unknown receiver.
 ● Poor front-end selectivity and inadequate image frequency rejection leads to
double spotting.
● Double spotting is undesirable since the strong signal might mask and overpower
the weak signal at the spurious point in the frequency spectrum.
● Double spotting can be counteracted by improving the selectivity of the RF
amplifier and increasing the value of IF.
● Consider an incoming strong signal of 1000 kHz and local oscillator tuned at 1455
kHz. Thus a signal of 455 kHz is produced at the output of the mixer which is the IF
frequency.
● Now consider the same signal but with a 545kHz tuned local oscillator. Again we get
a 455 kHz signal at the output.
● Therefore the same 1000 kHz signal will appear at 1455 kHz as well as 545 kHz on
the receiver dial and the image will not get rejected. This is known as the Double
spotting phenomenon.
● It is also known as Adjacent channel selectivity.

3) In an AM radio receiver the loaded Q of the antenna circuit at the input to the mixer

is 100.If the intermediate frequency is 455 KHz, calculate the image frequency and its

rejection at 1MHz.In an AM radio receiver the loaded Q of the antenna circuit at the input
to the mixer

is100.If the intermediate frequency is 455 KHz, calculate the image frequency and its

rejection at 1MHz.

Ans.
4) Explain what should be the choice of IF for AM.

Ans. The choice of Intermediate Frequency (IF) in an AM receiver is an important

consideration in the design of the receiver. The IF is an intermediate frequency at which
the incoming modulated AM signal is down-converted for further processing and
demodulation. Here are some factors to consider when selecting the IF for an AM
receiver:

1. Image Rejection: One of the primary considerations in selecting the IF is to ensure good
image rejection. An image frequency is a frequency that is symmetrically located about
the carrier frequency and can create interference if not properly rejected. By choosing a
suitable IF frequency, the receiver can effectively suppress and reject the image
frequency, enhancing the selectivity and overall performance of the receiver.

2. Channel Selectivity: The choice of IF can also impact the selectivity of the receiver, i.e.,
its ability to separate the desired signal from adjacent channels and interference.
Generally, a higher IF provides better selectivity, as it allows for the use of narrow-band
filters in the subsequent stages of the receiver. However, higher IF values may require
more complex and expensive filter designs. The choice of IF should strike a balance
between selectivity and practical considerations.

3. Frequency Stability: The IF frequency should be chosen to minimize the effects of

frequency drift and instability. Components in the receiver, such as local oscillators and
filters, may exhibit frequency variations due to temperature changes and aging. A stable
IF frequency minimizes the impact of these variations and helps maintain the receiver's
performance over time.

4. Ease of Implementation: The choice of IF should take into account the practical aspects
of implementation, including the availability and cost of components operating at the
desired IF frequency. Common IF frequencies used in AM receivers include 455 kHz and
10.7 MHz, as they are widely supported and readily available in the market.

5. Interference Considerations: The choice of IF can also be influenced by the presence of

interference sources in the environment. For example, if there are known sources of
interference at specific frequencies, it may be beneficial to choose an IF frequency that
minimizes the impact of such interference.

5) What are the disadvantages of Tuned RF receivers? And Explain superheterodyne

receivers with block diagram.

Ans. Tuned Radio Frequency receivers - A tuned radio frequency receiver (or TRF
receiver) is a type of radio receiver that is composed of one or more tuned radio
frequency (RF) amplifier stages followed by a detector (demodulator) circuit to extract the
audio signal and usually an audio frequency amplifier.
Disadvantages of TRF receiver

• Poor selectivity and low sensitivity in proportion to the number of tuned amplifiers used.

• Selectivity requires narrow bandwidth, and narrow bandwidth at a high radio frequency
implies high Q or many filter sections.

• An additional problem for the TRF receiver is tuning different frequencies. All the tuned
circuits need to tune together to the same frequency or track very closely. Another
problem is keeping the narrow bandwidth tuning. Keeping several tuned circuits aligned is
difficult.

• The bandwidth of a tuned circuit doesn’t remain constant and increases with the
frequency increase.

• The need to have all RF stages track one another

• Instability due to the large number of RF stages.

• Received bandwidth increases with frequency (varies with center frequency)

• Gain is non-uniform over a wide range of frequencies.

6) Compare TRF and Super heterodyne receivers.

Ans.
7) Explain FM Receiver with block diagram.

Ans.

FM Receiver Working Principle (Discriminator is demodulator)

To easily understand the working principle of FM Receiver, see the block diagram. The
first block is the Antenna.

The antenna is used to receive the radio signals and intercepted it. The next block is the
Radio Frequency Amplifier or RF amplifier. The RF amplifier is used to amplify the RF
signal received by the antenna. The received RF signal is very weak that is why it needs to
be amplified. The RF amplifier is also responsible for Noise-reducing, impedance
matching, etc.

The next stage is the Mixer stage. The mixer circuit takes two signals as input, one is the
amplified RF signal coming from the RF amplifier and another is an oscillating signal
coming from the local oscillator. By combining those two signals, the mixer circuit
generates the IF signal.

The IF amplifier circuit takes the IF signal or Intermediate Frequency signal coming from
the Mixer Circuit and amplifies it.

The FM Demodulator Circuit is used to demodulate the FM signal. The FM demodulator

circuit recovers the actual modulated signal which comes from the transmitter circuit in
the form of the radio signal. The demodulator circuit gives a de-emphasizing signal as
output.

After passing the de-emphasizing signal (which comes from the demodulator circuit)
through the AF or Audio Frequency Voltage Amplifier we get the original audio signal
which was sent from the sender station.

At last the audio signal is fed to the power amplifier circuit to amplify it. Then the output
of the power amplifier is applied to the speaker.
Assignment 3

1) Define related to FM 1) modulation index 2) Frequency deviation 3) Deviation ratio.

Ans. 1) Modulation Index in FM:

The modulation index in FM (Frequency Modulation) is a parameter that describes the

extent to which the carrier frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal. It is
the ratio of the peak frequency deviation to the frequency of the modulating signal.
Mathematically, the modulation index (β) is defined as:

Modulation Index (β) = (Δf_max) / fm

Where:

- Δf_max represents the maximum frequency deviation, which is the maximum

displacement of the carrier frequency from its center frequency.

- fm is the frequency of the modulating signal.

The modulation index determines the extent of frequency variation in the FM signal and
affects the bandwidth occupied by the FM signal. Higher modulation index values result in
larger frequency excursions and wider frequency bandwidth, while lower modulation
index values produce smaller frequency deviations and narrower bandwidths.

2) Frequency Deviation in FM:

Frequency deviation in FM refers to the maximum instantaneous difference between the

carrier frequency and its unmodulated (center) frequency. It represents the extent to
which the carrier frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal. The frequency
deviation is typically measured in units of Hertz (Hz) and determines the range of
frequencies over which the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal can vary.

3) Deviation Ratio in FM:

The deviation ratio is a parameter used to describe the relationship between the
frequency deviation and the maximum frequency of the modulating signal. It is the ratio
of the frequency deviation to the frequency of the modulating signal. Mathematically, the
deviation ratio (δ) is defined as:

Deviation Ratio (δ) = (Δf) / fm

Where:

- Δf represents the frequency deviation.

- fm is the frequency of the modulating signal.

The deviation ratio provides a measure of the relative magnitude of the frequency
deviation with respect to the modulating signal. It is often used in FM system design and
analysis to ensure that the chosen frequency deviation is appropriate for the desired
modulation characteristics and to comply with regulatory requirements.

2) Explain Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis circuits used in FM.

Ans. Pre-emphasis: The noise suppression ability of FM decreases with the increase
in the frequencies. Thus increasing the relative strength or amplitude of the high
frequency components of the message signal before modulation is termed as
Pre-emphasis.

Boosting of the higher frequency modulating signal is achieved by using the

pre-emphasis circuit shown in the figure below.

The modulating AF signal is passed through a high-pass RC filter, before applying it to

the FM modulator.

As fm increases, the reactance of C decreases, and modulating voltage applied to the FM

modulator goes on increasing. The frequency response characteristics of the RC high
pass network are shown in the figure also.

The boosting is done according to this pre-arranged curve. The amount of pre emphasis
in US FM transmission and sound transmission in TV has been standardized at 75 usec.

The pre-emphasis circuit is basically a high-pass filter. The pre emphasis is carried out
at the transmitter.

The pre emphasis circuit is used at the transmitter as shown in the figure below.
De-emphasis: In the de-emphasis circuit, by reducing the amplitude level of the
received high frequency signal by the same amount as the increase in pre-emphasis is
termed as De-emphasis.

The artificial boosting given to the higher modulating frequencies in the process of pre-
emphasis is nullified or compensated at the receiver by a process called De Emphasis.

The artificially boosted high-frequency signal is brought to its original amplitude using
the de-emphasis circuit.

The 75 usec de emphasis circuit is standard and it is shown in the below figure.

It shows that it is a low-pass filter.

75 usec de emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve that is 3dB down at a

frequency whose RC time constant is 75 usec.

3) Compare AM and FM.

Ans.

4) Explain FM generation methods

i) Varactor diode method :

Varactor diode modulator: A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction

capacitance varies linearly with the applied voltage when the diode is reverse-biased. It
may also be used to produce Generation of Frequency Modulation. Varactor diodes are
certainly employed frequently, together with a reactance modulator, to provide automatic
frequency correction for an FM transmitter. The circuit of Figure 5-13 shows such a
modulator. It is seen that the diode has been back-biased to provide the junction
capacitance effect, and since this bias is varied by the modulating voltage which is in
series with it, the junction capacitance will also vary, causing the oscillator frequency to
change accordingly. Although this is the simplest reactance modulator circuit, it does
have the disadvantage of using a two-terminal device; its applications are somewhat
limited. However, it is often used for automatic frequency control and remote tuning.

ii) FET Reactance method

FM demodulators

ii) Foster seeley demodulator (Phase Discriminator)

Foster-Seeley circuit operates using a phase difference between signals. To obtain the
different phased signals a connection is made to the primary side of the transformer using
a capacitor, and this is taken to the center tap of the transformer. This gives a signal that
is 90° out of phase.

When an unmodulated carrier is applied at the center frequency, both diodes conduct, to
produce equal and opposite voltages across their respective load resistors. These voltages
cancel each other out at the output so that no voltage is present.
As the carrier moves off to one side of the center frequency the balance condition is
destroyed, and one diode conducts more than the other. This results in the voltage across
one of the resistors being larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the output
corresponding to the modulation on the incoming signal.

The choke is required in the circuit to ensure that no RF signals appear at the output. The
capacitors C1 and C2 provide a similar filtering function.

iii) Ratio detector

The operation of the ratio detector centers around a frequency sensitive phase shift
network with a transformer and the diodes that are effectively in series with one another.
When a steady carrier is applied to the circuit the diodes act to produce a steady voltage
across the resistors R1 and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up as a result.

The transformer enables the circuit to detect changes in the frequency of the incoming
signal. It has three windings. The primary and secondary act in the normal way to produce
a signal at the output. The third winding is un-tuned and the coupling between the
primary and the third winding is very tight, and this means that the phasing between
signals in these two windings is the same.

The primary and secondary windings are tuned and lightly coupled. This means that there
is a phase difference of 90 degrees between the signals in these windings at the center
frequency. If the signal moves away from the center frequency the phase difference will
change. In turn the phase difference between the secondary and third windings also
varies. When this occurs the voltage will subtract from one side of the secondary and add
to the other causing an imbalance across the resistors R1 and R2. As a result this causes a
current to flow in the third winding and the modulation to appear at the output.
The capacitors C1 and C2 filter any remaining RF signal which may appear across the
resistors. The capacitor C4 and R3 also act as filters ensuring no RF reaches the audio
section of the receiver.

6) A single tone FM signal is given by VFM = 10 sin (16 Pi x 10^6t + 20 sin 2 Pi x 10^3 t)

Calculate :

(a) Maximum frequency deviation

(b) BW of FM using Carson's rule

Ans. (a) To calculate the maximum frequency deviation (Δf), we need to consider the term
inside the sin function that multiplies the modulating signal (20 sin(2π × 10^3t)). The
coefficient of this term represents the amplitude of the modulating signal, which is 20.

Since the maximum frequency deviation is equal to the peak amplitude of the modulating
signal, we can calculate it as follows:

Δf = 20

Therefore, the maximum frequency deviation is 20 Hz.

(b) Carson's rule is commonly used to estimate the bandwidth (BW) of an FM signal.
According to Carson's rule, the bandwidth of an FM signal is approximately twice the sum
of the maximum frequency deviation and the maximum frequency of the modulating
signal.

In this case, the maximum frequency deviation is 20 Hz, and the maximum frequency of
the modulating signal is 2π × 10^3 Hz.

Using Carson's rule, we can calculate the bandwidth as follows:

BW = 2 × (Δf + fm)

= 2 × (20 + 2π × 10^3)

≈ 2 × (20 + 6283.18)

≈ 2 × 6303.18

≈ 12606.36 Hz

Therefore, the bandwidth of the FM signal, estimated using Carson's rule, is

approximately 12606.36 Hz.