UNIT 6.

1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME

Topic 1 Darwin and the Idea of Natural Selection
Explain how Lamarck would have suggested What is Evolution?
giraffes evolved. • Evolution is the gradual change of a species over time to better
suit their environment.
• There have been many explanations for how evolution occurs
over the last few hundred years.
o EX: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) proposed that an
organism can pass on characteristics that it has acquired
during its lifetime to its offspring.
• The current accepted theory for evolution was created by
Charles Darwin during the 1800s.
Would you expect plants and animals
found in the African desert to be more Voyage Aboard the HMS Beagle
similar to animals in the African savannah • In the 1830s, naturalist Charles Darwin went on a five-year
or in deserts found in California? Explain voyage aboard the HMS Beagle, which was sent to survey the
your reasoning. land in South America and offshore islands.
• Observations Darwin made during the voyage:
o Organisms had features that made them well suited to very
diverse environments such as Brazil’s humid jungles,
Argentina’s broad grasslands, and the Andes’ mountain tops.
o Plants and animals in temperate regions of South America
more closely resembled species living in the South American
tropics than species living in temperate regions in Europe.
o Fossils he found, though clearly different from living species,
What was Darwin’s hypothesis for why distinctly resembled the living organisms located where they
many of the animals on the Galapagos were found.
Islands resembled ones on the mainland? • One of the most influential stops for Darwin while aboard the
Beagle was at the Galapagos Islands.
o The animals on the Galapagos resembled species that lived
on the South American mainland.
o EX: There were a large variety of finches on the Galapagos
Islands that were similar to each other but appeared to be
different species. The finches were also different, but still
very similar, to a species of finches on the South American
mainland.
According to Darwin, why are there a o Darwin hypothesized that the Galapagos had been colonized
variety of finch species found on the by organisms that had strayed from the mainland and then
Galapagos Islands? diversified, giving rise to new species on the various islands.

Darwin’s Finches
• Darwin concluded that a common ancestor from the South
American mainland first colonized the islands.
• Over time, the birds developed adaptations for specific niches,
such as the food they ate.
What is an adaptation? Give an example • An adaptation is an inherited trait that makes an organism more
not related to finches. fit for its environment.
o In biology, “fitness” refers to an organism's ability to survive
and reproduce.
o EX: large beaks are an adaptation of some finches, which
allows them to crack open seeds.
• A niche refers to the role or function of an organism or species
in an ecosystem.
What is a niche? Give an example not
o EX: an organism’s food source, where it lives, what services
related to finches.
it provides to an ecosystem, etc.
o Organisms or species with overlapping niches leads to
competition.

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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
Explain natural selection in terms of the On the Origin of Species
population of beetles in the image. • In 1859, Darwin compiled evidence he had been gathering for
years, including from his voyage on the Beagle, and published a
book titled, On the Origin of Species.
• Darwin’s book introduced the scientific theory that populations
evolve over the course of generations through a process called
natural selection.
o Natural selection is a process in which individuals with
favorable inherited traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
o Natural selection is the mechanism, or driving force, of
evolution.
• Darwin noted that humans have modified other species by
selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits, a process
What is the difference between the called artificial selection.
“selecting force” in artificial selection and • Darwin argued that a similar process occurs in nature.
natural selection? • Darwin never used the word evolution in the first edition of On
the Origin of Species.
• Instead he used the phrase “descent with modification,” which
summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity of life
o The phrase refers to the view that all organisms are related
through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote
past.
• In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree with
branches representing life’s diversity
• Fossils of extinct species help to “fill in” the morphological gaps
What phrase did Darwin use instead of between present-day groups.
evolution in his book, On the Origin of
Species? Key Features of Natural Selection
• Members of a population often vary in their inherited traits.
• All species can produce more offspring than the environment
can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and
Fossils of extinct species help to fill in the
reproduce.
____________________________ between • Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability
of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to
present-day groups.
have more offspring than other individuals.
• This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will
Create a theoretical situation that would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population
lead to the natural selection of bunnies in a over generations.
forest ecosystem. Make sure the situation • Note that individuals do not evolve; populations evolve over
includes all the requirements for natural time
selection to occur. • Natural selection can only increase or decrease existing
heritable traits that vary in a population. It does not create new
traits.
• The traits that are adaptive will vary with different
environments.

Requirements for Natural Selection to Occur

• Competition: More offspring must be produced than can be
supported by the environment.
• Variation: Offspring must be produced with traits that differ
from one another.
• Adaptation: Certain variations must be more advantageous than
other variations. Some individuals must be more likely to survive
and reproduce.
• Heritability: The favorable trait, or adaptation, must be genetic
and capable of being inherited by the next generation.

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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
Topic 2 Evidence Supporting Evolution
Evidence Supporting Evolution
• Evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many
disciplines, including:
o Comparative Anatomy
o The Fossil Record
o DNA Sequencing
Describe an example of homologous o Documented Observations of Evolution
structures not stated in the notes.
Comparative Anatomy
• Homologies are similarities between species resulting from
common ancestry.
• Homologous structures are anatomical similarities between
species that share a similar structure, but not necessarily the
same function.
o EX: A whale’s flipper, bat’s wing, cat’s leg, and a human’s
What does a vestigial structure reveal arm share the same basic structure of bones. All contain one
about the evolutionary past of a species? upper arm bone, two forearm bones, and a collection of
carpals (wrist), metacarpals (hand), and phalanges (fingers).
• Some homologies reveal vestigial structure, which are structures
that once served important functions in ancestral species, but
have lost most, or all, of their function in living species.
o EX: Human beings, dogs, and cats all have similar pelvises,
which are homologous structures to a vestigial pair of bones
Describe an example of a vestigial structure that snakes and whales have. These bones are the last
found in humans. remains of a pelvis, with no legs to attach.
• It is important to not mistake analogous structures for
homologous structures.
• Analogous structures are similar features found in different
species that are not the result of recent common ancestry.
These structures may serve similar functions but have different
anatomical structures.
What is the difference between o EX: A shark fin, penguin wing, and dolphin flipper have the
homologous structures and analogous same function but differ in their anatomical structure.
structures? • Analogous structures are the result of convergent evolution,
which occurs when organisms become similar because they
adapted to similar environments in similar ways.
• Comparative embryology reveals anatomical homologies not
visible in adult organisms.
o EX: Gill slits and tail bones found in the embryos of humans,
reptiles, birds, and fish.

How does the fossil record support the idea The Fossil Record
that aquatic mammals evolved from land • The fossil record provides evidence of
mammals? o The extinction of species
o The origin of new groups
o Changes within groups over time
• Fossils can document important transitions
o EX: the transition from land to sea in the ancestors of
cetaceans

DNA Sequencing
Of the animals included in the DNA
• Modern technological advances now allow scientist to sequence
sequencing data provided in the slides, nucleotides in DNA and amino acids in proteins.
horses are most related to • By sequencing genes in different species, scientist can figure out
____________________ and least related what type of homologies exist between species on a molecular
to _____________________. level.

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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
Create a graph that depicts the medium Documented Observations of Evolution
ground finch data collected from Peter and • Evolutionary change has been documented in both nature and
Rosemary Grant before and after the in laboratory experiments.
Galapagos drought. • Nature Example: Medium Ground Finches on the Galapagos
Islands
o Peter and Rosemary Grant documented the beak size of
medium ground finches in the Galapagos.
o In 1977, there was a severe drought on the islands which
caused plants to wither and finches to grow hungry. The tiny
seeds the medium ground finches were accustomed to
eating grew scarce.
o Medium ground finches with larger beaks could take
advantage of alternate food sources because they could
crack open larger seeds. The smaller-beaked birds couldn't
do this, so they died of starvation.
o The Grants returned in 1978 to survey the finches.
• Laboratory Example: E. Coli Long-Term Evolution Experiment
o Since 1988, in the lab of Richard Lenski, the evolution of
twelve E. coli populations from a single ancestor strain has
been studied.
Explain how evolutionary change occurred
o Since then, over 50,000 generations of E. coli have been and
in peppered moths during the Industrial
gone, and the differences between the populations and each
Revolution. If you do not remember, you population from the ancestor strain have been documented.
might have to look it up. o With samples of each population taken regularly the
accumulated genetic changes can be followed with ease.
o Over time the bacteria have become far more efficient at
growing under the different conditions used.
o One of the populations developed the ability to utilize citrate
as a nutrient, something otherwise unknown in E. coli under
similar conditions.

Topic 3 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Populations and Gene Pools
Consider a population of wildflowers that is • Genetic variation is required for a population to evolve, but
incompletely dominant for color: does not guarantee that it will. One or more factors that cause
320 red flowers (CRCR) evolution must be at work for a population to evolve.
160 pink flowers (CRCW) o A population is a localized group of individuals capable of
20 white flowers (CWCW) interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
Calculate the number of copies of each • A gene pool refers to all the alleles, for every gene, present in
allele, and then determine their individuals of a population.
frequencies (as a decimal). o A gene pool represents all the possible alleles that could be
inherited by the next generation.
Total # of alleles:
Allele Frequencies
• The frequency of an allele in a population can be calculated.
# of dominant alleles: o For diploid organisms, the total number of alleles at a locus
(gene location on a chromosome) is the total number of
individuals times 2
Frequency of dominant alleles:
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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
o The total number of dominant alleles at a locus is 2 alleles
# of recessive alleles: for each homozygous dominant individual plus 1 allele for
each heterozygous individual; the same logic applies for
recessive alleles.
Frequency of recessive alleles: • By convention, if there are 2 alleles at a locus, p and q are used
to represent their frequencies.
o p usually represents the frequency of dominant alleles, while
q represents the frequency of recessive alleles.
• The frequency of all alleles in a population will add up to 1
In a different population of wildflowers the o p+q=1
frequency of red alleles (CR) is 0.35, and the
frequency of white alleles (CW) is 0.65. If The Hardy-Weinberg Equation
the population is in Hardy-Weinberg • If p and q represent the frequencies of the only two possible
equilibrium, what is the expected genotypic alleles in a population at a particular locus, then p2 +2pq +q2 = 1
ratio of homozygous dominant (red), o p = frequency of dominant allele (usually)
homozygous recessive (white), and o q = frequency of recessive allele
heterozygous (pink) individuals? o p2 = frequency of homozygous dominant genotype
o q2 = frequency of homozygous recessive genotype
o 2pq = frequency of heterozygous phenotype
• This is called the Hardy-Weinberg equation. It describes the
genetic makeup expected for a population that is not evolving.
o If the population is not evolving we say that the population is
in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
• The Hardy-Weinberg equation describes a hypothetical
population that is not evolving.
o Allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from
generation to generation for a population in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium.
• If the data observed for the population differ from the expected
values, then the population may be evolving.
o In real populations, allele and genotype frequencies usually
change over time.
• There are five conditions needed for a population to be in
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, and they are rarely met in nature:
1. No mutations
2. Random mating (no sexual selection)
If the occurrence of PKU is 1 per 10,000 3. No natural selection
births, calculate the following: 4. Extremely large population size
Homozygous recessive frequency (q2): 5. No gene flow (no emigration out of the population or
immigration into the population)
• EX: The occurrence of PKU (a recessive genetic disorder) is said
to be in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium for the following reasons:
Recessive allele frequency (q): 1. The PKU gene mutation rate is very low
2. Mate selection is random with respect to whether or not an
individual is a carrier for the PKU allele
3. Natural selection can only act on rare homozygous individuals
Normal allele frequency (p): who do not follow dietary restrictions.
4. The population is large.
5. Migration has no effect, as many other populations have
similar allele frequencies.
Homozygous dominant frequency (p2):

Carrier frequency (2pq):

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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
Topic 4 The Evolution of Populations
Circle the correct descriptions of genetic Microevolution
drift: • Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies in a
Random / nonrandom process population over many generations.
Large / small populations • Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about
Reduces / increases genetic variation most evolutionary change:
Changing / stable allele frequencies o Genetic drift
o Gene flow
Select three different groups of 5 dots in o Natural selection
the picture to start their own population.
Original Population Genetic Drift
• Genetic drift occurs when allele frequencies in a population
change by random chance, not because of natural selection.
• The smaller a population, the more likely it is that chance alone
will cause deviation from a predicted result.
• Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of
Pop. #1 Pop. #2 Pop. #3 alleles, especially in small populations.
• Two examples of genetic drift:
o The founder effect
o The bottleneck effect
• The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become
Explain how the dots demonstrated the isolated from a larger population and start a new population.
founder effect. o Allele frequencies in the small founder population can be
different from those in the larger parent population due to
chance.
• The bottleneck effect can result from a drastic reduction in
population size due to a sudden environmental change.
o Such as an earthquake, flood, hurricane, forest fire, etc.
o The natural disaster kills individuals in a population entirely
by random chance; it has nothing to do with their traits or
adaptations.
Explain how the dots could undergo a o By chance, the resulting gene pool may no longer be
bottleneck effect. reflective of the original population’s gene pool.
• Understanding the bottleneck effect can increase understanding
of how human activity affects other species.
• EX: Greater Prairie Chickens in Illinois
o Loss of prairie habitat caused a severe reduction in the
population of greater prairie chickens in Illinois
o The surviving birds had low levels of genetic variation, and
only 50% of their eggs hatched
o Genetic drift during the bottleneck may have led to a loss of
genetic variation and an increase in the frequency of harmful
How can human activity affect other
alleles
species?
• Key points of genetic drift:
o Genetic drift is significant in small populations
o Genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at
random
o Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within
populations
o Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed

Gene Flow
• Gene flow, or gene migration, consists of the movement of
alleles into (immigration) and out of (emigration) populations.
This occurs when:
o Gametes or seeds (in plants) are carried into another
population

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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
Describe how gene flow might affect a o Breeding individuals migrate into or out of population
population of tadpoles found in two ponds • Gene flow leads to the frequencies of alleles changing in a
located close to one another. population.

Natural Selection
• Evolution by natural selection involves both chance and
“sorting”
o New genetic variations arise by chance
o Beneficial alleles are “sorted” and favored by natural
selection
• Only natural selection consistently results in adaptive evolution,
an increase in the frequency of alleles that improve fitness. This
is not necessarily true for random events such as genetic drift
and gene flow.
Why would genetic drift and gene flow not • Natural selection acts directly on an organism's phenotype,
be considered forms of adaptive evolution? which will have an indirect effect on the allele and genotype
frequencies found in a population.
• Many phenotypic differences are influenced by multiple genes
(polygenetic) and vary along a continuum. This creates a range
of phenotypes.
o EX: height, skin color, birth weight, etc.
• Heritable variation is essential for evolution by natural selection
to occur!

Sources of Heritable Variation

• Two sources of heritable variation:
1. Mutations in gametes (sex cells) introduce new types of
Natural selection acts directly on alleles into a population.
_______________________________ and 2. Genetic shuffling during sexual reproduction
indirectly acts on o Crossing over and independent assortment of alleles during
_______________________________. gamete formation leads to different combinations of alleles
in sperm and egg cells.
o The random combination of egg and sperm cells during
fertilization leads to offspring that have different
Name four things that produce heritable combinations of traits.
variation.
Types of Natural Selection
• There are three modes in which natural selection can act on a
population:
o Directional selection: occurs when conditions favor
individuals at one end of the phenotypic range
o Disruptive selection: occurs when conditions favor
individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range
o Stabilizing selection: occurs when conditions favor
What type of selection would occur on the intermediate variants and act against extreme phenotypes
beak sizes of a finch species if plants that
produced small nuts went extinct on the Heterozygous Advantage
Galapagos Islands? Draw a graph to show • Heterozygote advantage occurs when heterozygotes have a
the type of selection. higher fitness than do both homozygotes
o As a result, natural selection will tend to maintain two or
more alleles at that locus.
• EX: The Sickle-Cell Allele
o The sickle-cell allele causes deleterious mutations in
hemoglobin but also grants resistance to malaria.
o People who are heterozygous don’t die of sickle cell disease
and are also more likely to survive malaria.
o This keeps the sickle-cell allele from being “weeded-out” by
natural selection.
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UNIT 6.1: NATURAL SELECTION & MICROEVOLUTION CHANGE OVER TIME
In what areas of the world would you
suspect to have a high frequency of sickle- Sexual Selection
cell alleles and why? • Sexual selection occurs when certain adaptations increase an
individual's ability to secure a mate.
• Males can father many offspring because they continuously
produce sperm in great quantity, whereas females produce few
eggs.
o Reproduction is thus typically the result of female choice.
Males often must compete with one another for a mate.
• Sexual selection can lead to sexual dimorphism: Males and
Give an example of sexual dimorphism and females who differ in size and other traits.
explain how it might have evolved. o Female choice can explain why male birds are more ornate
than females.

Come up with an example of a characteristic in an organism that has a phenotypic range. Label and scale the x-axis with the phenotypic
range on the following three graphs. The printed line will represented the original population. Draw a new line on each graph to show
the three types of natural selection. Below each graph provide an explanation for what environmental change caused each selection to
occur.