CHEN 308: UNIT OPERATIONS I

Lecture Note

By
Dr A. Abubakar

Department of Chemical Engineering

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
1
 Topic 2

DISTILLATION

2
2.1 Definition

➢Distillation is a process in which a liquid or vapour

mixture of two or more substances is separated into its
component fractions of desired purity, by the
application and removal of heat.

➢In distillation, the vapour separated is cooled (or

condensed) to form condensate which contains more
volatile component(s). At the same time, the leftover of
the original mixture will contain more of the less volatile
component(s).

3
2.2 Types of Distillation Columns
Distillation
column

Batch or differential Continuous

distillation column distillation column

Rectification distillation Flash or equilibrium

column distillation column

Binary and multi- Multi-product Extractive and Tray and packed

component distillation azeotropic distillation
distillation column column distillation column column
4
• Extractive and azeotropic distillation: An azeotrope
is a liquid mixture which when vaporized, produces the
same composition as the liquid. Extractive and
azeotropic distillation need extra feed to help with the
separation. In extractive distillation, the extra feed
appears at the bottom product stream while in
azeotropic distillation, the extra feed appears at the top
product stream.

• Rectification distillation: It is the most widely used in

industries and it differs from other methods in the
sense that part of the vapour generated is condensed
and returned as liquid to the column unlike in the other
methods where all the vapour is either removed or
condensed as product.
5
2.3 Binary Distillation Principle

▪ Separation of components from a liquid mixture via

distillation depends on the differences in boiling points of
the individual components. Also, depending on the
concentrations of the components present, the liquid
mixture will have different boiling point characteristics.
Therefore, distillation processes depend on the vapour
pressure characteristics of liquid mixtures.

▪ The vapour pressure of a liquid at a particular

temperature is the equilibrium pressure exerted by
molecules leaving and entering the liquid surface.

6
2.3.1 Partial pressures, Dalton’s law and Henry’s law
▪ Partial pressure, 𝑃𝐴 of component A in a mixture of vapours is the pressure that would be exerted by the
component A at the same temperature, if present in the same volumetric concentration.
▪ According Dalton’s law;
𝑃𝑇 = ෍ 𝑃𝑖 (2.1)

𝑃𝑇 and 𝑃𝑖 are total and partial pressures respectively

▪ For ideal gas or vapour;
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑦𝐴 𝑃𝑇 (2.2)
𝑦𝐴 is composition (or molar fraction) of component A in the vapour phase

▪ For ideal liquid mixture with high 𝑥𝐴 , 𝑃𝐴 is given by Rault’s law as;
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 𝑃𝐴𝑜 (2.3)
𝑥𝐴 is composition (or molar fraction) of component A in the liquid phase, 𝑃𝐴𝑜 is vapour
pressure of component A in the mixture.
▪ If 𝑥𝐴 is low, Henry’s law holds as;
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 ℋ (2.4)
ℋ is Henry constant
▪ Combining (2.2) and (2.3) for binary mixtures gives;
𝑜
𝑥𝐴 𝑃𝐴𝑜 𝑥 𝑃
𝑦𝐴 = ൘𝑃 and 𝑦𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐵൘𝑃𝑇 (2.5)
𝑇

7
 ▪ Note that for binary mixtures,
𝑦𝐴 + 𝑦𝐵 = 1 and 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵 = 1 (2.6)

▪ Therefore;
𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐵𝑜 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐴𝑜
𝑥𝐴 = 𝑜 and 𝑥𝐵 = 𝑜 (2.7)
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵𝑜 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴𝑜

2.3.2 Relative volatility

▪ This is a measure of the differences in volatility between two components, and hence their boiling
points. It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will be. Mathematically;

𝑦𝐴
ൗ𝑥 (2.8)
𝛼𝐴𝐵 =𝑦 𝐴
𝐵ൗ
𝑥𝐵
▪ Combining with (2.6);
𝑦𝐴 (2.9)
𝑥𝐴 =
𝛼𝐴𝐵 − (∝𝐴𝐵 −)𝑦𝐴

𝛼𝐴𝐵 is relative volatility of component A with respect to component B

2.3.3 Boiling point diagram (Txy)

The boiling point diagram shows how the equilibrium compositions of the components in a liquid mixture
vary with temperature at a fixed pressure. This is shown for 2 components (A and B) - a binary mixture
below
8
 ▪ The boiling point of A is that at which
the mole fraction of A is 1. The boiling
point of B is that at which the mole
fraction of A is 0. In this example, A is
the more volatile component and
therefore has a lower boiling point than
B. The upper curve in the diagram is
called the dew-point curve while the
lower one is called the bubble-point
curve.
▪ Dew-point is the temperature at which
the saturated vapour starts to
condense.

▪ Bubble-point is the temperature at

which the saturated liquid starts to
boil.
▪ The region above the dew-point curve
shows the equilibrium composition of
the superheated vapour while the
region below the bubble-point curve
Fig. 2.1: Boiling point diagram (Txy) shows the equilibrium composition of
the subcooled liquid.

For example, when a subcooled liquid with mole fraction of A = 0.4 (point A) is heated, its concentration
remains constant until it reaches the bubble-point (point B), when it starts to boil. The vapours evolved
during the boiling has the equilibrium composition given by point C, approximately 0.8 mole fraction A.
This is approximately 50% richer in A than the original liquid. 9
Example 2.1:
The vapour pressures of n-heptane and toluene at 373K are 106 and 73.3 kN/m2
respectively. What are the mole fractions of n-heptane in the vapour and in the liquid
phase at 373K if the total pressure is 101.3 kN/m2?

Solution:
Let n-heptane = A and toluene = B

𝑃𝐴𝑜 = 106 kN/m2,

𝑃𝐵𝑜 = 73.3 kN/m2,

𝑃𝑇 = 101.3 kN/m2

𝑦𝐴 = ? and 𝑥𝐴 = ?

From Eq. (2.7);

𝑥𝐴 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐵𝑜 Τ 𝑃𝐴𝑜 − 𝑃𝐵𝑜 = (101.3 – 73.3)/(106 – 73.3) = 0.8563

From Eq. (2.5);

𝑦𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 𝑃𝐴𝑜 Τ𝑃𝑇 = 0.8563 x 106/101.3 = 0.8960
10
Example 2.2:
Use Raoult's Law and calculate the vapour and liquid compositions in equilibrium
(in mole fractions, y and x) for the benzene-toluene system using vapour pressure
data measure at a pressure of 101.32 kPa as shown in Table below :

Next plot the phase diagram (T-x-y diagram) and equilibrium curve for the benzene-
toluene system at 101.32 kPa

Solution:
𝑃𝑇 = 101.32 kPa
𝑦𝐴 = ? and 𝑥𝐴 = ?

𝑃𝐴𝑜 and 𝑃𝐵𝑜 are given in the table at different temperatures 11

T (0C) 𝑃𝐴𝑜 (kPa) 𝑃𝐵𝑜 (kPa) 𝑥𝐴 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃𝐵𝑜 Τ 𝑃𝐴𝑜 − 𝑃𝐵𝑜 𝑦𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 𝑃𝐴𝑜 Τ𝑃𝑇

80.1 101.32 - 1 1

85.0 116.9 46.0 0.78 0.90

90.0 135.5 54.0 0.58 0.78

95.0 155.7 63.3 0.41 0.63

100 179.2 74.3 0.26 0.46

105 204.2 86.0 0.13 0.26

110.6 240 101.32 0 0

115
110
105 Dew point curve
Temperature

100
95
90
85 Bubble point curve
80
75
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
xA, yA

Boiling point diagram (Txy) 12

 1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
yA

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
XA

Vapour-liquid equilibrium curve

13
 2.4 Vapour-Liquid Equilibria
▪ Distillation columns are designed based on the boiling point properties of the
components in the mixtures being separated. Thus the sizes, particularly the height, of
distillation columns are determined by the vapour liquid equilibrium (VLE) data for the
mixtures. Constant pressure VLE data is obtained from boiling point diagrams.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.2: Vapour-

liquid-equilibrium
(VLE) curves. (a)
(d) (e)
Ideal system, (b)
and (c) non-ideal
system, (d) and (e)
azeotropic systems
14
 2.5 Batch and Flash Distillation Columns

𝒚𝑫

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2.3: (a) Batch distillation column; (b) Flash distillation column
15
2.5.1 Equations for solving binary batch distillation problems:

▪ In a simple batch distillation (Fig. 2.3a), vapour (i.e. the product) is withdrawn from
the top of the re-boiler (which is also called the “still or kettle pot”) continuously,
and by doing so, the liquid level in the still pot is decreasing continuously. The three
(3) equations required are;
1. Overall material balance:
𝐹 = 𝑊final + 𝐷total (2.10)

2. Specific material balance more volatile component (MVC):

𝑥𝐹 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑤, final 𝑊final + 𝑥𝐷, 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷total (2.11)

𝐹 = the total amount of feed fed into the distillation column for the entire operating period
𝑊final = the final amount of liquid in the re-boiler
𝐷total = the total amount of the distillate withdrawn from the distillation column
𝑥𝐹 = mole fraction of a more volatile species in the feed
𝑥𝑤, final = the mole fraction of an MVC of the remaining liquid in the re-boiler
𝑥𝐷, 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = an average concentration of an MVC in the distillate
𝑥𝐹
𝑊final 𝑑𝑥
3. Rayleigh equation: ln = −න (2.12)
𝐹 𝑥𝑤, final 𝑦 − 𝑥

where 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝐷 and 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑤 16
▪ To solve the integration of the right hand side of equation (2.3);
➢ At each value of 𝑥 (from 𝑥𝐹 to 𝑥𝑤, final ) and its corresponding value of 𝑦 from
equilibrium data, calculate 𝑦 − 𝑥 . Alternatively, solve analytically using
equilibrium relationship.
1
➢ Plot (Y-axis) against x (X-axis) or fit it to the equilibrium relationship.
𝑦−𝑥
➢ Graphically determine the area under the curve from 𝑥𝐹 to 𝑥𝑤, final as shown
below, or perform the integration analytically or numerically from 𝑥𝐹 to 𝑥𝑤, final .

➢ If the value of 𝑥𝑤, final is to be determined, a trial & error technique must be
employed.

17
2.5.2 Equations for solving binary flash distillation problems:
▪ In a flash distillation (Fig. 2.3b), a liquid stream containing several components is
partially vaporised in a ”flash drum” at a certain pressure and temperature. This
results in two phases: a vapour phase, enriched in the more volatile components,
and a liquid phase, enriched in the less volatile components. The equations are;

1. Overall material balance:

𝐹 =𝐷+𝐵 (2.13)

2. Specific material balance more volatile component (MVC):

(2.14)
𝑥𝐹 𝐹 = 𝑦𝐷 𝐷 + 𝑥𝐵 𝐵
3. Energy balance:

𝐻𝐹 𝐹 + 𝑞 = 𝐻𝐷 𝐷 + 𝐻𝐵 𝐵 (2.15)

𝑞 = Heat; 𝐻 = Enthalpy
4. By imposing some assumptions and simplifying equations (2.13) – (2.15)
becomes;
𝑓−1 𝑥𝐹 (2.16)
𝑦𝐷 = 𝑥𝐵 +
𝑓 𝑓
Operating line equation
𝐷
Where 𝑓=
𝐹
▪ 𝑓 is the fraction of the feed (𝐹) that is vaporized 18
 ▪ Equilibrium data is also needed in flash distillation to construct the
equilibrium curve (see Figure below)

1.0
Operating line with
slope (𝑓 − 1)Τ𝑓
Equilibrium curve
0.8

yD
Vapour (y)

0.6 Diagonal line

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 xB 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
xF
Liquid (x)

Fig. 2.4: Operating line of flash distillation 19

2.6 Basic Distillation Equipment and Operation
(i.e. Rectification distillation)

The main components of distillation columns as shown in Fig. 2.5 are;

➢ Vertical shell: where the separation of liquid components is

carried out.
➢ Reboiler: to provide the necessary vaporisation for the distillation
process.
➢ Condenser: to cool and condense the vapour leaving the top of
the column.
➢ Reflux drum: to hold the condensed vapour from the top of the
column so that liquid (reflux) can be recycled back to the column.
➢ Column internals: consists of trays/plates and/or packings which
are used to enhance component separations.

20
Fig. 2.5: Distillation column 21
 2.6.1 Reboilers
Kettle type-reboiler Vertical thermosiphon type-reboiler

Jacketed kettle type-reboiler

Internal type-reboiler

Fig. 2.6: Types of reboilers 22

 2.6.2 Condensers

Fig. 2.7: Types of condensers

23
2.6.3 Column internals
Trays/plates: The terms "trays" and "plates" are used interchangeably.
Trayed columns are called staged-contact columns. There are many types
of tray designs, but the most common ones (see Fig. 2.8) are as follows:

➢ Bubble cap tray: It has riser or chimney fitted over each hole, and a
cap that covers the riser. The cap is mounted so that there is a space
between riser and cap to allow the passage of vapour. Vapour rises
through the chimney and is directed downward by the cap, finally
discharging through slots in the cap, and finally bubbling through the
liquid on the tray.

➢ Valve tray: In this type, perforations are covered by liftable caps.

Vapour flows lifts the caps, thus self-creating a flow area for the
passage of vapour. The lifting cap directs the vapour to flow
horizontally into the liquid, thus providing better mixing than is possible
in sieve trays.

➢ Sieve tray: It is simply a metal plate with holes in them. Vapour

passes straight upward through the liquid on the plate. The
arrangement, number and size of the holes are design parameters. 24
Bubble cap tray
Valve tray
Sieve tray Operation

25
Fig. 2.8: Types of trays
▪ Liquid and vapour flows in a tray column

➢ Each tray has 2 conduits, one on each side, called ‘downcomers’. Liquid
falls through the downcomers by gravity from one tray to the one below
it. The flow across each plate is shown in the above diagram on the right.

➢ A weir on the tray ensures that there is always some liquid (holdup) on the
tray and is designed such that the holdup is at a suitable height, e.g. such
that the bubble caps are covered by liquid.

➢ Being lighter, vapour flows up the column and is forced to pass through the
liquid, via the openings on each tray. The area allowed for the passage of
vapour on each tray is called the active tray area.
26
Packings: Packings are passive devices that are designed to
increase the interfacial area for vapour-liquid contact. Packed
columns are called continuous-contact columns. Four common
types are shown in Fig. 2.9.

Rashig rings Pall rings

Intalox saddles Berl saddles

Fig. 2.9: Types of packings

27
▪ Packings versus Trays

A tray column that is facing throughput problems may be de-bottlenecked

by replacing a section of trays with packings. This is because:

➢ packings provide extra inter-facial area for liquid-vapour contact

➢ efficiency of separation is increased for the same column height
➢ packed columns are shorter than trayed columns

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.10: (a) tray column; (b) Packed column 28
2.7 Distillation Column Design
▪ Distillation columns are designed using VLE data for the mixtures to be
separated. The vapour-liquid equilibrium characteristics (indicated by the
shape of the equilibrium curve) of the mixture will determine the number
of stages, and hence the number of trays, required for the separation.
This is illustrated clearly by applying the McCabe-Thiele method to design
a binary column.

2.7.1 Mccabe-Thiele design method

▪ The McCabe-Thiele approach is a graphical one, and uses the VLE plot to
determine the theoretical number of stages required to effect the separation
of a binary mixture. It assumes constant molar overflow and this implies that:
➢ molal heats of vaporisation of the components are roughly the same
➢ heat effects (heats of solution, heat losses to and from column, etc.) are
negligible
➢ for every mole of vapour condensed, 1 mole of liquid is vaporised

▪ The design procedure involves drawing operating lines (for rectification and
stripping sections), which define the mass balance relationships between
the liquid and vapour phases in the column.
29
 Labels
𝑉𝑡 𝐹 = Feed molar flow rate
𝑉𝑡 = Total molar vapour flow rate
I 𝐿 𝐷
𝐿 = Reflux molar flow rate

𝑥𝐷 𝐷 = Distillate molar flow rate

𝑛+1
𝐵 = Bottom or residue or waste molar flow
𝑉𝑛 𝐿𝑛+1 rate
𝑛 𝑛, 𝑚 = Plate or tray number
1 𝑉𝑛, 𝑉𝑚 = Vapour molar flow rates at trays
𝐹 𝑛 and 𝑚 respectively
𝑧𝐹 𝐿𝑛 + 1, 𝐿𝑚 + 1 = Liquid molar flow rates at
𝑚+1 trays 𝑛 + 1 and 𝑚 + 1
respectively

𝐿𝑚+1 𝑧𝐹 , 𝑥𝐷 , 𝑥𝐵 = Feed, distillate and bottom

𝑉𝑚
𝑚 mole fractions or
compositions respectively
1
II ▪ Total material balance:
𝑉 𝐹 =𝐷+𝐵 (2.17)
▪ More volatile component (MVC) balance:
𝐵
𝑥𝐵 𝐹𝑧𝐹 = 𝐷𝑥𝐷 + 𝐵𝑥𝐵 (2.18)

Fig. 2.11: Top and bottom distillation column. (I) Rectification section; (II) Stripping section
30
2.7.2 Operating line equation for rectification section (ROE)
▪ Total material balance: Condenser
𝑉𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛+1 + 𝐷 (2.19)
▪ More volatile component balance:
𝑦𝑛 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛+1 + 𝐷𝑥𝐷 (2.20)
Reflux Reflux drum
▪ Assuming constant molar liquid:
𝐿𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛+1 (2.21) 𝑛+1
𝐷
𝐿𝑛 𝐷 𝑥𝐷
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 (2.22) Distillate
𝑉𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑉𝑛 𝐷 𝑉𝑛 𝐿𝑛 + 1 top product
▪ Eqs. (2.19) and (2.22) are combined to have; 𝑦𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 1
𝑛 Liquid phase
𝐿𝑛 𝐷𝑥𝐷
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥 + (2.23) Vapour phase
𝐿𝑛 + 𝐷 𝑛+1 𝐿𝑛 + 𝐷
▪ Reflux ratio, 𝑅𝐷 , is the ratio of reflux flow rate (𝐿𝑛) to distillate flow rate (𝐷) and it is a
measure of how much of the material going up of the column is returned back to the column
as reflux. Therefore;
𝐿𝑛ൗ (2.24)
𝑅𝐷 = 𝐷
▪ Now substituting Eq. (2.24) into Eq. (2.23); we have;
𝑅𝐷 𝑥𝐷 Operating line equation
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛+1 + (2.25)
𝑅𝐷 + 1 𝑅𝐷 + 1 for rectification section 31
2.7.3 Operating line equation for stripping section (SOE)
▪ Total material balance:
𝐿𝑚+1 = 𝑉𝑚 + 𝐵
𝑚+1
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐿𝑚+1 − 𝐵 (2.26) 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 + 1
▪ More volatile component balance: 𝑦𝑚 𝑥𝑚 + 1
𝑦𝑚 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐿𝑚+1 𝑥𝑚+1 − 𝐵𝑥𝐵 (2.27)
𝑚
▪ Assuming constant molar liquid:
𝐿𝑚 = 𝐿𝑚+1 (2.28)
𝐿𝑚 𝐵 Reboiler
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 (2.29)
𝑉𝑚 𝑚+1 𝑉𝑚 𝐵
▪ Eqs. (2.26) and (2.29) are combined to have; 𝐵
𝑉𝑚 + 𝐵 𝐵 Bottoms 𝑥𝐵
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥𝑚+1 − 𝑥 (2.30)
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐵
▪ Boil up ratio, 𝑅𝐵 , is the ratio of reboil flow rate (𝑉𝑚) to bottom flow rate (𝐵) and it is a measure
of how much of the material going down of the column is returned back to the column as boil
up. Therefore;
𝑉
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑚ൗ𝐵 (2.31)

▪ Now substituting Eq. (2.31) into Eq. (2.30); we have;

𝑅𝐵 + 1 𝑥𝐵 Operating line equation
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥𝑚+1 − (2.32)
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐵 for stripping section 32
 1.0 1.0

0.9 0.9 SOE with slope = (𝑅𝐵 + 1)/𝑅𝐵

ROL with slope = 𝑅𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7
𝑥𝐷/(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
(y)

Y (y)
0.6 0.6
Vapour

Vapour
0.5
Y

0.5

0.4 0.4
(b)
0.3
(a) 0.3

0.2 0.2
𝑥𝐷 𝑥𝐵
0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Liquid
X (x) Liquid
X (x)

Fig. 2.12: (a) Rectification operating line (ROL); (b) Stripping operating line (SOL)

2.7.4 Feed condition and feed line (or q-line)

▪ The feed to the column can be in five different forms based on its thermal
condition. All these five types of feed can be represented by a factor
denoted by ‘𝑞’. (see various feed conditions in Fig. 2.13)
▪ 𝑞 is defined as the moles of liquid flow in the stripping section that results
from the introduction of each mole of feed.
33
 𝐿 𝑉 𝐿 𝑉 𝐿 𝑉
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 Labels:
𝐹 = Feed flow rate;
Feed 𝐿 and 𝑉 = Liquid and
plate vapour flow rates in
𝐿ത 𝑉ത 𝐿ത 𝑉ത 𝐿ത 𝑉ത the rectification section
(a) 𝐿ത > 𝐹 + 𝐿 (b) 𝐿ത = 𝐹 + 𝐿 (c) 𝐿ത = 𝐿𝐹 + 𝐿 respectively;
𝑉ത > 𝑉 𝑉ത = 𝑉 𝑉ത = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐹 𝐿ത and 𝑉ത = Liquid and
vapour flow rates in
the stripping section
𝐿 𝑉 𝐿 𝑉 respectively.
𝐹 𝐹 𝐿𝐹 and 𝑉𝐹 = Liquid and
vapour flow rates in
the feed containing
liquid and vapour
𝐿ത 𝑉ത 𝐿ത 𝑉ത
mixture
(d) 𝐿ത = 𝐿 (e) 𝐿ത < 𝐿
𝑉ത = 𝑉 − 𝐹 𝑉ത < 𝑉 − 𝐹

Fig. 2.13: Different feed conditions. (a) Cold or sub-cooled liquid; (b) saturated or
bubble point liquid; (c) Partially vaporized liquid or mixture liquid and vapour; (d)
saturated or dew point vapour; (e) Superheated vapour. Blue lines = liquid
phases; red lines = vapour phases; green line = mixture of liquid and vapour. 34
▪ Mathematically, 𝑞 is given according to the definition as;
𝐿ത − 𝐿
𝑞= (2.33)
𝐹
𝑉 − 𝑉ത
1−𝑞 = (2.34)
𝐹
▪ 𝑞 can also be expressed in terms of heat energy as;
Heat to vaporize 1 mole of feed
𝑞=
Molar latent heat of vaporization of the feed
▪ Feed line or 𝒒-line: It is that line drawn between the intersection of the two
operating lines (i.e. ROL and SOL), and where the feed composition lies on the
diagonal line.

▪ Assuming constant molal overflow and using material-balance equations (i.e.

Eqs. 2.22 and 2.29) with Eq. 2.17, the 𝑞-line equation can be obtained as;
𝑞 𝑧𝐹
𝑦= 𝑥− (2.35)
𝑞−1 𝑞−1

▪ The 𝑞-line is shown in Fig. 2.13. It has a slope of 𝑞 Τ(𝑞 − 1) and intercepts
diagonal line at 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑧𝐹
35
 1.0
ROL

Equilibrium curve
0.8
Vapour (y)

Diagonal line
0.6

q-line with slope

0.4 𝑞Τ(𝑞 − 1)
y = zF

0.2
SOL

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 xD 1.0
xB x = zF
Liquid (x)

Fig. 2.14: 𝒒-line at a particular feed condition

36
▪ Depending on the feed condition, 𝑞-line will have different slopes based on Eq.
2.33 shown in Fig. 2.15.

1.0

𝑞>1
0.8
𝑞 =1
0<𝑞<1
0.6
Vapour (y)

𝑞 =0
0.4

𝑞 <0
0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 zF 0.6 0.8 1.0

Liquid (x)

Fig. 2.15: 𝒒-lines at different feed conditions

37
▪ Now, Comparing Fig. 2.13 and Eq. 2.33, the following can be stated.
➢ 𝑞 > 1 for cold or subcooled liquid
➢ 𝑞 = 1 for bubble point or saturated liquid
➢ 0 < 𝑞 < 1 for partially vaporized or mixture of liquid and vapour
➢ 𝑞 = 0 for dew point or saturated vapour
➢ 𝑞 < 0 for superheated vapour

▪ How to plot 𝒒-lines

All 𝑞-lines start from the diagonal line at feed composition. However, the
methods of plotting the q-line depend on whether the value of the q is known
or not.

1. If the actual value of the 𝑞 is known, then the direction of q-line depends
on the following:
(a) For 𝑞 = 1: A vertical line parallel to Y-axis represents the 𝑞-line.
(b) For 𝑞 = 0: A horizontal line parallel to X-axis represents the 𝑞-line.
(c) For 𝑞 ≠ 1 or 0: The slope of the 𝑞-line obtained from Eq. 2.35 can be
used to plot it. i.e.
𝑞
Slope of 𝑞-line =
𝑞−1
38
2. If the actual value of the 𝑞 is NOT known, then the q-line depends of the
following:
(a) For 0 < 𝑞 < 1: It means that the 𝑞-line is in between the horizontal line
(i.e. 𝑞 = 0) and vertical line (i.e. 𝑞 = 1). Then the angle with which the q-
line is inclined from horizontal line is calculated from the fractions or
percentages of the liquid and vapour phases in the feed as follows:

Angle from horizontal (i.e. q = 0) = Fraction (or Percentage/100) of liquid x 90⁰

(b) For 𝑞 > 1 or 𝑞 < 0: First, the value of q is calculated from the thermal
properties using Eqs (2.36) and (2.37). Thereafter, method 1 (c) above is
used to plot the q-line.

𝑐𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝐹
𝑞 > 1: 𝑞 =1+ (2.36)
𝜆

𝑐𝑝𝑉 𝑇𝑑 − 𝑇𝐹
𝑞 < 0: 𝑞= (2.37)
𝜆
𝑐𝑝𝐿 , 𝑐𝑝𝑉 = Specific heats of liquid and vapour, respectively
𝑇𝐹 = Feed temperature
𝑇𝑏 , 𝑇𝑑 = Bubble point and dew point temperatures of the feed, respectively
𝜆 = Latent heat of vaporization
39
2.7.5 Distillation column design using Mccabe –Thiele method

▪ Design of distillation column involves the determination of theoretical (or

equilibrium or ideal) number of stages (𝑁𝑆) required to effect the separation of a
binary mixture.

▪ To determine 𝑁𝑆 , horizontal and vertical lines are constructed between the

operating lines and the equilibrium curve staring from the diagonal line at 𝑥𝐷 and
ending at 𝑥𝐵. This will give rise to a number of triangles or 'corner' sections, and
each section will be equivalent to a stage. This is shown in Fig. 2.16.

▪ Required number of theoretical tray (𝑁𝑇) is;

𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁𝑆 − 1 (2.38)

▪ Actual number of trays (𝑁) is;

𝑁𝑇
𝑁= × 100 (2.39)
𝜂

𝜂 = Tray efficiency
40
 1.0

0.8 1

2
0.6
3 From this graph;
Vapour (y)

𝑁𝑆 = 5
0.4
𝑁𝑇 = 5 − 1
4 = 4

0.2
5

0.0
0.0 0.2 zF 0.4 0.6 0.8 xD 1.0
xB
Liquid (x)

Fig. 2.16: Determination of required theoretical number of stages

41
▪ NOTE: Apart from the equilibrium curve, only two other lines are required to
determine 𝑁𝑆. That is, either ROL and SOL, ROL and 𝑞-line or SOL and 𝑞-
line. This is because the pair of any of these lines automatically determines
the third line.

Examples 2.3:
A distillation column operating at 1 atm is to be designed for separating an
ethanol-water mixture. The feed is 20 mole% ethanol and the feed flow rate is
1000 kg-mole/hr of saturated liquid. A distillate composition of 80 mole%
ethanol and a bottoms composition of not more than 2 mole% ethanol are
desired. The reflux ratio is 5/3.

(a) Determine:
i. the total number of equilibrium stages required
ii. the optimum feed plate location
iii. the distillate and bottoms flow rates in kg-mole/hr
(b) Analyse the graphical solution. What can you conclude about the extent of
separation in the rectifying section and stripping section respectively?
(c) What is the actual number of trays if the tray efficiency is 75%?

Equilibrium data for ethanol-water system at 1 atm pressure are in Table E-2.3
given in next slide.
42
Solution:
(a-i)
Given:
𝐹 = 1000 kg-mole/hr, 𝑧𝐹 = 0.20 (ethanol is MVC); Feed is saturated liquid, thus q = 1.0
𝑥𝐷 = 0.80, 𝑥𝐵 = 0.02 (maximum); 𝑅𝐷 = 5/3; 𝜂 = 75%.
First, plot the equilibrium curve using the VLE data given. Note that you need to convert
mole% ethanol into mole fraction. Then, apply the McCabe-Thiele method to find the
number of theoretical (or equilibrium) trays required for the separation. 43
Step 1:
▪ Since 𝑅𝐷 and 𝑥𝐷 are known (5/3, and 0.80 respectively), plot the ROL - it passes
through 𝑥𝐷 on the diagonal or 45ᴼ line, i.e. the point (0.80, 0.80).
▪ The intercept from Eq. 2.25 is;
𝑥𝐷/(𝑅𝐷 + 1) = 0.80 / (5/3+1) = 0.30.
Step 2:
▪ Plot the feed line using the 𝑞-line equation (2.35) with 𝑞 = 1.0 and 𝑧𝐹 = 0.20 - it
passes through the 45ᴼ diagonal, meaning 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑧𝐹 .
▪ In this case, with 𝑞 = 1.0, the 𝑞-line is a vertical line at 𝑧𝐹 = 0.20. Then locate its
intersection with ROL.

Step 3:
▪ Plot the SOL, by joining the point 𝑥𝐵 = 0.02 on the 45ᴼ diagonal to the intersection
point between the ROL and q-line.

Step 4:
▪ Construct triangles by drawing horizontal and vertical lines starting from 𝑥𝐷 (between
ROL and equilibrium curve) down to 𝑥𝐵 (between SOL and equilibrium curve). The
change from ROL to SOL occurs when 𝑧𝐹 is reached. See Fig. E-2.3a

44
 9
10
11
12

13

14

15
zF

Fig. E-2.3a: Determination of required theoretical number of stages

45
 ▪ From the graph plotted, number of triangles = 15. Thus,
(a) number of equilibrium stages required (𝑁𝑆) = 15 i.e.(14 + 1 reboiler).

(a-ii)
▪ Optimum feed plate location = plate 13.

(a-iii)
▪ The distillate and bottoms flowrates ( 𝐷 and 𝐵 ) can be obtained using material
balances (Eqs. 2.17 and 2.18):
Total balance: 𝐹 =𝐷+𝐵
More volatile component (MVC): 𝐹𝑧𝐹 = 𝐷𝑥𝐷 + 𝐵𝑥𝐵
▪ Substituting the mole fractions and feed flow rate, and solving simultaneously gives:
𝐷 = 230.77 kg-mole/hr, 𝐵 = 769.23 kg-mole/hr

(b)
Analysis of Design:

▪ It is noted that the Rectifying section has more trays (12) than the Stripping section
(3), including the feed tray but excluding the reboiler). This is because the relative
volatility of ethanol decreases sharply with increase in ethanol concentration. Fig. E-
2.3b shows the distillation column.

46
▪ The relative volatility is very high initially, resulting in fewer trays being required for
separation in the Stripping section. As concentration of ethanol (mole fraction) increases,
the relative volatility drops quickly, and becomes smaller as the concentration moves
toward azeotropic concentration (at 0.894 mole fraction ethanol). The distance between
the ROL and equilibrium curve becomes smaller, signifying a drop in concentration driving
force for mass transfer, resulting in more trays being required in the Rectifying section.

Fig. E-2.3b: Distillation column

47
 (c)
▪ First, number of equilibrium trays (𝑁𝑇 ) is given by Eq. 2.36:
𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁𝑆 − 1 = 15-1 = 14
▪ Then, the actual number of trays (𝑁) is calculated using Eq. 2.37:
𝑁𝑇 14
𝑁= × 100 = × 100 = 18.6 ≈ 19
𝜂 75

2.7.6 Minimum number of trays/plates and minimum reflux

▪ The slope of ROL (𝑅/𝑅 + 1) increases as the reflux ratio increases. When 𝑅 is
infinite, the slope is 1. Then the operating lines both coincide with the diagonal.
This condition is called total reflux.

▪ At the total reflux, the number of trays is a minimum. This is a limiting case in the
operation of distillation column.

▪ The minimum number of trays (𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛) is calculated based on relative volatility, 𝛼𝐴𝐵
as follows:

ln 𝑥𝐷 1 − 𝑥𝐵 /𝑥𝐵 1 − 𝑥𝐷
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −1 (2.40) Fenske equation
ln 𝛼𝐴𝐵

48
▪ And
𝑦𝐴𝑒 Τ𝑥𝐴𝑒 𝑦𝐴𝑒 Τ𝑥𝐴𝑒
𝛼𝐴𝐵 = = (2.41)
𝑦𝐵𝑒 Τ𝑥𝐵𝑒 (1 − 𝑦𝐴𝑒 )Τ(1 − 𝑥𝐴𝑒 )

NOTE: Fenske equation applies when 𝛼𝐴𝐵 is constant. However, if the change in
the value of 𝛼𝐴𝐵 from the bottom of the column to the top is moderate, a
geometric mean of the extreme values (i.e. when 𝑥𝐴𝑒 is at 𝑥𝐵 and 𝑥𝐷) is
recommended for 𝛼𝐴𝐵 . The geometric mean is given as;
𝛼𝐴𝐵 = 𝛼𝐴𝐵 1 × 𝛼𝐴𝐵 2 (2.42)
Also, 𝑦𝐴𝑒 is obtained from equilibrium curve at x = 𝑥𝐴𝑒 .

▪ At any reflux less than the total, the number of trays is larger than at total
reflux and it increases as reflux ratio decreases.

▪ At a definite minimum, called the minimum reflux ratio, the number of trays
becomes infinite. i.e.
At (𝑅𝐷 = 𝐿Τ𝐷)𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑁 = ∞

▪ Actual distillation columns operate between minimum reflux ratio and infinite
reflux ratio. i.e.
𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑅𝐷 < ∞

▪ Fig. 2.17 shows the graphical representation of minimum reflux ratio. 49

 1.0

b
0.8

y' a

0.6
Vapour (y)

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
xB zF x' xD
Liquid (x)

Fig. 2.17: Minimum reflux ratio

▪ From Fig. 2.17, the minimum reflux ratio (𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) can be found as follows:
➢ Slope of line ab (i.e. ROL at 𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) is given as;
𝑥𝐷 − 𝑦 ′
𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥 ′ A 50
 ➢ According to Eq. 2.25, slope of ROL is;
𝑅𝐷
𝑅𝐷 + 1 B

➢ Eqs. A and B are equal at minimum reflux ratio. i.e.

𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑦 ′
= C
𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 1 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥 ′
➢ Simplifying C gives;

𝑥𝐷 − 𝑦 ′
𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ′ (2.43)
𝑦 − 𝑥′

Examples 2.4:
An equimolar mixture of benzene and toluene is to be separated using continuous
distillation into a top product containing 95 mole % benzene and a bottom product
containing 95 mole % toluene. The distillation is to be carried out at atmospheric
pressure. The feed enters as a saturated liquid. The reflux ratio to be used is 1.5
times the minimum.
(a) Calculate the minimum number of plates
51
(b) Determine the number of theoretical trays required for the separation and the feed plate.
(c) Repeat (b) for a reflux ratio of 4.0 times the minimum
(d) Repeat (b) for 𝑞 = -2 and reflux ratio = 7
(e) Repeat (d) if the feed is a cold liquid and enters the column at 100C with average
specific heat capacity of 159 kJ/kg-mol.K, average latent heat of vaporization of 32,099
kJ/kg-mol and bubble point temperature of 80.10C.

Equilibrium data is given Table below

x 0 0.13 0.258 0.411 0.581 0.78 1

y 0 0.261 0.456 0.632 0.777 0.9 1

Solution:
Given:
𝑧𝐹 = 0.50 (Equimolar mixture means the two components have equal mole fractions);
𝑥𝐷 = 0.95 (Benzene is MVC), 𝑥𝐵 = 0.05; 𝑅𝐷 = 1.5𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 , Feed is saturated liquid, thus q
= 1.0

(a)
First, plot the equilibrium curve using the VLE data given to be able to calculate 𝛼𝐴𝐵 .
This is shown as Figure E-2.4a below. 52
 1
0.95
0.9 𝑦𝐴𝑒
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
𝑦 0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2 𝑦𝐴𝑒
0.15
0.1 𝑥𝐴𝑒 = 𝑥𝐵 𝑥𝐴𝑒 = 𝑥𝐷
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
𝑥
Fig. E-2.4a: Determination of minimum number of plates

From, Fig. E-2.4a,

At 𝑥𝐴𝑒 = 𝑥𝐷 = 0.95, 𝑦𝐴𝑒 = 0.98. At 𝑥𝐴𝑒 = 𝑥𝐵 = 0.05, 𝑦𝐴𝑒 = 0.1.

Now, from Eq. (2.41),

𝑦𝐴𝑒 Τ𝑥𝐴𝑒
𝛼𝐴𝐵 =
(1 − 𝑦𝐴𝑒 )Τ(1 − 𝑥𝐴𝑒 ) 53
Therefore,
𝛼𝐴𝐵 1 = (0.98/0.95)/[(1 – 0.98)/(1 – 0.95)]
= 2.58

𝛼𝐴𝐵 2 = (0.1/0.05)/[(1 – 0.1)/(1 – 0.05)]

= 2.11

From Eq. (2.42),

𝛼𝐴𝐵 = 𝛼𝐴𝐵 1 × 𝛼𝐴𝐵 2

= 2.58 × 2.11
= 2.33

From Eq. (2.40),

ln 𝑥𝐷 1 − 𝑥𝐵 /𝑥𝐵 1 − 𝑥𝐷
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −1
ln 𝛼𝐴𝐵

ln 0.95 1 − 0.05 /0.05 1 − 0.95

= −1
ln 2.33

= 5.95 ≈ 6
54
(b)
First, plot the equilibrium curve using the VLE data given, the q-line and the diagonal line
to be able to calculate 𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
This is shown as Figure E-2.4bi below.

From, Fig. E-2.4b,

At 𝑥 ′ = 0.5, 𝑦 ′ = 0.71.
Now, from Eq. (2.43),
𝑥𝐷 − 𝑦 ′
𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ′
𝑦 − 𝑥′
= (0.95 – 0.71)/(0.71 – 0.5) = 1.143
𝑅𝐷 = 1.5𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 1.5 x 1.143 = 1.714
Next to plot the actual operating lines
From Eq. (2.25),
Intercept on y-axis = 𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
= 0.95/(1.714 + 1) = 0.35
The actual operating lines are shown Figure E-2.4bii below.
From this graph, the number of triangles or theoretical number of stages (𝑁𝑆 ) = 13.
Thus, required theoretical number of trays (𝑁𝑇 ) = 𝑁𝑆 − 1 = 13 – 1 = 12
The feed plate or tray is the triangle or plate where 𝑧𝐹 falls which is plate 6
55
 1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8 𝑦′
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
ROL
0.55
0.5
0.45 q-line

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2 SOL
0.15
0.1 𝑥 ′ = 𝑧𝐹 𝑥𝐷
0.05 𝑥𝐵
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Fig. E-2.4bi: Determination of minimum number of theoretical trays

56
 1
0.95
1
0.9 2
0.85 3
0.8
4
0.75
5
0.7
6
0.65
0.6 7
0.55 ROL

0.5 𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1) 8

0.45 q-line

0.4 9
0.35
0.3 10
0.25 SOL
0.2 11
0.15
12
0.1
13
0.05 𝑧𝐹 𝑥𝐷
𝑥𝐵
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Fig. E-2.4bii: Determination of required theoretical number of trays

57
(c)
First, calculate the actual reflux ratio from the obtained 𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.143.
𝑅𝐷 = 4𝑅𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛

= 4 x 1.143 = 4.572

Next to plot the actual operating lines

From Eq. (2.25),

Intercept on y-axis = 𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)

= 0.95/(4.572 + 1) = 0.17
The actual operating lines are shown Figure E-2.4c below.

From this graph, the number of triangles or theoretical number of stages (𝑁𝑆 ) = 9.

Thus, required theoretical number of trays (𝑁𝑇 ) = 𝑁𝑆 − 1 = 9 – 1 = 8

The feed plate or tray is the triangle or plate where 𝑧𝐹 falls which is plate 4

58
 1
0.95
1
0.9
2
0.85
0.8
0.75 3

0.7
0.65 4
0.6
0.55
ROL
0.5
5
0.45
0.4 q-line
0.35
𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
0.3 6

0.25
0.2
7 SOL
0.15
0.1 8
0.05 9 𝑧𝐹 𝑥𝐷
𝑥𝐵
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Fig. E-2.4c: Determination of required theoretical number of trays

59
(d)
𝑞 = -2, 𝑅𝐷 = 7
First, replot the q-line using q-line equation

Now, from Eq. (2.35),

𝑞 𝑧𝐹
𝑦= 𝑥−
𝑞−1 𝑞−1
= – 2/( – 2 – 1) 𝑥 – 0.5/( – 2 – 1)
𝑦 = 2/3 𝑥 + 0.5/3

At 𝑥 = 0 (chosen arbitrarily but sensibly)

𝑦 = 2/3 x 0 + 0.5/3 = 0.17
Therefore q-line can be plotted using points (𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧𝐹 = 0.5) and (0, 0.17)

Next to plot the operating lines

From Eq. (2.25),
Intercept on y-axis = 𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
= 0.95/(7 + 1) = 0.12
The operating lines and q-line are shown Figure E-2.4d below.
From this graph, the number of triangles or theoretical number of stages (𝑁𝑆 ) = 9.
Thus, required theoretical number of trays (𝑁𝑇 ) = 𝑁𝑆 − 1 = 9 – 1 = 8
The feed plate or tray is the triangle or plate where 𝑧𝐹 falls which is plate 4
60
 1
0.95
1
0.9
2
0.85
0.8
0.75 3
0.7
0.65
0.6 4
0.55
ROL
0.5
0.45 5
0.4
0.35
6
0.3 𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)

0.25
q-line
7
0.2
(0, 0.17)
0.15
8
0.1 SOL
9
0.05 𝑧𝐹 𝑥𝐷
𝑥𝐵
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Fig. E-2.4d: Determination of required theoretical number of trays

61
(e) Since the feed is a cold liquid, 𝑞 > 1. 𝑇𝐹 = 10 ⁰C, 𝑐𝑝𝐿 = 159kJ/kg-mol.K, 𝜆 = 32099kJ/kg-
mol, 𝑇𝑏 = 80.1⁰C. 𝑅𝐷 is still equal to 7 because we are to repeat (d).
First, calculate q and then replot the q-line
Now, from Eq. (2.36),
𝑐𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝐹
𝑞 =1+
𝜆
= 1 + 159 x (80.1 – 10)/32099 = 1.35
From Eq. (2.35), 𝑞 𝑧𝐹
𝑦= 𝑥−
𝑞−1 𝑞−1
= 1.35/( 1.35 – 1) 𝑥 – 0.5/( 1.35 – 1) = 1.35/0.35𝑥 + 0.5/0.35
At 𝑥 = 0.6 (chosen arbitrarily but sensibly)
𝑦 = 1.35/0.35 x 0.6 + 0.5/0.35 = 0.89
Therefore q-line can be plotted using points (𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧𝐹 = 0.5) and (0.6, 0.89)
Next to plot the operating lines
From Eq. (2.25),
Intercept on y-axis = 𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
= 0.95/(7 + 1) = 0.12
The operating lines and q-line are shown Figure E-2.4e below.
From this graph, the number of triangles or theoretical number of stages (𝑁𝑆 ) = 8.
Thus, required theoretical number of trays (𝑁𝑇 ) = 𝑁𝑆 − 1 = 8 – 1 = 7
The feed plate or tray is the triangle or plate where 𝑧𝐹 falls which is plate 4 62
 1
0.95
1
(0.6, 0.89)
0.9
0.85 2

0.8
0.75 3
0.7
0.65
0.6
4
0.55
0.5 ROL
0.45 q-line

0.4
5

0.35
𝑥𝐷 /(𝑅𝐷 + 1)
0.3
0.25
6
0.2
0.15
7
0.1 ROL
8 𝑧𝐹 𝑥𝐷
0.05
𝑥𝐵
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Fig. E-2.4e: Determination of required theoretical number of trays

63