Topic 2.

1 – Arithmetic Sequences – Classwork

A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers, 1, 2, 3, … . Saying
that a function f is in sequence form means that it has a first member, second member, etc.,
such that a1 = f (1) ,a2 = f ( 2 ) ,a3 = f ( 3) , ..., an = f ( n ) .

a1 ,a2 ,a3 , ..., an ... are considered the terms of the sequence although on occasional it is
convenient to represent the first term as a0 . An infinite sequence is a sequence that continues on forever.

The issue with infinite sequences is that continuing on forever means that there must be some logical rule to go
from one term to the next. Without a rule, the sequence is useless. For instance, the sequence 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
… should be familiar to you. It is the set of prime numbers. But there is no rule that has ever been found that
generates the prime numbers. It is an infinite set but without a rule, the search for prime numbers continue. The
largest prime number, found in November of 2022, has over 24 million digits in it.

There are two methods to express the rule for sequences: Explicit and Recursive.

• Explicit: In the explicit method, a rule as a function of n is given. For instance:

an = 5n − 3 = 2,7,12,17,22,... an = n2 − 4n + 4 = 1,0,− 1, 4, 9, 16,.....
3n − 2 1 4 7 10
an = 9 + ( −1) = 8,10,8,10,8,10,...
n
an = = , , , ,1,...
2n + 3 5 7 9 11
• Recursive: In the recursive method, the first term a1 or first couple of terms are given and the rule is
given as a formula of finding the next term an from the previous term an−1 . For instance:
a1 = 2, an = an−1 + 5 = 2,7,12,17,... a1 = 2, an = an−1 + n = 2,4,7,11,16,22,...
a1 = 3, an = 4an−1 − 2 = 3,10,38,150,... a1 = 2, an = nan−1 = 2,4,12,48,240,...

It is possible to change from one form to another. For instance: If the explicit form is an = 12n − 8 , we can
write it as 4, 16, 28, 40, …. It should be apparent that the first term is 4 and succeeding terms add 12. So the
recursive form is a1 = 4, an = an−1 + 12 .

There are advantages to each method. The explicit method allows us to find any term in the sequence merely
by plugging in. However, the formula might be a bit messy to use. The recursive method allows us to easily
see the pattern as we go from one term to the next. However, to find any term, you must find the previous term.

So suppose you were given the sequence –1 , 0, 3 ,8, 15, 24,… and you wanted the next term.

-1 0 3 8 15 24 29
1 3 5 7 9 11
2 2 2 2 2
Our difference method shows that the sequence was created by a quadratic formula and the next term is 29. This
is in essence doing it recursively. The difference table is telling you that the next term is found by adding the
next odd number to the previous term,

However, if we want the 25th term, this method would be cumbersome. Far better is the explicit formula that
says f ( n ) = n2 − 2n . The 25th term would then be f ( 25) = 625 − 50 = 575 .
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One of the most important sequences is the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …. This says that the next
term is the sum of the previous two terms. Expressed recursively, the Fibonacci sequence is the elegant

a1 = 1, a2 = 1, an = an−2 + an−1

Expressed explicitly, the Fibonacci sequence is given by Binet’s formula to

the right: The Fibonacci sequence is important as it appears in nature in
many different ways. Many sequences have real life applications.

1) Based on Census Bureau projections, the population of the United states can be modeled with the sequence
an = 300.76 + 2.6804n + 0.0022675n2 ,n = 1,2,...,,43 where n is the number of years after 2007 and an is
measured in millions of people. a) find the expected change in population from 2024 to 2025. b) find the
average rate of change in population from 2008 until 2050. c) Explain why the graph of the sequence, with
points connected by a continuous curve appears linear rather than quadratic.

2) You invest the same amount of money every month into an interest-bearing savings account . The amount
Payment ⎡⎢(1+ i 12 ) − 1⎤⎥
n

you will have in the account after a given time is given by the sequence an = ⎣ ⎦
i 12
where n is the total number of months and i is the annual interest rate. a) how much will you have in the
account if your invest $100 monthly for 5 years at 3% interest? b) compare the rate of growth of the
account from year to year.

Sigma Notation *

Many times we wish to find the sum of a sequence. Finding the sum of the first 5 terms of 1 + 2 + 4 + …. is
ambiguous. The sum differs depending on how we interpret the numbers. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31 is a logical
way to interpret them with each number doubling. But 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 11 = 25 is also logical with the difference
between numbers being 1, 2, 3, and 4.

The problem with writing such addition problems with the ellipsis (…) is that the rule for each term is not
apparent. We use Sigma Notation for such problems using the Greek letter sigma ∑ , which means sum. Sigma
notation is used extensively in AP Calculus.
n

The sum of n terms a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an is written ∑ a where i is the index of summation and a is the ith term
i=1
i i

of the sum expressed explicitly. Sigma notation is a precise way to write a sum but not compute it.

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1) Find the following sums.
8 6 7 3

a) ∑3 i=1
b) ∑i
i=1
c) ∑
j=1
j2 d) ∑k
k=−2
3

Since ∑ a represents a summation of numbers, we can apply basic properties of addition and subtraction.
i=1
i

n n n n n

∑ ka = k ∑ a
i=1
i
i=1
i (you can factor out a k). ∑ (a ± b ) = ∑ a ± ∑ b
i=1
i i
i=1
i
i=1
i (write one sum as 2 sums).

( −1) i
7 9 6 9 i

e) ∑8i
i=1
f) ∑(5i − 2)
i=1
g) ∑(−1) (2i − 1)
i=1
i+1 2
h) ∑ i +1
i=1

Arithmetic Sequences

There are two types of sequences we study. In this chapter, we look at arithmetic sequences. A sequence is
arithmetic if the differences between consecutive terms are the same. So the sequence a1 ,a2 ,a3 , ..., an ... is
arithmetic is there is a number d such that a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = a4 − a3 = … = an − an−1 = d . The number d is called
the common difference of the arithmetic sequence.

There are three ways, the first explicit and the other 2 recursive, to find the nth term of an arithmetic sequence.

i. If the rule for an is given, then you just plug the value of n into the rule. This is an explicit formula.
ii. an = an−1 + d where d is the common difference. This is a recursive formula as the previous term is needed.
iii. an = a1 + ( n − 1) d , where a1 is the first term, n is the number of terms and d is the common difference.
This is recursive in that the first term is needed. If you know 3 variables, you can determine the 4th.

2) Find the missing variable and write the sequence.

a) a1 = 5,d = 3,n = 35 b) a1 = 31,d = −4,n = 50 c) a1 = 2,a50 = 639

d) a1 = 45,a75 = −140 e) a25 = 111,d = 8 f) a1 = 12,d = 3.75, an = 177

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It should be pointed out that the formula an = a1 + ( n − 1) d gives the formula for the nth term, based on knowing
the first. A more general formula is an = ak + d ( n − k ) which expresses the n term, knowing the kth term. This is
analogous to the general linear function with slope m passing through the point ( x1 , y1 ) that can be written in the
form y = y1 + m ( x − x1 ) . The line just connects the points of an arithmetic sequence.

Sum of Arithmetic Sequence *

We can also find the sum of an arithmetic sequence while not actually physically adding all the terms. For
50

instance, if we were to find ∑ i = 1+ 2 + 3+ 4 + ...+ 99 + 100 , it would be add smart to add them out of
i=1
sequence. 1 + 100, 2 + 99, 3 + 98, …, 50 + 51. That gives us 50 (101) = 5050. Hence the formula:

n ( n + 1)
n n

∑ i = 1+ 2 + ...+ n =
i=1
2
or more generally, ∑ a = 2n ( a + a )
i=1
i 1 n

Summation problems are expressed: i) the first and nth term are given, ii) sigma notation is used showing the
rule, iii) the terms of the series are given showing the first term and the last term (but not how many terms).

3) Find the sums:

40

a) a1 = 5,a12 = 60 b) ∑ 7n − 2
n=1
c) 11+ 18 + 25 + 32 + ...+ 270

50

d) ∑ 0.45n + 2.6
n=10

e) A theatre has 9 seats on the first row, 11 seats on the 2nd row, 13 seats on the 3rd row, and so on. If the
theatre has 26 rows, what is its seating capacity?

4) Dave owes $3,420 for a loan. The payback schedule is $200 the first week, $195 the second week, $190, the
3rd week, and so on until the debt is paid. How many payments must Dave make?

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 Topic 2.1 – Arithmetic Sequences – Homework
1. For each of the following, write the first 5 terms of the sequence.

a. an = 8 + 3n b. an = n2 − n c. an = n

3( −1)
n
n−2
d. an =
n+2
e. an = n 2( )n−1
f. an =
n

2. Answer the following questions.

a. In the first few days of COVID infecting the United States, government officials conjectured that the
number of cases would model the sequence an = n3 ⋅3(5−n) 3 . Find the first 6 terms of this sequence to the
nearest integer and explain why this conjecture turned out to be fantastically incorrect.

b. The net profits an in millions for CVS pharmacy for years 2015 – 2020 is given by an = 13.2n + 10 ,
where n = 1 corresponds to 2015. Show that the model bn = 6.6n2 + 16.6n is appropriate to model the
cumulative profits over those years.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an
bn

c. Dave does small jobs in his building. Over a period of a week, his total pay is according to the formula
an = −5n2 + 100n + 20 , where n is the number of jobs he takes on. Find the first 6 terms of this sequence.
Write an expression for bn , representing the average pay per job and the first 6 terms of this sequence.

d. When Ted is born, his parents deposit $10,000 in an account that earns 3.5% interest. The balance in the
( )
365n
account after each year is given by An = 10000 1+ 0.035 365 . Write the amount in the account on
his first 5 birthdays. If his parents plan to give him the money upon high school graduation at the age of
18, how much will he have? What is the average amount of interest he received over the years?

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3. For each problem, determine the sum of generating each term and calculate using the calculator:
6 60 10

a. ∑ (3i − 2)
i=1
b. ∑10
j=1
c. ∑ (k −1)
k=1
2

10 5 7
i−2
d. ∑k
k=1
2
−1 e. ∑ (i +1)(2i − 3)
i=1
f. ∑i+2
i=1

6 25 5

∑ ∑ (−1) 5 ∑ ⎡⎣i − (i +1) ⎤⎦

4 i 2
g. h. i. 3

i=1
i +2
2
i=1 i=1

4. Find the missing variable in the arithmetic sequence and write the sequence:

a. a1 = 1,d = 3,n = 100 b. a1 = 100,d = −11,n = 25 c. a1 = −25,a20 = 260

d. a1 = 72,a66 = 52.5 e. a48 = −326,d = −4 f. a1 = −825,d = 2.5, an = 420

5. Find the sums in he arithmetic sequences:

64

a. a1 = 9,a24 = 147 b. ∑ 3n − 5
n=1
c. −75 − 60 − 45 + ...+ 240

200

d. ∑10 − 0.2n
n=100
e.

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 Topic 2.2 – Geometric Sequences – Classwork
In section 2.1, we learned that an arithmetic sequences has a common difference between
each term. In this section, we look at sequences that have a common ratio between each
term. We call them geometric sequences.

The sequence a1 ,a2 ,a3 , ..., an ... is geometric if there is a number r such that
a2 a3 a4 a
= = = ... = n = r,r ≠ 0,r ≠ 1 . The number r is called the common ratio of the geometric sequence.
a1 a2 a3 an−1
We write the geometric sequence ar n .

The following sequences are geometric:

• 2, 10, 50, 250, … with r = 5 ( )

• the nth term is 3 2 n as the terms • the nth term is ( −2 3) with
n

−2 4 −8 16 ⎛ −2 ⎞
are 6, 12, 24, 48, … (r = 4) terms , , , ,... ⎜ r = ⎟
3 9 27 243 ⎝ 3⎠
The formula to find the nth term of a geometric sequence is a recursive one: an = a1 ⋅ r n−1 with a1 being the first
term and r being the common ratio. This formula has four variables and if you know any three of them, you can
find the missing one.

1) Write the first four terms of the geometric series and a rule for the nth term.
1 −1 3
a) a1 = 128,ak+1 = ak b) a1 = 729,ak+1 = ak c) a1 = 12,ak+1 = a
2 3 2 k

2) Find the missing variable in the geometric sequence and write the first few terms of the sequence.

a) a1 = 3,r = 2,n = 8 b) the 9th term of 2,6,18,… c) a1 = −2,a10 = 1024

If you know any two terms of a geometric sequence, you can find the formula for the sequence.
175
d) The fifth term of a geometric sequence is 175 and the tenth term is . Find the 1st term and the 15th term.
32

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The sum of a finite geometric sequence a1 ,a1r,a1r 2 ,a1r 3 ..., a1r n−1 with ratio r, r ≠ 1 is given by
n
⎛ 1− r n ⎞
S= ∑
i=1
a1r i−1 = a1 ⎜
⎝ 1− r ⎟⎠
. This formula can be confusing. Write out the sequence if not given and concentrate

on the first term a1 and the number of terms n which are used in the formula.

3) Find the indicated sum. Use a calculator to crunch the numbers.

10 7 n−1
⎛ −3 ⎞
∑ 60(0.4) ∑
The first 12 terms of n−1
a) b) c) 6⎜ ⎟
48,24, 12, ... n=1 n=1
⎝ 2⎠

Many times, the index begins at n = 0, not n = 1. Again, writing out the geometric sequence and determining the
first term and the number of terms makes the problem easy.

4) Find the indicated sum

5 20 15 n
⎛ −5 ⎞
a) ∑ 3(2)
n=0
n
b) ∑50(0.9)
n=0
n
c)
n=0
∑5⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠

Summing the terms of an infinite geometric sequence is called a geometric series. In a geometric series, the sum
⎛ 1− r n ⎞
formula S = a1 ⎜ ⎟ has an n that is infinite. If r <1, then the r n term becomes smaller and smaller and
⎝ 1− r ⎠
a1
using limits, it becomes zero. So the sum of a geometric series is S = if r < 1. If r ≥ 1, then the series does
1− r
not have a sum (it is infinite).

This type of problem can cause some paradoxical situations. Suppose you shoot an arrow towards a target 16
feet away. The arrow must first travel half of the distance or 8. Then it must travel half of the remaining
distance or 4. Then half of the remaining distance or 2. And so on. The total distance that the arrow travels is

8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + ½ + ¼ +…. Taking half of the remaining distance means that theoretically, the arrow never
∞

∑8(0.5) 8
n
reaches the target. But = 8 + 4 + 2 + ... = = 16 .
n=0
1− 0.5

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Students balk at the notion that 0.999… = 1 or 0.9 = 1 . Most say that it is almost one. But mathematically
speaking, it is exactly one. Using geometric series, we get

∑ 0.9(0.1) 0.9 0.9

n
0.9 = = 0.9 + 0.09 + 0.009 + 0.0009 + ... = 0.99999... = = =1
n=0
1− 0.1 0.9

As you will see when you get to calculus, some strange things occur when applying the concept of infinity.

5) Find the sum of the series. Again, focus on the first term and r.

∞ ∞ ∞

∑50(0.3) ∑100(0.75) ∑ 20(−0.2)

n n n
a) b) c)
n=0 n=1 n=0

An annuity is set up when depositing a certain amount of money at the beginning of each month for a period of
time. Suppose the Bedi’s set up a college fun for their son Daman, depositing $100 at the beginning of each
month at 3% interest until he turns 18.

216
⎛ 0.03 ⎞
The first deposit, gains interest for (18)(12) = 216 months. Its balance is 100 ⎜ 1+ = 171.49
⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
215
⎛ 0.03 ⎞
The second deposit, gains interest for 215 months. Its balance is 100 ⎜ 1+ = 171.06
⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
1
⎛ 0.03 ⎞
The last deposit, gains interest for only 1 month. Its balance is 100 ⎜ 1+ = 100.25
⎝ 12 ⎟⎠

216 n
⎛ 0.03 ⎞
The total balance can be expressed as
n=1
∑
100 ⎜ 1+
⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
and by our formula:

⎡ 1− 1.0025216 ⎤
1st term is 100 (1.0025) with 216 terms S = 100 (1.0025) ⎢ ⎥ = $28,665
⎣ 1− 1.0025 ⎦

6) Find the value of the annuity above with these changes.

a) Mr. Bedi gets 4% interest b) He puts in $50 every 2 weeks with 4% interest

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 Topic 2.2 – Geometric Sequences – Homework
1. Write the first 5 terms of the geometric sequence and a rule for the nth term.

a. a1 = 2,r = 5 b. a1 = 1,r = π c. a1 = 3,r = − 3

2. Find the missing variable in the geometric sequence and write the first few terms of the sequence.

9 −1
a. a1 = 4,r = 3,n = 7 b. the 12th term of 3,3 2,6,6 2,... c. a1 = ,a6 =
8 216

3. Find the first and 10th terms of the geometric sequence

5 2
a. a2 = 5, a5 = b. a4 = , a7 = −18
64 3

4. Find the indicated sum. Use a calculator to crunch the numbers.

8 15 n−1
⎛ −9 ⎞
∑ 75(0.3) ∑
The first 10 terms of n−1
a. b. c. 0.1⎜ ⎟
80,40, 20, ... n=1 n=1
⎝ 4⎠

6 15 12 n
⎛ −4 ⎞
d. ∑10(3)
n=0
n
e. ∑ 64(0.85)
n=0
n
f. ∑
n=0
0.01⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠

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5. A small town with population 50,000 loses about 3% of people per year due to its proximity to a new
highway. How many people are projected to live in the town in 10 years? What is the average loss per year?

6. A lawyer joins a firm at an initial salary of $80,000 and is guaranteed a raise of 5% for every year. a. Find
his projected income in his 20th year. b. How much will he have earned with the firm after 20 years? c. Find
his average salary over this time.

7. Jack is sick and takes a flu medication every hour. The doctor recommends tapering - starting with 500 mg
initially and each day drop the dosage by 20%. a. If he stays on the medication for 3 weeks, how much does
he take on the last day? b. How much in total will he have taken? c. If he keeps taking the medication
forever, how much will he have taken?

8. The figure shows a square of side 8 in. The midpoints of the square are the vertices of
an inscribed square. More squares are inscribed using the same pattern forever.
a. Find the total area of all the squares. b. Find the total perimeter of all the squares.

8 inches

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 Topic 2.3 – Exponential Functions – Classwork
In our study of precalculus, we have examined polynomial expressions and rational
expressions. What we have not examined are exponential expressions, expressions of the
form y = a ⋅ bx . These types of expressions are very prevalent in the precalculus theatre.
These sequences bear striking similarity to geometric sequences in the form of an = a1 ⋅ r n−1 .
Sequences are a series of terms while the exponential function is a continuous curve.

An expression in the form of y = bx will graph an exponential. We call b the base and x the exponent. An
exponential graph tends to “explode” based on the value of x.

y = a x ,a > 0 y = a − x ,a > 0

The graphs of various exponential curves are shown above. We know that the graph of y = 1x graphs a
1
horizontal line. If b < 0, the graph of y = bx will not exist at certain points for instance at x = –2. (−2) 2 is
−2 which is imaginary. So, it only makes sense to examine functions in form of y = bx , if b > 0, b ≠ 1.

When b >1, we get what is called a growth curve and the larger the value of b is, the steeper the growth curve is.
If 0 < b < 1, we get a decay curve as shown in the 2nd graph above.

No matter what, an exponential function in the form of y = bx has certain features:

it always passes through the point ( 0,1)
its domain is ( −∞,∞ ) and its range is ( 0,∞ )
if b > 0 if b < 0
its curve is increasing on ( −∞,∞ ) its curve is decreasing on ( −∞,∞ )
no relative extrema no relative extrema
its curve is always concave up its curve is always concave up
lim f ( x ) = ∞ ( curve goes up to the right forever ) lim f ( x ) = ∞ ( curve goes up to the left forever )
x→∞ x→−∞

lim f ( x ) = 0 (horiz asymptote on negative x-axis) lim f ( x ) = 0 (horiz asymptote on positive x-axis)
x→−∞ x→∞

Since exponential equations are functions, our rules for transformations of functions taught in unit 1.11 still
exist, but with some interesting differences.

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When we worked with parabolas, it was easy to
compare it to y = x 2 with curves narrower or
wider as can be seen in the figure to the near right.
But the shape of exponentials don’t have the
features of a parabola as they are always getting
steeper to the right or steeper to the left. In the
figure to the far right, the solid curve is an
exponential and the dashed curves are the same
exponential shifted right and left. So, moving it
left or right doesn’t change its steepness as a
whole. However, focusing on any one point, the steepness does change. It is clear that the the top dashed curve
is increasing faster at the y-intercept than the other two curves.

So, when picturing transformations on exponential equations, it is best to focus on the y-intercept which may or
may not move from (0, 1). It is easy to calculate the value of an exponential at the y-intercept as x = 0. Other
than plotting points at x = 1 and x = –1, you then have to use the logic below to describe the curve.

I would suggest looking at the examples first and then switch back to this chart to see the category in which the
transformation fits and the generality.

Transformations y = f ( x ) = bx (a growth curve if b > 0, a decay curve if 0 < b < 1)

Vertical Translations (Moving the curve up or down)

f ( x) + a vertical shift up - translates the graph a units upwards. y-intercept is (0, 1 + a)
f ( x) − a vertical shift down - translates the graph a units downwards. y-intercept is (0, 1 – a)

Horizontal Translations (Moving the curve right or left)

⎛ 1⎞
f ( x − a) ( )
The curve moves right and the y-intercept is now 0,b− a or ⎜ 0, a ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
f ( x + a) (
The curve moves left and the y-intercept is now 0,ba )
Dilations (Making the curve steeper or less steep)
a⋅ f ( x ) Vertical stretch - if a > 1, the graph is steeper at the y- intercept which is (0, a).
If a < 1, the graph is less steep at the y-intercept which is (0, a).
f ( ax ) See the example f, g and h below. y-intercepts do not change.

Reflections (Obtaining a mirror image of the curve)

− f ( x) Reflection - flips the graph across the x-axis. y-intercept is (0, –a)
f ( −x ) Reflection across the line y = x. This means a growth curve changes to a
decay curve and a decay curve changes to a growth curve. y-intercept doesn’t change.
f ( x) No change as f ( x ) is already positive.
f x Anything to the right of the y-axis reflects across the y-axis. No asymptotes.
y-intercept doesn’t change.

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Examples) If f ( x ) = 2 x , graph the following.

a) and b) are the most straightforward. They simply translate

the 2 x curve 2 units up or 2 units down. The y-intercepts
move to either (0, 3) or (0, –1). The steepness of the curve at
the y-intercept remains the same as 2 x .

These two examples appear to be examples of horizontal

translations. That would be true with polynomial or rational
functions. But there is more to meet the eye here.

( )
In c) f ( x + 2 ) = 2 x+2 . Our laws of exponents states that 2 x+2 = 2 x ⋅ 22 = 4 2 x . So this is a dilation with a
vertical stretch. So by translating 2 x two units left, the graph no longer goes through (0, 1) but (0, 4). At the
y-intercept, the graph is increasing faster than 2 x .

1 x
In d) f ( x − 2 ) = 2 x−2 . Our laws of exponents states that 2 x−2 = 2 x ⋅ 2−2 =
4
( )
2 . So this is a dilation with a

vertical stretch. So by translating 2 x two units right, the graph no longer goes through (0, 1) but (0, ¼). At the
y-intercept, the graph is increasing slower than 2 x .

( ) ( )
In e) 2 f ( x ) = 2 2 x . Our laws of exponents states that 2 2 x = 2 x+1 . So this is a
horizontal transation 1 unit to the left. The graph no longer goes through (0, 1) but
(0, 2). At the y-intercept, the graph is increasing faster than 2 x .

In f) f ( x ) = 22 x . Our laws of exponents say that

( )
x
22 x = 22 = 4 x . So this is a dilation making the curve
steeper at the y-intercept which remains at (0,1).

In g) f ( x ) = 2(1 2) x . Our laws of exponents say that

( )
2( ) x = 21 2
x x
12
= 2 . So this is a dilation making the
curve less steep at the y- intercept which remains at (0, 1).

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 x
⎛ 1⎞
In h) f ( x ) = 2 . Our laws of exponents say that 2 = 2 ( )
x
−2 x −2
−2 x
= ⎜ ⎟ . So this
⎝ 4⎠
changes our growth curve into a decay curve that is steeper at the y-intercept which
remains at (0, 1). This example is why you shouldn’t memorize the rules in the chart
above and focus on the type of curve (growth or decay), the y-intercept and the
curve’s steepness there.

In i), f ( x ) = −2 x . This one is easy – as it just reflects the

exponential curve across the x-axis. The y-axis changes to (0, –1)
and its steepness at the y-intercept remains the same.
In j), f ( x ) = 2− x . Laws of exponents say that 2− x = 2−1 ( ) = (1 2) .
x x

So this changes our growth curve into a decay curve has the same
steepness at the y-intercept which remains at (0, 1).

When you were faced with transformations of polynomials or rational functions, you used the transformation
rules and never really concerned yourself with the algebra which could be tedious. For instance, suppose you
had to graph a cubic f ( x ) = x 3 − 5x 2 − 2x + 24 . You factored it into f ( x ) = ( x − 4 ) ( x − 3) ( x + 2 ) . The zeros
were at x = 4, 3, and –2. Using end behavior procedures, the sketch was easy. If you now were faced with
graphing f ( x − 4 ) , you wouldn’t think of simplifying ( x − 4 ) − 5( x − 4 ) − 2 ( x − 4 ) + 24 . You would reason
3 2

that the function shifted 4 units to the right and the zeros had changed to x = 8, 7, and 2.

However, suppose you were asked to graph 2 f ( x − 1) given that f ( x ) = 2 x . You could play around with
translations and dilations, but in this case, I recommend that you do the algebra. In this case
( )
2 f ( x − 1) = 2 2 x−1 = 21+x−1 = 2 x and you get what you started with. So it is best to simply do the algebra and
find the y-intercept, and whether it is a growth or decay curve. Plotting a point at x = 1 will give you the general
shape of it.

1) Given the following functions, graph the transformation.

⎛ x + 1⎞ ⎛ 2− x⎞
()
a) f x = 9 x , f ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟ ()
b) f x = 16 x , f ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
()
c) f x = 3x ,6 − f −x ( )

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Solving Exponential Equations *

Solving basic exponential equations can be accomplished by using the fact that if bx = b y , then x = y . To solve
the equations below, work on one side to get the bases the same and then set the exponents equal to each other.

2) Solve for x.
1
x+4 1
a) 2 x+1 = 8 b) 32 x−3 = 9 c) 52 = 125 d) 34 x−1 =
3

1−x
⎛ 1⎞
=⎜ ⎟ f) 92 x−4 = ( 27 )
3x+1 x−1
e) 7 g) 45x−1 = 3 32 h) 85−2 x = 1
⎝ 49 ⎠

Later in this chapter we explore exponential equations where it is difficult to express both sides using the same
base.

Building an Exponential Model from Data *

In algebra, you learned that it was easy to find a linear model from two points. You calculated the slope and
used the point-slope equation y − y1 = m x − x1 .( )
It was possible (although more work) to model a quadratic equation from any three points that do not lie on a
straight line, y = Ax 2 + Bx + C . You plugged your 3 points in and had 3 equations in 3 unknowns, A, B, and C
that can be solved in a multitude of ways.

It is possible to build an exponential model from only two pieces of data. Here is the technique: The form is
y = a ⋅ bx . You plug in both points, giving 2 equations in two unknowns. This system can be solved. Here are
two examples.

Suppose your points are (3, 4) and (5, 16) Harder: suppose your points are (4, 20) and (8, 60)

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Exponential Modeling

When we work with data, having only 2 points leads to a decision: which one is accurate in depicting the real-
life situation. The goal of modeling is to use the equation to predict the values of y and any value of x. These
two examples show that making the wrong decisions can lead to unfortunate conclusions.

3) We have two points (5, 100) and (10, 130). a) create a linear model and exponential model from the data. b)
if x = 8, predict the value of y in both models. c) If x = 30, predict the value of y in both models. d) Use
the graph to explain when the two predictions will be close to each other and the two predictions will be far
away from each other.

4) At 10 PM, Derek, a truck driver who has had multiple drinks finds that his blood alcohol concentration
(BAC) is 0.17632 mg/mL, making him legally drunk. He stops drinking and at 12 midnight finds that his
BAC has dropped to 0.07 mg/mL. While this no longer fits the criterial for legally drunk, the threshold for
commercial drivers is lower, at 0.04 mg/mL.

a) create a linear model and exponential model from the data and graph the curves from 10 PM until
6 AM. b) Predict the BAC in both models at 11 AM, 12.30 AM and at 1 AM. c) If he decides not to
drive until his BAC is below 0.02, at what time should he leave?

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 Topic 2.3 – Exponential Functions – Homework
1. For each graph below, identify it by the proper equation letter. Check out certain known points
(like x = 0) to do a trial-and-error process.

a. y = 2 x b. y = 2−x c. y = 2(2 x )
d. y = −3x e. y = −3(2 x ) ( )
f. y = 0.5 4 x
g. y = 4 x − 2 h. y = 0.5x − 3 i. y = −2 ( 0.5 ) + 1
x

j. y = 3x +1 k. y = 2 x−1 + 2 l. y = 0.5 x−2

x
m. y = 2 2 n. y = 1.1x o. y = 4 x + 4 −x

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2. Solve for x

a. 2 x−3 = 16 b. 32 x−3 = 81 c. 53x−3 = 1

1 1
d. 25−2 x = e. 105x+6 = f. 24 x+1 = 2
2 100

g. 27 3x+3 = 9 h. 16 x−3 = 8x−3 i. 256−2 x = 5

( 2)
x−3 x−7 x−11 2−2 x
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 3x+6
j. 9 2 x−4
=⎜ ⎟ k. ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ l. ⎜ ⎟ = 3

⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 4⎠

3. Create an exponential function from the given two points and use it to predict the value of y at the given x.

a. (0, 4) and (1,5), x = 2 b. (3,12) and (6,30), x = 9 c. (30,192) and (10,48), x =100

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Solve the following problems showing work.

4. Geoff just graduated law school and got a position in a firm. He needed to purchase new clothes. After 2
months, his credit card balance was $840 and after 6 months, it was $1,625.

a. Create a linear model and exponential model from the data and graph the curves throughout his first year.
b. Predict his credit card balance after 8 months, 1 year, and 2 years. c. Are either model reasonable?

5. The Law-and-Order detectives entered a house at 11:30 PM and found a man on the floor murdered. They
take his body temperature finding it to be 92.6o. The body is taken to the morgue and at 2:30 AM the body
temperature is 87.2o. a. create a linear model and exponential model from the data. b. Predict what time he
was killed. c. Predict the body temperature 24 hours after he was murdered. Normal body temperature is
98.6° . d. Graph the curves through 24 hours from projected time of death.

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