Important Considerations in Electrical Experiments

1. The positive terminal of any electrical meter should always be

connected to the positive side of the battery, otherwise the
pointer will deflect in the opposite direction. If this occurs you
should switch off and interchange your connections to the
meter.
2. You should not switch on the circuit key for more than one
minute. Take your readings without delay and open the key.
This helps to lengthen the life of your battery and prevent
current fluctuations in your experiment.
Battery
A group of similar cells arranged in series or in parallel is celled a
battery.

Cells in Series
These are represented as in Figure 1. If the e.m.f. and internal
resistance of each cell is E volts and r ohms respectively and there
are n cells in series we have:

Cells in series Fig 1

Fig 2

Cells in parallel

These are represented as in Figure 2 above: In this case:

1. The e.m.f. of the battery = E volts; i.e. the e.m.f. of one cell;
2. Internal resistance = r .
n
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the ratio of the potential difference V between
the two ends of a metallic conductor in an electrical circuit to the
current I flowing, is a constant, provided temperature and other
physical factors remain unchanged. Thus

V =R
1
The name resistor is given to any conductor that is used because of
the electrical resistance it possesses.
Potential difference (p.d.) is measured in volts, current is
measured in amperes, and resistance in ohms.
The current flowing round a single-mesh circuit is given by

E
1 =
R+r

Where E is the e.m.f. of the cell, r is its internal resistance and R is

the total external resistance.
Resistance in Series and in Parallel
If the resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series the same
amount of current will flow through each of them while the p.d.
across them will be different. The single resistance equivalent to the
three resistances is given by
R = R 1 + R2 + R3
If the resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel the p.d.
across the terminals will be the same for them all but the current
passing through each will in general be different.
The equivalent single resistance R will be given by
 1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3

Parallel connection

From two resistances

1 R 1 + R2
=
R R 1 R2
R1 R2
:- R=
R1 + R2

Also
1
R= R if R1 = R2
2 1
The most convenient and accurate way of measuring resistance of a
range of widely different values is by means of a Wheatstone bridge.
Figure below shows the circuit diagram of a Wheatstone bridge. It
consists of four resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 connected shown. The
current from the battery divides between the two branches ABC and
ADC. By varying one of the resistances, a balance may be reached.
This means that no current flows through the galvanometer. We
can easily prove that when this occurs
 R1 R3
=
R2 R4
Proof
When no current flows through G, the points B and D are at the
same potential, i.e.

VBC = VDC, i.e. 11R1 = 12R3

Also
VBC = VDC, i.e. 11R2 =R4
R1 R3
By division we got = as required.
R2 R4
The Metre Bridge
The metre bridge is one practical arrangement of the Wheatstone
bridge (Figure 5.8). one branch ADC consists of a wire of uniform
cross-section and of length 100cm, stretched along a metre rule.
The point D is located by a sliding contact. The unknown resistance
X is placed in the left arm while the known resistance R is placed in
the right arm. For a balance
X Lσ
=
R (100-L) σ
Where σ is the resistance per unit length of wire, i.e.
X L
=
R 100-L
When using the metre bridge the following points should be
remembered:
1. Never press the sliding contact hard onto the wire, contact
should be light so as not to make the wire non-uniform.
2. Clean the wire properly with acetone if available and the
jockey with emery cloth.
3. The galvanometer will be damaged if too great a current is
passed through it. A battery of 1.5 – 2 V should be used. Make
use of a high series resistor to protect the galvanometer while
trying to get a rough balance, and then short circuit it to get
the final balance point.

Resistivity of a Wire
Suppose the resistance R of a wire of uniform cross-section by the
use of a Wheatstone bridge. The resistivity p of the material of wire
is defined as ρ L ρ lL
ρ = = d
A π ( 2 )2

Where d is the diameter and L is the length. Therefore

R π d2
ρ=
4L

The potentiometer consists of a uniform resistance wire AB of

length about 100cm through which a source of constant e.m.f. viz.
an accumulator, maintains a steady current 1. The potentiometer
like the metre ridge can easily be constructed in a workshop.
Since the wire is uniform, the resistance per. Unit length is
constant, i.e.
RL
Therefore for a constant current I
V = IR  L
Therefore
V = kL
Several experiments can be performed with the aid of the
potentiometer, most notably:
1. Comparison of e.m.f. of two cells;
2. Comparison of two resistances;
3. Measurement of internal resistances of cells.
Practical Precautions for Measurement of Internal Resistance of
a Cell
1. The accumulator C1 must be fully charged. (Test by connecting
a voltmeter across its terminals; a lead acid accumulator should
give at least 2 V, alkaline cell or 0.l. battery 1.5 V).
2. Since uniformity of wire is very important, the contact between
the movable contact and the wire must be light to avoid
making depressions on the wire.
3. To protect the galvanometer, ensure that a large resistance is
used to locate an approximate point of balance. To find a
balance point, touch at the two ends of the wire with the
jockey; the galvanometer should indicate opposite deflections.
If it deflects in the same direction at both ends, then there are
two possible reasons – either the wrong terminal of C 1 is
connected to C2 or the p.d. between the ends of the wire is less
than the e.m.f. E of the cell. In the former case reversal of the
leads to C1 will allow a balance to be achieved. In the latter
case, accumulator C1 will need to be replaced by two or more
accumulators in series.
 Experiment 1
Title: Resistor Color Codes Date: ………..

Aim: How to read Resistor Color Codes

Theory : Resistors are color coded for easy reading.

Look at the 1st color band and determine its color. This may be difficult on small or
oddly colored resistors. Now look at the table and match the "1st color band" color to
the "Digit it represents". Write this number down. Now look at the 2nd color band and
match that color to the same table, write this number next to the 1st Digit .The last
color band is the number you will multiply the result by. Match the 3rd color band with
the chart under multiplier. This is the number you will multiply the other 2 numbers by.
Write it next to the other 2 numbers with a multiplication sign before it.
Example : 2 4 x 1,000.
Tolerance
Resistors are never the exact value that the color codes indicate. Therefore
manufacturers place a tolerance color band on the resistor to tell you just how accurate
this resistor is made. It is simply a measurement of the imperfections.

Tolerance Rating
Red = 2%
Gold = 5%
Silver = 10%
No band = 20%

Method: How to read the colors:

The Gold or Silver band is always set to the right, then you read from left to
right. Sometimes there will be no tolerance band; simply find the side that has a band
closest to a lead and make that the first band.

QUESTIONS:
1. Calculate the value of the following resistors by their color bands , using the table
above.
2. With a multimeter measure and record the value of the given resistors
3. What is their percentage error?

HINT: PERCENTAGE ERROR =

EXPERIMENTAL VALUE−CALCULATED VALUE 100 %
×
CALCULATED VALUE 1
 Experiment 2
Title: Voltage and Current in a Circuit Date: ………..

Aim: To investigate the currents and voltages through resistances

in series and parallel connections.
Apparatus: Two batteries (1.5-2V), Ammeter, key, Rheostat,
Voltmeter and two resistors of one ohm each.

Method:

1. Construct the circuit of the Figure above with R1, R2 connected

in series.
2. Adjust the rheostat, Rh, and obtain a series of five pairs
of readings of current 11 and voltage V1. Record your
results.
3. Now connect R1, R2 in parallel and repeat the experiment to
obtain new values of current and voltage 12 and V2
respectively.
4. Record your results in the table below.

Results
V1(V) 1 1 (A) V2 (V) 12(A)
QUESTIONS
1. Using the same axes plot a graph of V against 11 and V2
1

against 1 .
2

2. Determine and record the slopes K1 and K2

a. K1 = ………….
b. K2 = ………….
3. What do the slopes represent?
4. From the values of K1 and K2 is your experiment in agreement
with theory?

5. Draw the circuit for the parallel connections.

 Experiment 3

Title: Resistances in Parallel Date:

……………………
Aim : To Determine the resistance of an unknown resistor.

1. set up the circuit as shown above,

2. With the key closed and R = 1 Ω determine the values of I and
V.
3. Repeat the experiment with R = 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 5.0 7.0 and
10.0Ω4. Record your results in the table below.
Results
-1
R (Ω) 1 (Ω ) I(A) Y =1 (Ω -1)
R V(V) V

1
2
3
4
5
7
 10

Questions
1. Plot the graph of Y against 1.
R
2. Determine and record the intercept on the Y-axis.
3. Determine the slope of the graph.
4. From the theory below and your graph deduce the value of S,
and the error.
Hint: the equivalent resistance of S and R is given by
1 =1 +1
Re R S
 Experiment 4

Title: Internal resistance of a Cell Date: ……………………

Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a cell.

Apparatus: One Daniel cell ,voltmeter (0-5V),ammeter (0-

5V),resistance box R, a key
V
K
Fig 5 Cell

R
Method
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure above.
2. With the key open and R = 0, record the voltmeter reading E.
3. Now close the key and for a suitable value of R record the
corresponding value of the voltmeter readings.
4. Repeat step 3 for six values of R taken over as large a range as
possible.
5. Record your results in the table below.

Results
E = ……………………….
R (Ω) V (v) V
E-V
Questions
1. Plot a graph of V against R.
E-V
2. Determine and record the slope of the graph.

3. If
V R
=
E−V r

deduce from your slope the value of r,

r is the internal resistance of the cell.

4. State the type of cell whose internal resistance you measured.

5. Show that the internal resistance, r, is given as

R (E – V )
r =
V
 Experiment 5

Title: Resistance of a Potentiometer Wire Date:.................

Aim: To measure the resistance of a potentiometer wire.

Apparatus: Resistance box R, potentiometer wire AB, ammeter (0-5

A), battery (2 – 4 V) of low internal resistance, voltmeter.
Battery k
R

A
Fig 6

A B
Method
1. Connect the circuit as in Figure above with the resistance box
in series with the wire AB. The ammeter, battery, and key.
2. Set R = 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 ohms and record the value of the
current Is for each value of R.
3. Disconnect the resistance box R, and connect it such that R is
now parallel with AB.
4. Once again set R = 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 ohms and record the
values of the current Ip.
5. Measure the voltage V of the battery used, using the voltmeter.
6. Record your results in the table below.
Results
V = ……………..
Series connection Parallel connection 2 -1
Is x Ip (A ) 1 (Ω )
Current Is (A) Current Ip (A) R
Questions
1
1. Plot the graph of Is x Ip against R .

2. Determine the slope.

3. Explain from theoretical considerations why the current is

much higher in the second circuit than in the first.
4. Draw the circuit diagram for the parallel connection.

5. Determine the value of the resistance of the potentiometer wire

r with the aid of your graph (assume that I x I’ = V2 ).
rR
6. Give the proof of the equation above.
 EXPERIMENT 6

TITLE : Magnetic Effect

Aim : To demonstrate the direction of a magnetic field
Apparatus: Power supply, a length of insulated wire, iron fillings
and electrical tools
Diagram:

Method:
Wind the insulated wire into coils to form a solenoid as in the
diagram above. Place the solenoid on a cardboard sheet and
connect the two terminals to a power source, then sprinkle the
cardboard sheet with iron fillings.

(1)What is your observation?

(2) Make a diagram of your observation