Motivation

Work motivation theories

A. Historical theories of motivation

1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory of motivation

Alferd Maslow developed this theory in 1943. One of the most popular needs
theories is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow proposed
that motivation is the result of a person's attempt at fulfilling five basic needs
prioritize on the basis of needs. The following are the needs according to him:

a. Physiological needs

These are biological requirements for Human survival, e.g. air, food, drink,
shelter, clothing, warmth, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body
cannot function optimally.

b. Safety or security needs

Safety and security needs include such things as an individual's need for
protection from physical harm, as well as the need for emotional well-being, job
and financial security, and overall health.

c. Social needs

It refers to the need to have relationships with others once the physiological and
safety needs have been fulfilled. Maslow considered the social stage an
important part of psychological development because our relationships with
others help reduce emotional concerns such as depression or anxiety.

d. Self-esteem needs

Esteem needs refer to the need for respect, self-esteem, and self-confidence.
Esteem needs are the basis for the human desire we all have to be accepted and
valued by others. Throughout our lives, we participate in activities either
professionally or as hobbies that give us a sense of accomplishment.
e. Needs for self actualization

Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less

concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their potential.
"What a man can be, he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need
people have to achieve their full potential as human beings.

2. Herzberg's two-factor theory

Herzberg's two-factor theory is a motivation theory that suggests that satisfaction
and dissatisfaction at work are influenced by two sets of factors: hygiene factors
and motivators. The two-factor theory is a concept that states the factors that
affect an individual's satisfaction and motivation level.

a. Hygiene factors

Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions,
good pay, paid insurance, vacations) that do not give positive satisfaction or lead
to higher motivation, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. The term
"hygiene" is used in the sense that these are maintenance factors. A feature of a
job that will make a worker unhappy if it is not provided, for example fair pay or
comfortable working conditions: Hygiene factors are those which are necessary
for people to work, not those that actually motivate people to work harder.

b. Motivational factors

According to Herzberg, motivating factors (also called satisfiers) are primarily

intrinsic job elements that lead to satisfaction, such as achievement, recognition,
the (nature of) work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth.

3. ERG theory
ERG stands for existence, relatedness, and growth. Alderfer's theory states that
a person must act in order to satisfy their needs. Unlike Maslow's theory, it states
that at one given point a person can satisfy more than one need. It's best to think
of the ERG theory of motivation as an updated version of Maslow's hierarchy of
needs. Instead of theorizing that our needs must be satisfied in a hierarchical
order, it says that our needs must all be met.
a. Existence needs

Existence needs concern our basic material requirements for living. These
include what Maslow categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food,
water, and shelter) and safety-related needs (such as health, secure
employment, and property).

b. Relatedness needs

Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant others like
family, friends, co-workers and employers. This also means to be recognized and
feel secure as part of a group or family. Maslow's third and fourth levels.

c. Growth needs

Growth needs are more psychological needs and are associated with the
realization of an individual's full potential and the need to 'self-actualize'. These
needs are met more through intellectual and creative behaviors.

4. McClelland's theory
McClelland's theory says that everyone is driven by one of three needs-
achievement, affiliation or power. Different people are motivated by different
drivers, so understanding what specifically motivates a person to complete a task
can vastly improve the likelihood that they'll complete the assignment and do it
well. These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and
life experiences. Achievers like to solve problems and achieve goals.

a. Need for achievement

Need for achievement is the desire to obtain excellent results by setting high
standards and striving to accomplish them. It is a consistent concern with doing
things better. According to McClelland, staff who are motivated by achievement
tend to seek moderately hard tasks that require the efforts of one person so they
are not overshadowed, but nothing too risky in case they fail or low-risk as there
won't be much reward for it.

b. Need for affiliation

People with a high need for affiliation require warm interpersonal relationships
and approval from those with whom they have regular contact. Having a strong
bond with others make a person feel as if they are a part of something important
that creates a powerful impact. The need for affiliation means you're motivated by
your connections with others. Affiliation motivates interpersonal relationships and
emotional connections. Often, they prefer working in groups rather than working
independently in order to build those relationships.

c. Need for power

The need for power means you're motivated by authority and control. People
motivated by power seek positions and relationships in which they can
demonstrate their leadership and be the primary decision-maker. Many people
who are power-motivated enjoy competition and debate. It is is the need to
control and influence the behavior of others. It involves taking charge and making
an impact. People with a high need for power tend to make more suggestions, try
to bring others around to their way of thinking, and seek positions of leadership.

5. X and Y theory of motivation

In the 1960s, social psychologist Douglas McGregor developed two contrasting
theories that explained how managers' beliefs about what motivates their people
can affect their management style. He labeled these Theory X and Theory Y.
These theories continue to be important even today. Theory X and theory Y are
part of motivational theories. Both the theories, which are very different from
each other, are used by managers to motivate their employees. Theory X gives
importance to supervision, while theory Y stresses on rewards and recognition.

a. Theory x

It insists that people dislike work, have little ambition, and are unwilling to take
responsibility. Managers with this assumption motivate their people using a rigid
"carrot and stick" approach, which rewards good performance and punishes poor
performance. If you believe that your team members dislike their work and have
little motivation, then, according to McGregor, you'll likely use an authoritarian
style of management. This approach is very "hands-on" and usually
involves micromanaging people's work to ensure that it gets done properly.

b. Theory Y

It insists that people are self-motivated and enjoy the challenge of work.
Managers with this assumption have a more collaborative relationship with their
people, and motivate them by allowing them to work on their own initiative, giving
them responsibility, and empowering them to make decisions. People don't
inherently dislike work but can see it as a source of satisfaction or punishment
under certain conditions. Beyond tight control and the threat of punishment,
people can exercise self-control and self-direction in performing the task you
commit to them.

B. Contemporary theories of motivation

6. Equity theory
The equity theory of motivation is the idea that what an individual receives for
their work has a direct effect on their motivation. When applied to the workplace,
it means an individual will generally aim to create a balance between what they
give to the organization compared to what they get in return. It is based in the
idea that individuals are motivated by fairness, and if they identify inequities in
the input or output ratios of themselves and their referent group, they will seek to
adjust their input to reach their perceived equity. Some of the important variables
of this theory are as follows:

a. Persons

They experience the equity and inequity.

b. Comparisons

People compare between input and output.

c. Input

People take education, skill, ability, experience, time, hard work as inputs.

d. Output

A person takes salary, wages, facilities, promotions as outputs.

7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

It was developed by Victor Vroom. It is based on hope & expectation of
employees about high salary, wages and other facilities. The better outcome
motivates in better performance and better performance is always about better
return. It is a relationship between effort, performance, expectation and outcome.
The expectancy theory of motivation, also known as the valence-instrumentality-
expectancy theory, states that a person's motivation is directly tied to an
expected outcome as a result of their hard work and labor.

a. Effort to performance expectancy

-employee expects effort results in high productivity and no effort no productivity

-motivation only works when employees believes that effort brings productivity
and until & unless that they never do effort

b. Performance to outcome expectancy

-high performance results in high outcome

-motivation implies only when employees believe that better performance results
in better outcome and vice-versa

c. Outcome Valuation

i. Positive-pay raise, promotion, status, appreciation, recognition

ii. Negative-fatigue, stress, frustration, depression, tension

8. Reinforcement Theory
It was developed by B.F Skinner that states behavior is directed by consequences.
When behavior brings positive consequences employees repeat that frequently
but when negative consequences arises they often avoid such. So, this is based in
“law of effect”. According to this theory person avoids inner needs and focuses
only on results. Skinner argues that to motivate employee organization must
create positive and effective working environments.

Techniques to Reinforce

a. Positive Reinforcement

When employee behavior is as expected that must be appreciated immediately

and that in return motivates employee to perform well.
b. Negative Reinforcement

When employee behavior is unexpected that must be respond adversely

immediately and must probably be punished, so that they will not repeat the
same.

c. Punishment

To eliminate unexpected behavior one must be punished whenever they behave

adversely

d. Extinction:

Positive reinforcement can’t be given every time, as excess of such can be

valueless. Without positive reinforcement employees will not be motivated and
such situation is extinction state and every one must be aware of this and must
avoid such situation.

9. Goal setting theory

It was developed by Edwin Locke stating that goal must be set according to
performance. Goal must be achievable yet challenging and employees must be
aware of goals and direction to achieve them. They need to know each and every
information regarding goal and its achievements, even feedback is essential

Characteristics

a. Specific and clear

To the point and easily understood by everyone.

b. Result oriented

It must focus on result and outputs and requires dedication from employees.

c. Challenging

Challenging yet achievable that helps in engaging employees.

d. Goal commitment
Every member should be committed in achieving goals set thereby.

e. Participation

Employees should be participated from goal setting stage that helps in

distributing ownership among employees.

f. Feedback

Regular follow up and feedback on progress of attainment of goals is essential

that helps in achieving goals.

g. Team spirit

It focuses on coordination and cooperation between managers and employees,

helping each other in achieving goals.

C. Self motivation theories

10. Self-Determination Theory

Edward Deci States that employee often are motivated to do something, learn
new things internally and intentionally. Self determination is a promise made to
self to do better performed job.

Self motivation functions

Needs to Self-determination

a. Autonomy –independence, freedom

b. Capacity development -skill, education, ability, knowledge

c. Relatedness -belongingness, love, affection, recognition

11. Job Engagement Theory

Thomas Edison states that each and e very employee must be engaged in their
own jobs. They must be committed, responsible and focused on their job only
and this engagement ultimately motivates employee to perform better. If they are
not engaged fully, they may be inactive and became negative to their jobs.
12. Self-efficacy/ Confidence theory
Individual belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce
specific performance attainments and own ability to control, motivate and
behave. High self-efficacy is needed in any organization and in absence of such
management can even develop or increase these through:

a. Mastery experience

Continue to do a single/same job

b. Observation

Seeing/observing others doing job

c. Social persuasion

Persuade by family, relatives, friends, society, peers etc

d. Analysis of self state

Physical and mental condition of self-analyzing capacity of own

Motivational Application through Job Design

Organizing entire job, it is the way that a set of task or an entire job is
organized. It specifies duties and role to be included in the employees’ roles,
responsibility, authority, and even accountability

Information in job design

1. Work, responsibility and duty

2. Work method, process and time

3. Decision making power

4. Relationship among peers subordinates and boss

Fredrick Herzberg states that work also motivates employees, so management

must design work scientifically and systematically. If designed in a right way outer
reward is not necessary to motivate. Job requirement must be balanced with the
ability. Job design must contain: skill variety, task identification, task significance,
autonomy and feedback. It must be flexible and adjustable.

Elements of job design

A. Job Redesigning Method

1. Job Rotation
-doing job different than regular one
-helps in learning new things in new environment

2. Job Enlargement

- increase in skill and speed in employees that leads to more responsibilities and
even increment in remunerations

-also known as horizontal expansion of job

3. Job Enrichment

-vertical expansion of job where high level of workload is given with

increment in facility and status
B. Job Rescheduling Method

4. Flex Time Method

-work is done at convenient time of employees’

-flexibility to job must be provided according to the situation of employees

5. Work Sharing

-doing same job but by two or more employees at different time schedule or shift

-flex time is considered

6. Telecommunicating
-communication technology, internet based job

-work from home or virtual office

-smart and modern way of doing work

Motivational Application through Goal Setting

-goal setting is a way of motivation in any organization

-risky and challenging goals are often consider

-required information about goals must be given

-rewards and facilities are given after achieving goal

-hard work and challenges satisfies every employee's

Following factors must be considered while setting an organizational goal:

1. Proximity: time should be short and reliable

2. Challenging: success through hard work and goal neither easy nor difficult

3. Specific: clear and specific, important, special and valuable

-no goal is achieved until employees are motivated

-and they are only motivated when the goal is attached with some rewards

-and to achieve goals employees must be aware of both goals and rewards

Features of organizational goals

1. Specific: clear, valuable, important
2. Result oriented: measurable(quantitative & qualitative)
3. Challenging: risky and hard(but not too much)
4. Participation: overall participation(both involvement & ownership)
 5. Feedback: follow up, response(positive & negative)
6. Group performance: group, team cooperation & coordination, friendly,
understanding, group goal focused rather than individual