NETWORKING ADVANCED

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NETWORKING
1. A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing
hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels
to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of
users.
2. A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to
share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications.
 The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines,
radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Advantages of networking computers
• Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant messaging, etc.
• Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or scanner.
• Enable file sharing across the network.
• Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote systems.
• Make information easier to access and maintain among network users.
• Expensive peripherals like printers and scanners can be shared between users.
• Messages can be sent easily and faster between users whether on WAN or LAN through
electronic mails.
• Avoids duplication of information as users can access the same file on the network.
• Network software can be purchased cheaply than buying individual packages for each
computer.
• It is possible to access data or programs from any terminal or workstation.
• Data and programs can be stored centrally making it easier to maintain and backup.
• Users can be easily prevented from accessing files not intended for them.
• Allows sharing of files, software and data held in computers.
• Allows emails to be sent between users.
Disadvantages of networking computers
• Easy spread of computer viruses through out the network.
• The development of long printer queues, which can be frustrating for users.
• Increased information security risks as compared to stand alone computers.
• Costly to set up the network.
• Sophisticated equipment is needed, like routers and switches, which may be
expensive to buy.
• Security of data can be a problem due to hacking.
• Wiring can be expensive both to buy and to install; wiring can be sunk on the
ground to avoid trailing cables.
• If a server breaks down, the whole network becomes unusable.
• Networks need experienced network managers, who will be highly paid to
keep the network running.
• As traffic increases, the performance of the network degrades, unless it is
properly designed.
Types of networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices,
usually within an office building or home.
• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that
may be needed by multiple users.
• Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a
mile.
• Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
• Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
• LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable
can be used in wired LAN’s.
• Every LAN uses a protocol –a set of rules that governs how packets are
configured and transmitted.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually
spans a city or a large campus.
• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from
several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually
will be used by many individuals and organizations.
• A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional
resources.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
• Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed
DSL to customers and cable TV network.
WIDE AREA NETWORK
• WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole
of the world.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many
miles apart.
• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed
phone lines or wireless links such as satellites.
• Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges,
routers, or gateways, which enable them to share data.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
• A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and
computer devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few
meters within a room.
• It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for
connecting to a larger network such as the internet.
• PAN’s can be wired or wireless
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model
• The OSI model is a communication model which was developed by the
International Standards Organisation (ISO).
• It was designed to allow computers from different manufacturers or origin to
be connected together for data and information sharing.
• It has seven layers, which are described as follows;
• The idea is that suppliers must produce hardware or software to implement
any of the seven layers.
• This promotes standardization.
The OSI model
Layer 7: Application layer
• Is where the user interacts with the computer.
• It defines how applications interface or access communication services , initiate
or accept a request, provide network applications like data transfer, messaging,
operating system functions etc.
• Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered.
• It provides a set of Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) for application
programs to access network resources such as file transfer and email.
• An API is a set of functions and commands that an application needs to create
links with various services on the network.
• This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other
network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in
the application level.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• It transforms data into a specific format for communication.
• This includes compression, e.g. MPEG for video compression as well as
encryption.
• Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF,
PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
Layer 5: The Session Layer
• Initiates and terminates a communication session between two
communicating devices.
• A communication session consists of services requests and service
responses between stations.
• These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at
the session layer.
• It also determines the form of communication to be used ( simplex, half
duplex or full duplex) and regulates which station transmits, when and for how
long.
• Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
Layer 4: The Transport Layer
• Accepts data from the session layer and breaks down large packets for
transportation across the network.
• It ensures end to end integrity of data packets during transmission ( it ensures
that data packets are delivered and arrive at their destination error free, in
sequence and with no losses or duplications).
• This is achieved through various means and verification of sequence numbers
for packets.

• Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

Layer 3: The Network Layer
• Provides routing of packets to their destination by determining the best
route/path that data packets can take to their destination.
• the network layer also splits large packets into smaller packets if their size is
larger than the largest frame size that the data link layer will accept.
• Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing,
internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
• Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.
2: Data Link Layer
• Accepts data from the network layer and packages them into units called
frames that are passed to the physical layer for transmission.
• Each frame is transmitted with the necessary synchronization, error control
and flow control to provide reliable transfer across the physical link.
• It has two sub layers: Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer and the Logical
Link Control (LLC).
• The MAC sub layer is responsible for putting data into a transmission medium.
It provides the system through which stations can share the communication
medium such as CSMA CA, CSMA CD and Token passing.
• The LLC sub layer establishes and maintains the connection between two
stations while transmission is taking place. It is responsible for framing and
flow control.
• Flow control is synchronizing the sending and receiving stations so that the
receiving station is able to handle data at the rate at which it is being sent.
Media Access methods (MAC sub layer)
• Access Control is a mechanism that controls the access of stations to the
transmission link.
• Broadcast links require the access control mechanism.
• There are various access control methods, which includes:
 Polling
 Token passing
 CSMA/CA
 CSMA/CD
a. Polling
• In this access control method,
a. A polling is conducted in which all the stations willing to send data participate.
b. The polling algorithm chooses one of the stations to send the data.
c. The chosen station sends the data to the destination.
d. After the chosen station has sent the data, the cycle repeats.
Disadvantages-

• Time is wasted during polling.

• Link sharing is not fair since each station has the equal probability of winning
in each round.
• Few stations might starve for sending the data.
b. Token-Passing
• relies on a control signal called the token.
• A token is a 24-bit packet that circulates throughout the network from NIC to
NIC in an orderly fashion.
• If a workstation wants to transmit a message, first it must seize the token.
• At that point, the workstation has complete control over the communications
channel.
• The existence of only one token eliminates the possibility of signal collisions.
This means that only one station can speak at a time.
c. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD)
• is a network protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium
Access Control (MAC) layer.
• It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not,
and defers transmissions until the channel is free.
• The collision detection technology detects collisions by sensing
transmissions from other stations.
• On detection of a collision, the station stops transmitting, sends a jam signal,
and then waits for a random time interval before retransmission.
Algorithm
• The algorithm of CSMA/CD is:
• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is
idle or busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually monitors
the channel to detect collision.
• If a collision is detected, the station starts the collision resolution algorithm.
• The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame
transmission.
•
• The algorithm of Collision Resolution is:
• The station continues transmission of the current frame for a
specified time along with a jam signal, to ensure that all the other
stations detect collision.
• The station increments the retransmission counter.
• If the maximum number of retransmission attempts is reached,
then the station aborts transmission.
• Otherwise, the station waits for a back off period which is generally
a function of the number of collisions and restart main algorithm.
d. CSMA/CA

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a

network protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access
Control (MAC) layer. In contrast to CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection) that deals with collisions after their occurrence,
CSMA/CA prevents collisions prior to their occurrence.
• Algorithm
• The algorithm of CSMA/CA is:
• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks
whether the channel is idle or busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel
becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap
(IFG) amount of time and then sends the frame.
• After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
• The station then waits for acknowledgement from the
receiver. If it receives the acknowledgement before expiry of
timer, it marks a successful transmission.
• Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the
algorithm.
Differences between CSMA CD and CSMA CA

• 1. CSMA CD is used in wired LANs and CSMA CA used in wireless LANs and
other types of wireless networks.
• 2. CSMA CD is standardized in IEEE 802.3 and CSMA CA is standardized in
IEEE 802.11.
• 3. CSMA CD will not take steps to prevent transmission collision until it is
taken place whilst CSMA CA will take actions not to take place any collision
since the latter has no means of knowing whether a collision has taken place.
Layer 1: the physical layer
• Is the bottom layer of the OSI model.
• It specifies the type of communication media[ coaxial cable, twisted pair cable,
fibre optic cable] and timing signals for data.
• It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier,
including defining cables, cards and physical aspects.
• Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
• It also defines electrical specifications (minimum and maximum voltage
levels) for signals.
The TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model was created in the 1970s by the DARPA( Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency).
• It was designed for use in ARPANET ( a wide area network which we now call
the Internet).
• TCP/IP was originally designed for Unix operating system, but it has been built
into all of the operating systems that came after Unix.
 TCP/IP MODEL LAYERS
• It is divided into four layers.
• Each of which includes specific protocols.
Layer number Layer name
4 Application layer

3 Transport layer

2 Internet layer (network layer)

1 Network access/Link layer

Application layer
• It provides applications with standardised data exchange.
• Its protocols include:
• HTTP
• FTP
• POPs ( Post Office Protocol)
• SMTP
• SNMP
Transport layer
• Is responsible for maintaining end to end communication across the network.
• The TCP handles flow control, multiplexing and reliability.
• Its protocols include
• TCP
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Multiplexing
Internet layer
• It deals with packets and connects independent network to transport the
packets across the network boundaries.
• Its protocols include:
• ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol which is used for error reporting.
Physical layer
• Consists of protocols that operate on a link or the component that
interconnects nodes/ hosts in a network.
• Protocols in this includes:
• Ethernet for LANs.
• ARP.
 TCP/IP to OSI model mapping

OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL

Application layer Application layer
Presentation layer
Session layer

Transport layer Transport layer

Network layer Internet layer
Data link layer Physical layer
Physical layer
TCP/IP to OSI model mapping with protocols
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol)
• • protocol governing the transmission of data

• data is divided into packets to which addressing information, error
correction code and identification are added the packets travel to their
destination over the network and the receiving PC checks for mistakes and
pieces the data together in the right order.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• It ensures that data is transmitted accurately.


Internet Protocol (IP)
• It ensures that data is transmitted to its correct destination (IP address).
Every device on the internet has its IP address.
• It also ensures that packets are rearranged to the original message on arrival
of their destination.

Protocols
• A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data
from one computer to another across a network.
• Some of the protocols are:

i. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• This is a protocol that defines the process of identifying, requesting and
transferring multimedia web pages over the internet.
• It is used for transferring data across the internet, usually between servers and
computers on the internet.
• It is based on the client–server relationship.
• It uses TCP/IP to transmit data and messages

ii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

• it is a protocol used to transfer data from one computer to

another.
• It is often used to download software from the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP
protocol in doing this.
• However, FTP has no security to data as the data is not encrypted

prior to its transmission.

 iii. TELNET (Terminal Emulation)
• This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to
gain access to another computer and use its software and
data, usually on a LAN and on the Internet.
• It allows users to access data stored on servers from their
terminals.
• Telnet allows computers to connect to each other and
allows sharing of data and files.
• Telnet has security problems especially on the internet.

iv. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Provides end-to-end service

UDP is connectionless and simple.

Provides No flow/error control.

Provides port addressing

Error detection (Checksum) is optional.

v. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
• It is a method of using the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls.
Thus it is a way of having phone conversations using the internet as a way of
communication.
• By VoIP, international and long distance calls are of the same price as local
calls and sometimes are for free.
• However, the system does not offer emergency calls.
• An example of VoIP is Skype.

Differences between the OSI and the TCP/IP models
• OSI Layer model has seven layers while TCP/IP model has four layers.
• OSI Layer model is no longer used while TCP/IP is still used in computer
networking.
• To define the functionality of upper layers, OSI uses three separate layers
(application, presentation and session) while TCP/IP uses a single layer
(application).
• Just like upper layers, OSI uses two separate layers (Physical and Data link) to
define the functionality of bottom layers while TCP/IP uses a single layer (Link)
for the same.
• To define the routing protocols and standards, OSI uses Network layer while
TCP/IP uses Internet layer.
• In comparison of TCP/IP model, OSI model is well documented and explains
standards and protocols in more details.
Similarities between the OSI and the TC/IP models

• Both define standards for networking.

• Both provide a framework for creating and implementing networking standards
and devices.
• Both divide the network communication process in layers.
• In both models, a single layer defines a particular functionality and set
standards for that functionality only.
• Both models allow a manufacturer to make devices and network components
that can coexist and work with the devices and components made by other
manufacturers.
• Both models simplify troubleshooting process by dividing complex functions
into simpler components.
• Instead of defining the already defined standards and protocols, both models
referenced them. For example, the Ethernet standards were already defined by
IEEE before creation of these models. So instead of defining them again both
models used them as IEEE Ethernet standards.
IP addressing
• IP addressing is a hardware-independent convention which in principle allows
every computer attached to the Internet to be given a unique logical address.
• An Internet Protocol address is a logical numeric address that is assigned to
every computer, printer, switch, router or any device that is part of a TCP/IP
based network.
• An IP address is a logical address that is used to uniquely identify every node
in a network.
• Because IP addresses are logical, they can change.
• Network nodes are assigned IP addresses by the Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP).
• DHCP assigns IP addresses using a pool of available addresses which are part
of the whole addressing scheme.


 IP address Format
• The format of an IP address is a 32-bit numeric address written as four
numbers separated by periods with each number ranging from zero to
255 eg, 76.240.249.145 could be an IP address.
• Each of the sections has at most three digits and not more.
• All computers and other devices on a network see it as a 32-bit address
in binary form that is subdivided into four 8-bit parts, called "octets.“

• The four numbers in an IP address are used in different ways to identify

a

particular network and a host on that network.
• The first two numbers identify the network ID, and the last two identify
the actual device on the network.
• Every IP address—such as 76.240.249.145—is also divided
into two sections that define 1) your network and 2) your
computer, or host.
• Those two sections comprise the basic structure of IP
addresses: the network ID and the host ID.
• All computers on the same network share the same network ID.
• Each computer (sometimes called a "network interface") has
its own unique host ID.
• 76.240- is the network part or the network ID.
• 249.145- is the host part or the host ID.
 Static and Dynamic IP Addresses
• An IP address can be static or dynamic.
• A static IP address will never change and it is a permanent Internet address.
• A dynamic IP address is a temporary address that is assigned each time a
computer or device accesses the Internet.
• The router controls all the network traffic, both within a home network and
outside of it, to the Internet. It is the router's job to make sure that data flows
to and from all the correct places.




Public (external) IP addresses
• A public (or external) IP address is the one issued by ISP (Internet Service
Provider) to identify a network to the outside world.
• It is an IP address that is unique throughout the entire Internet.


Private (internal) IP addresses


Private IP address is an IP address that is reserved for internal use behind a
router or other Network Address Translation (NAT) device, apart from the public.

- Router issues private (or internal) IP addresses to each network device inside
the network.

- This provides unique identification for devices that are within a home network,
such as computer, tablet, etc.

Differences between public and private IP addresses

Public IP address Private IP address

Is accessible over the Internet Is not accessible over the Internet.
Is assigned by the network administrator or ISP Is assigned by DHCP, which runs on a router.
Is used in WANs, e.g. the Internet Is used within a LAN.
Its scope is global (worldwide) Its scope is local (internal)
Is usually static, only changed by the network DHCP assigned addresses are dynamic.
administrator or ISP when there is need
Domain Name System (DNS)
• A domain name is a web address that is linked to an IP address ( which
represents a physical point on the Internet).
• Domain names are alphanumeric names for IP addresses e.g.,
neon.cs.virginia.edu,

www.google.com, ietf.org

Domain Name System

is an Internet-wide distributed database that translates between domain names
and IP addresses
- A system which permits humans to use names and machines to use addresses

- a distributed database where data is maintained locally, but available globally

• The process of converting/ translating a domain name (web
address) into a particular IP address is called domain name
resolution, and the protocol responsible for translating
domain names into IP addresses is the Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP).
• Domain name resolution is also known as domain name
mapping.
• Because of its role, DNS is usually called the phone book of
the Internet.
• DNS is composed of namespace, name servers and
resolvers

– a namespace - the database’s structure i.e. is a
hierarchical and logical tree structure for naming system

– name servers - store data from specific segments of the
database, Answer questions from resolvers

– resolvers - translate applications’ requests for data into
DNS queries

- Interpret name server’s responses

 How DNS works
• When a user enters a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) into
their web browser, the DNS translates that URL into an IP
address of the actual server that houses the resource being
searched.
• It is this IP address that the computer uses to search for a
particular server which has the resource instead of using the
domain name.
Domain name structure
• Every web address consists of at least two parts: the actual domain name and
the TLD or Top Level Domain.
• In our domain.me example, “.ME” is the TLD of Montenegro and the “domain”
part is a domain name or domain label we chose for our site.
• You’ve surely heard of some other top-level domains like .COM, .NET, .ORG
, .INFO, .US etc
• Some may denote a country code or geographic location such as .us for the
United States or .ca for Canada.
• Domains are under the jurisdiction of ICANN, the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers which is responsible for creating new and
maintaining current top-level domains.
General structure of the domain name

Root node

Top level Top level Top level

domain domain domain

Second Second
level level
domain domain

Third level Third level

domain domain
• Consider the domain URL john.this-is.me domain, “.ME” is top-level domain,
“this-is” is the level 2 domain name and “john” is the subdomain of “this-is”
domain.
Top level domains and their meanings
.gov- it means a government department.
. Edu – educational institution.
. Ac- academic institution.
.com- commercial organization.
.org- non profit making organization.
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
• A routing protocol is a formula, algorithm or method used by routers to
determine the most appropriate path over which data is transmitted.
• Routing protocols facilitate router communication and overall network
topology understanding.
• A routing protocol is also known as a routing policy.
• The routing protocol enables a network to make dynamic adjustments to its
conditions, which means routing decisions do not have to be predetermined
and static.
Types of routing protocols
• Routing Information protocol (RIP)
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• is a dynamic protocol used to find the best route or path from end-to-end
(source to destination) over a network by using a routing metric/hop count
algorithm.
• This algorithm is used to determine the shortest path from the source to
destination, which allows the data to be delivered at high speed in the shortest
time.
• RIP plays an important role providing the shortest and best path for data to take
from node to node.
• The hop is the step towards the next existing device, which could be a router,
computer or other device.
• Once the length of the hop is determined, the information is stored in a routing
table for future use.
• RIP is a distance vector protocol, which means that routes are advertised by
providing two characteristics:
• Distance: Identifies how far it is to the destination network and is based on a
metric such as the hop count, cost, bandwidth, delay, and more
• Vector: Specifies the direction of the next-hop router or exit interface to reach
the destination
• Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the
source and destination network.
• The path with the lowest hop count is considered to be the
best path.
• The maximum hop count allowable in RIP is 16, anything
above that is considered to be unreachable.
RIP timers
Update timer – 30 seconds.
Hold down timer- this is the time when the router waits for its
neighbor to respond. If a router is not able to respond within
60 seconds, it is considered dead.
Features of RIP
• Network updates are exchanged periodically among routers (every 30
seconds).
• Full routing tables are sent during updates, regardless of there being a change
or not.
• Routers always trust routing information received from its neighbours.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• is a router protocol used to find the best path for packets as they pass through a
set of connected networks.
• The OSPF routing protocol has largely replaced the older Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) in corporate networks.
• Using OSPF, a router that learns of a change to a routing table (when it is
reconfigured by network staff, for example) or detects a change in the network
immediately multicasts the information to all other OSPF hosts in the network
so they will all have the same routing table information.
• Unlike RIP, which requires routers to send the entire routing table to neighbours
every 30 seconds, OSPF sends only the part that has changed and only when a
change has taken place.
• It is a link state protocol, it does not only consider the hop count, but considers
additional network information to decide the best path for packets.
 2024
• Topic for Advanced
Level in computer
science
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Edited by jv
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