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 Discrete Mathematics and Applications 2nd
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Chapter 3

Test Bank

3.0 Chapter 0
1. Convert the binary number 10110 to base ten.

Answer. 22

2. Write the base ten number 37 in binary.

Answer. 100101

3. Write the base ten number 19 in binary.

Answer. 10011

4. Convert the base 8 number 75 to base ten.

Answer. 61

5. Write the base ten number 75 in base 8.

Answer. 113

6. Convert the base 16 number a7 to base ten.

Answer. 167

7. Write the base ten number 436 in base 16.

Answer. 1b4

8. How is 8n expressed in binary?

Answer. A 1 followed by 3n 0’s.

183
3.1. CHAPTER
184 1 CHAPTER 3.184
TEST BANK

3.1 Chapter 1
Section 1.1
1. Is the sentence “There are no true sentences.” a statement? Explain.

Answer. Yes. It is false.

2. Make a truth table for p → q ∨ r.

Answer.
p q r q∨ r p → q∨ r
F F F F T
F F T T T
F T F T T
F T T T T
T F F F F
T F T T T
T T F T T
T T T T T

3. Is the statement form p → ¬p a contradiction? Explain.

Answer. No. It is true when p is false.

4. Determine if ¬(p → q) and ¬p → ¬q are logically equivalent? Justify your

answer.

Answer. They are not logically equivalent. They differ when p

is true and q is true.

5. Write and simplify the contrapositive of p → ¬q ∧ r.

Answer. q ∨ ¬r → ¬p

6. Given the statement

If Tara is not studying, then Tara is sleeping.

Write its

(a) converse.
(b) contrapositive.
(c) inverse.
(d) negation.
3.1. CHAPTER
185 1 CHAPTER 3.185
TEST BANK

Answer.
(a) If Tara is sleeping, then Tara is not studying.
(b) If Tara is not sleeping, then Tara is studying.
(c) If Tara is studying, then Tara is not sleeping.
(d) Tara is not studying, and Tara is not sleeping.
7. Verify that ¬p ∧ (¬q ∨ p) ≡ ¬(p ∨ q) not by making a truth table but by
using known basic logical equivalences.

Answer.
¬p ∧ (¬q ∨ p) ≡ (¬p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (¬p ∧ p) Distributivity
≡ (¬p ∧ ¬q) ∨ f Contradiction Rule
≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q Contradiction Rule
≡ ¬(p ∨ q) De Morgan’s Law
8. Trace the pictured circuit
P
OR

Q s AND
S
NOT
❝

(a) to determine an expression for the output in terms of the input,

(b) and make an input-output table.
(c) Explain how the same input-output table can be accomplished by a
circuit using fewer basic gates.

Answer.
(a) (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q = S.
(b) P Q S
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
(c) S ≡ P ∧ ¬Q.

Q NOT
❝
AND
S
P

9. Draw a circuit that realizes the expression ¬P ∨ Q = S.

Answer.

❝
P NOT
OR
S
Q
3.1. CHAPTER
186 1 CHAPTER 3.186
TEST BANK

Section 1.2
1. Express in set notation the set of integers smaller than 5.

Answer. {n : n ∈ Z and n < 5}.

2. Express in interval notation the set of real numbers greater than or equal
to −3.

Answer. [−3, ∞).

For Exercises 3 through 8, determine if each of the the following relations

is True or False.
3. {1, 3, 5, 3, 1, 7, 1} ⊆ {1, 3, 5, 7}.
Answer. True.
4. {7} ∈ N.
Answer. False.
5. 3 ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Answer. False.
6. ∅ = 0.
Answer. False.
7. [−1, 1] is infinite.
Answer. True.
8. |{2, 3, 7, 8, 5, 3}| = 6.
Answer. False.
9. Write the expression for the “set” given in Russell’s Paradox.

Answer. {S : S is a set and S 6∈ S}.

Section 1.3
For Exercises 1 through 3, write the given statement as efficiently as possible
using quantifiers and standard notation. Determine if the statement is True or
False.

1. Every real number is smaller than twice itself.

Answer. ∀ x ∈ R, x < 2x.

2. There is an integer whose square is odd.

3.1. CHAPTER
187 1 CHAPTER 3.187
TEST BANK

Section 1.2
Answer. ∃ n ∈ Z such that n2 is odd.

3. There is an integer n such that the nth power of every real number is
negative.

Answer. ∃ n ∈ Z such that ∀ x ∈ R, xn < 0.

For Exercises 4 through 6, write the negation of the given statement.

Determine which of the statement or its negation is True.
4. For every integer n, if n is positive then 2n − 1 is positive.

Answer. ∃ n ∈ Z such that n > 0 and 2n − 1 ≤ 0.

The original statement is True.

5. There is a real number whose cube is negative.

Answer. ∀ x ∈ R, x3 ≥ 0.
The original statement is True.

6. The product of any two real numbers is positive.

Answer. ∃ x, y ∈ R such that xy ≤ 0.

The negation is True.

7. Negate the statement

∃ n ∈ Z such that ∀ x ∈ R, xn < 0.

Answer. ∀ n ∈ Z, ∃ x ∈ R such that xn ≥ 0.

8. Negate the statement

All good things come to an end.

Answer. There is a good thing that does not end.

For Exercises 9 and 10, let f and g be real functions. Use quantifiers to
precisely express the definition of the given notion.
9. f is periodic.

Answer. ∃ p ∈ R+ such that ∀ x ∈ R, f (x + p) = f (x).

10. The composite function g ◦ f .

Answer. The function g ◦ f is defined by

∀ x ∈ R, (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).

3.1. CHAPTER
188 1 CHAPTER 3.188
TEST BANK

Section 1.4
For Exercises 1 and 2, find Ac , A ∩ B, A ∪ B, A \ B, and A M B for the given
sets.
1. A = {2, 3, 7}, B = {1, 2, 7, 9}, and U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Answer. Ac = {1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}, A ∩ B = {2, 7}, A ∪ B =
{1, 2, 3, 7, 9}, A \ B = {3}, and A M B = {1, 3, 9}.
2. A = (0, 3], B = (2, 4), and U = R.
Answer. Ac = (−∞, 0] ∪ (3, ∞), A ∩ B = (2, 3], A ∪ B = (0, 4),
A \ B = (0, 2], and A M B = (0, 2] ∪ (3, 4).
3. Are (0, 3) and (2, 4) disjoint? Justify your answer.
Answer. No. 2.5 ∈ (0, 3) ∩ (2, 4) = ∅.
4. Find {0, 1} × {2, 4, 6}.
Answer. {(0, 2), (0, 4), (0, 6), (1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6)}.
5. Sketch (1, 3] × [2, 5).
Answer.
5

1 3
6. Find P ({0, 1, 2}).
Answer. {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
7. Decide if the proposed identity A ∩ (B \ C) = (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C) is True
or False.
Answer. True.
8. Use definitions and basic set identities to verify the identity
c
Ac ∩ (B c ∪ A) = (A ∪ B) .
Answer.
Ac ∩ (B c ∪ A) = (Ac ∩ B c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ A) Distributivity
= (Ac ∩ B c ) ∪ ∅ An ∅ Rule
= Ac ∩ B c An ∅ Rule
= (A ∪ B)c De Morgan’s Law
3.1. CHAPTER
189 1 CHAPTER 3.189
TEST BANK

Section 1.4
Section 1.5
1. Determine if the given argument form is valid. Justify your answer.
p→ q
r → p
q∨ r
∴ q
Answer.
p q r p→ q r→ p q∨ r q
F F F T T F
F F T T F T
F T F T T T T
F T T T F T
T F F F T F
T F T F T T
T T F T T T T
T T T T T T T
Rows 3, 7, and 8 demonstrate the validity of the argument form.
2. Show that the given argument form is valid without using a truth table.
q→ p
¬q → p
∴ p
Answer.
Statement Form Justification
1. q→ p Given
2. ¬q → p Given
3. q ∨ ¬q a tautology
4. ∴ p (1),(2),(3), Two Separate Cases
3. Determine if the given argument is valid or invalid. Justify your answer.
1
If e > 0, then > 0.
e
1
> 0.
e
∴ e > 0.
Answer. The argument’s form
p→ q
q
∴ p
3.2. CHAPTER
190 2 CHAPTER 3.190
TEST BANK

is not valid, as can be seen when p is false (and q is arbitrary).

So the argument is not valid.

4. Verify that the given argument form is valid.

∀ x ∈ U , p(x) ∧ q(x)
a∈U
∴ p(a)

Answer.
Statement Form Justification
1. ∀ x ∈ U , p(x) ∧ q(x) Given
2. a∈U Given
3. p(a) ∧ q(a) (1),(2), Principle of Specification
4. ∴ p(a) (3), In Particular

5. Verify that the given argument form is valid.

∀ x ∈ U , p(x)
∴ ∀ x ∈ U , p(x) ∨ q(x)

Answer.
Statement Form Justification
1. ∀ x ∈ U , p(x) Given
2. Let a ∈ U be arbitrary Assumption
3. p(a) (1),(2), Principle of Specification
4. p(a) ∨ q(a) (3), Obtaining Or
5. ∴ ∀ x ∈ U , p(x) ∨ q(x) (2), (4), Principle of Generalization

6. Show that the given argument form is invalid.

∀ x ∈ U , p(x) → q(x)
∀ x ∈ U , q(x)
∴ ∀ x ∈ U , p(x)

Answer. Let U = R+ , p(x) = “x > 1”, and q(x) = “x > 0”.

The resulting argument

∀ x ∈ R+ , if x > 1 then x > 0

∀ x ∈ R+ , x > 0
∴ ∀ x ∈ R+ , x > 1

has all of its premises true but its conclusion false.

3.2. CHAPTER
191 2 CHAPTER 3.191
TEST BANK

3.2 Chapter 2
Section 2.1
1. Show: There exists x ∈ Z such that 2x2 − 5x + 2 = 0.

Answer. Observe that 2(22 ) − 5(2) + 2 = 0.

2. Show: There exist m, n ∈ Z such that 5m + 3n = 1.

Answer. Observe that 5(−1) + 3(2) = 1.

3. Disprove: For all sets A and B, |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B|.

Answer. Let A = B = {6}.

So |A ∪ B| = |{6}| = 1 and |A| + |B| = 1 + 1 = 2.
Hence, |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| in this case.

4. Prove or Disprove: ∀ m ∈ Z, if m2 is odd, then m is even.

Answer. Counterexample: Observe that 12 is odd and 1 is not

even.

5. Show: ∀ n ∈ {3, 6, 9}, the sum of the (base ten) digits of 7n is n.

Answer. Observe that

7(3) = 21 and 2 + 1 = 3,
7(6) = 42 and 4 + 2 = 6, and
7(9) = 63 and 6 + 3 = 9.

6. Show: ∀ A ∈ P ({4, 7}), |A| ≤ 2.

Answer. Note that |∅| = 0, |{4}| = |{7}| = 1, and |{4, 7}| = 2.

Section 2.2
1. Show: ∀ n ∈ Z− , −n − 1 ∈ N.

Answer. Let n ∈ Z− . So n ∈ Z and n ≤ −1. Thus, −n ≥ 1, and

hence −n − 1 ≥ 0. Since −n − 1 ∈ Z, it follows that −n − 1 ∈ N.

2. Show: ∀ x ∈ R, if x < 0 then x3 < 0.

Answer. Suppose x ∈ R and x < 0. Since x2 > 0, it follows that

x(x2 ) < 0(x2 ). That is, x3 < 0.

3. Show: For all real functions f , if f is bounded above, then −2f is bounded
below.
3.2. CHAPTER
192 2 CHAPTER 3.192
TEST BANK

Answer. Suppose f is a real function that is bounded above. So

we have M ∈ R such that ∀ x ∈ R, f (x) ≤ M . Observe that
∀ x ∈ R, (−2f )(x) = −2 · f (x) ≥ −2 · M = −2M . Hence, −2f
is bounded below.

4. Show: For all real functions f , if f is decreasing, then −f is increasing.

Answer. Suppose f is a real function that is decreasing. Suppose

x, y ∈ R with x < y. So f (x) > f (y). Multiplication by −1 gives
−f (x) < −f (y). So −f is increasing.

5. Prove or Disprove: For all real functions f , if f is increasing, then f is

not bounded above.

Answer. Counterexample: Let f (x) = √ x .

x2 +1

1
x
−1
y = f (x)

This function is increasing and bounded above (by 1).

6. Show: For all sets A, B, and C, A ∩ B ∩ C ⊆ A ∩ C.

Answer. Let A, B, and C be sets. Suppose that x ∈ A ∩ B ∩ C.

So x ∈ A, x ∈ B, and x ∈ C. In particular, x ∈ A and x ∈ C.
Therefore, x ∈ A ∩ C.

7. Let A and B be sets in some universal set U . Show: B ∪ A = A ∪ B.

Answer. Observe that ∀ x ∈ U , x ∈ B ∪ A iff x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ A iff

x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B iff x ∈ A ∪ B.

Section 2.3
1. Show: ∀ x ∈ R, x ∈ [−3, 4) if and only if 2x + 3 ∈ [−3, 11).

Answer. Let x ∈ R.
(→) Suppose x ∈ [−3, 4). That is, −3 ≤ x < 4. So −6 ≤ 2x < 8.
So −3 ≤ 2x + 3 < 11. That is, 2x + 3 ∈ [−3, 11).
(←) Suppose 2x + 3 ∈ [−3, 11). That is, −3 ≤ 2x + 3 < 11. So
−6 ≤ 2x < 8. So −3 ≤ x < 4. That is, x ∈ [−3, 4).
3.2. CHAPTER
193 2 CHAPTER 3.193
TEST BANK

2. Let n ∈ Z. Show: 2n2 − 5n − 3 = 0 if and only if n = 3.

Answer. (→) Suppose 2n2 − 5n − 3 = 0. So (2n + 1)(n − 3) = 0,

and hence n = − 21 or n = 3. Since n ∈ Z, it must be that n = 3.
(←) Suppose n = 3. Observe that 2 · 32 − 5 · 3 − 3 = 0.

3. Let f be a real function.

Show: −f is periodic if and only if f is periodic.

Answer. (→) Suppose −f is periodic. Let p be its period.

Suppose x ∈ R. Since −f (x + p) = −f (x), multiplication
by −1 gives that f (x + p) = f (x). Therefore, f is periodic.
(←) Suppose f is periodic. Let p be its period. Suppose
x ∈ R. Since f (x + p) = f (x), multiplication by −1 gives that
−f (x + p) = −f (x). Therefore, −f is periodic.

4. Let A, B, and C be sets in some universal set U .

Show: A ∩ (B \ C) = (A \ C) ∩ B.

Answer. (⊆) Suppose x ∈ A ∩ (B \ C). So x ∈ A and x ∈ B \ C.

Thus, x ∈ B and x 6∈ C. Since x ∈ A and x 6∈ C, we have
x ∈ A \ C. Since we also have x ∈ B, we have x ∈ (A \ C) ∩ B.
(⊇) Suppose x ∈ (A \ C) ∩ B. So x ∈ A \ C and x ∈ B. Thus,
x ∈ A and x 6∈ C. Since x ∈ B and x 6∈ C, we have x ∈ B \
C. Since we also have x ∈ A, we have x ∈ A ∩ (B \ C).

5. Show: (0, 2) ∩ [1, 3] = [1, 2).

Answer. (⊆) Suppose x ∈ (0, 2) ∩ [1, 3]. That is, 0 < x < 2 and
1 ≤ x ≤ 3. So 1 ≤ x < 2. That is, x ∈ [1, 2).
(⊇) Suppose x ∈ [1, 2). So 0 < 1 ≤ x < 2 ≤ 3. Hence, 0 < x < 2
and 1 ≤ x ≤ 3. That is, x ∈ (0, 2) ∩ [1, 3].
c
6. Show: [2, ∞) × (3, 4] ⊆ (1, 2) × [3, ∞).

Answer. Suppose (x, y) ∈ [2, ∞) × (3, 4]. So x ∈ [2, ∞) and

y ∈ (3, 4]. Since x ≥ 2, it follows that x 6∈ (1, 2). Since y > 3, it
c
follows that y ∈ [3, ∞). Therefore, (x, y) ∈ (1, 2) × [3, ∞).

7. Let A and B be sets. Show: P(A) ⊆ P(A ∪ B).

Answer. Suppose S ∈ P(A). That is, S ⊆ A. Since A ⊆ A ∪ B,

it follows from the transitivity of the subset relation that S ⊆
A ∪ B. That is, S ∈ P(A ∪ B).
3.2. CHAPTER
194 2 CHAPTER 3.194
TEST BANK

Section 2.4
1. Show: Z has no smallest element.

Answer. Suppose not. Let s be the smallest element of Z. How-

ever, s−1 is then a smaller element of Z. This is a contradiction.

2. Show: R− is infinite.

Answer. Suppose not. Let n be the cardinality of R− . However,

each of the n + 1 elements on the list

−1, −2, . . . , −n, −(n + 1)

are negative real numbers. This is a contradiction.

3. Show: ∀ n ∈ Z, 1 − 2n = 0.

Answer. Suppose not. So there is some n ∈ Z such that 1−2n =

0. However, this gives that n = 1 , and 1 6∈ Z. This is a
2 2
contradiction.

4. Let a, b ∈ R.
Show: If b < a, then [a, b] = ∅.

Answer. Suppose [a, b] is nonempty. Hence, we have some x ∈ R

such that a ≤ x ≤ b. From the transitivity of ≤ it follows that
a ≤ b. Hence, it is not true that b < a.

5. Let A and B be sets.

Show: If A ⊆ B c , then A ∩ B = ∅.

Answer. Suppose A∩B is nonempty. So we have some x ∈ A∩B.

That is, x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Since x ∈ A and x 6∈ B c , it follows
that A * B c .

6. Let f be a real function.

Show: If f is unbounded below, then f 2 is unbounded above.

Answer. Suppose f 2 is bounded above. Hence, we have some

M ∈ R such that

∀ x ∈ R, f 2 (x) ≤ M.

In fact, it must be that M ≥ 0. It then follows that

√
∀ x ∈ R, f (x) ≥ − M .

(This assertion can be proven by contradiction.) Therefore, f

is bounded below.
3.2. CHAPTER
195 2 CHAPTER 3.195
TEST BANK

Section 2.5
1. Let A, B, and C be sets. Show: A ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ B ∪ C.

Answer. Suppose x ∈ A ∪ C. So x ∈ A or x ∈ C.
Case 1 : x ∈ A. Since x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ C, it follows that
x ∈ A ∪ B ∪ C.
Case 2 : x ∈ C. Since x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ C, it follows that
x ∈ A ∪ B ∪ C.

2. Let A, B, and C be sets. Show: (A ∪ B) ∩ C ⊆ (A ∩ C) ∪ B.

Answer. Suppose x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ C. So x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ C.

That is, x ∈ A or x ∈ B.
Case 1 : x ∈ A. Since x ∈ A and x ∈ C, we have x ∈ A ∩ C.
Thus, x ∈ (A ∩ C) ∪ B.
Case 2 : x ∈ B. Thus, x ∈ (A ∩ C) ∪ B.

3. Let A, B, and C be sets. Show: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Answer. (⊆) Suppose x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C). So x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C.

Case 1 : x ∈ A. So x ∈ A ∪ B or x ∈ A ∪ C. Hence,
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
Case 2 : x ∈ B ∩ C. So x ∈ B and x ∈ C. Since x ∈ B, we
have x ∈ A ∪ B. Since x ∈ C, we have x ∈ A ∪ C. Hence,
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
(⊇) Suppose x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). So x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ A ∪ C.
Case 1 : x ∈ A. Hence, x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C).
Case 2 : x 6∈ A. Since x ∈ A ∪ B, it must be that x ∈ B. Since
x ∈ A ∪ C, it must be that x ∈ C. So, x ∈ B ∩ C. Hence,
x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C).

4. Show: (0, 2) ∪ [1, 3] = (0, 3].

Answer. (⊆) Suppose x ∈ (0, 2) ∪ [1, 3].

So x ∈ (0, 2) or x ∈ [1, 3].
Case 1 : x ∈ (0, 2). Since 0 < x < 2, we have 0 < x ≤ 3. Thus,
x ∈ (0, 3].
Case 2 : x ∈ [1, 3]. Since 1 ≤ x ≤ 3, we have 0 < x ≤ 3. Thus,
x ∈ (0, 3].
(⊇) Suppose x ∈ (0, 3]. So 0 < x ≤ 3.
(Note: x < 2 or 2 ≤ x.)
Case 1 : x < 2. Since 0 < x < 2, we have x ∈ (0, 2). Thus,
x ∈ (0, 2) ∪ [1, 3].
Case 2 : 2 ≤ x. Since 1 ≤ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3, we have x ∈ [1, 3]. Thus,
x ∈ (0, 2) ∪ [1, 3].
3.2. CHAPTER
196 2 CHAPTER 3.196
TEST BANK

5. Assume that C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Show: A \ C = B \ C if and only if A = B.

Answer. (→) Suppose A \ C = B \ C. (⊆) Suppose x ∈ A.

If x ∈ C, then x ∈ B.
So consider x 6∈ C. Hence, x ∈ A \ C = B \ C. Thus, x ∈ B. So
A ⊆ B. Similarly, B ⊆ A. Therefore, A = B.
(←) Suppose A = B. Hence, A \ C = B \ C.
(
x − 1 if x ≥ 1,
6. Let x ∈ R. Show: |x − 1| =
1 − x if x < 1.

Answer. Case 1 : x ≥ 1. Since x − 1 ≥ 0, we have |x − 1| = x − 1.

Case 2 : x < 1. Since x − 1 < 0, we have |x − 1| = −(x − 1) =
1 − x.

7. Let x, y ∈ R. Show: If |x| > y, then x > y or x < −y.

Answer. Suppose |x| > y.

Case 1 : x ≥ 0. So x = |x| > y.
Case 2 : x < 0. So −x = |x| > y. Multiplication by −1 gives
x < −y.
a
8. Let a, b ∈ R. Show: If ab > 0, then b > 0.

Answer. Suppose ab > 0.

Observe that b = 0.
Case 1 : b > 0.
So a > 0, and hence ab > 0.
a
Case 2 : b < 0. So a < 0, and hence b
> 0.
3.3. CHAPTER
197 3 CHAPTER 3.197
TEST BANK

3.3 Chapter 3
Section 3.1
1. Show that the sum of any two odd integers is even.
Answer. Suppose that m and n are odd integers.
So m = 2j + 1 and n = 2k + 1 for some j, k ∈ Z.
Thus, m + n = 2j + 1 + 2k + 1 = 2(j + k + 1).
Since j + k + 1 ∈ Z, the sum m + n is even.

2. Show that the sum of two consecutive odd integers is divisible by 4.

Answer. Suppose that m and n are consecutive odd integers.
So m = 2j + 1 and n = 2j + 3 for some j ∈ Z.
Thus, m + n = 2j + 1 + 2j + 3 = 4(j + 1).
Since j + 1 ∈ Z, the sum m + n is divisible by 4.
3. Let n ∈ Z. Show: If 6 | n, then 4 | n2 .

Answer. Suppose 6 | n. So n = 6k for some k ∈ Z. Observe

that n2 = 36k 2 = 4(9k 2 ). Since 9k 2 ∈ Z, we see that 4 | n2 .
4. Prove or disprove: For any integers a, b, c, if a - b and b - c then a - c.
Answer. Counterexample: Let a = c = 2 and b = 3. Observe
that a - b and b - c, but a | c.

5. Find gcd(700, 120) by factoring.

Answer. gcd(700, 120) = gcd(22 · 52 · 7, 23 · 3 · 5) = 22 · 5 = 20.
6. Are 3 and 105 relatively prime? Explain
Answer. No. gcd(3, 105) = 3 = 1
7. Let n ∈ Z+ . Show: gcd(n, 2n) = n.

Answer. Observe that n > 0, n | n and n | 2n. Suppose c > 0,

c | n, and c | 2n. Since c is a divisor of n, there is a lemma that
tells us that c ≤ n. Hence, n = gcd(n, 2n).

8. Two spinning gear wheels are adjacent, as pictured.

✓✏
A q B
✒✑
Gear A has 12 equally-spaced teeth, gear B has n equally-spaced teeth,
and the size of B is such that the spacing between its teeth is the same as
that of A. What necessary conditions on n force every tooth of gear B to
eventually touch the pictured black tooth on gear A?
3.3. CHAPTER
198 3 CHAPTER 3.198
TEST BANK

Answer. gcd(12, n) = 1. That is, 2 - n and 3 - n.

9. Evaluate lcm(60, 36).

60·36
Answer. 12 = 180.

Section 3.2
1. Find the smallest element of the set

{m : m = 15 + 6n > 0 for some n ∈ Z}.

Answer. 3. It occurs when n = −2.

2. Prove or disprove: If 2n + 1 is prime, then n is prime.

Answer. False. Consider n = 4.

3. Compute each of the following:

(a) 87 div 12.

(b) 55 mod 7.
(c) −47 mod 10.

Answer.
(a) 7.
(b) 6.
(c) 3.

4. Show: ∀ n ∈ Z, 4 - (n2 + 1).

Answer. By the Division Algorithm, we can write n = 4k + r

for some k ∈ Z and r ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}.
So n2 + 1 = (4k + r)2 + 1 = 4k 2 + 8kr + r 2 + 1.
Case 0 : r = 0. So, n2 + 1 = 4(k 2 ) + 1.
Case 1 : r = 1. So, n2 + 1 = 4(k 2 + 2k) + 2.
Case 2 : r = 2. So, n2 + 1 = 4(k 2 + 4k + 1) + 1.
Case 3 : r = 3. So, n2 + 1 = 4(k 2 + 6k + 2) + 2.
In each case, we see that (n2 + 1) mod 4 = 1 or 2 (never 0).
Hence, 4 - (n2 + 1).

5. Compute each of the following:

(a) b−6.3c.
(b) d3.2e.
(c) d−5.8e.
3.3. CHAPTER
199 3 CHAPTER 3.199
TEST BANK

Answer.
(a) −7.
(b) 4.
(c) −5.

6. Let n ∈ Z. Show: bn + 12 c = n.

Answer. Observe that n ∈ Z and n ≤ n + 1

2 < n + 1.

7. Prove or disprove: ∀ x, y ∈ R, bxyc = bxcbyc.

Answer. Counterexample: Let x = 12 and y = 2.

So bxyc = b1c = 1 and bxcbyc = 0 · 2 = 0. However, 1 = 0.

8. The identification number d1 d2 · · · d10 on an American Express Traveler’s

Check satisfies d1 + d2 + · · · + d10 mod 9 = 0. Determine the check digit
# on the check number 536178450#.

Answer. 6.

9. The UPC number for Huggies Ultratrim Diapers is read in as

0 36000 5219# 8,

where # is a digit that cannot be read. Determine the value of that

missing digit.

Answer. 4.

10. Use the letter to number conversions “ ” = 0, A = 1, ... , Z = 26 and

a shift cipher with n = 27 and encrypting shift value b = 5 to decrypt
“HFQHZQZX”.

Answer. “CALCULUS”.

11. Use the letter to number conversions “ ” = 0, A = 1, ... , Z = 26 and

a shift cipher with n = 27 and encrypting shift value b = 14 to decrypt
“JEB TN FJRW”.

Answer. “WRONG ANSWER”.

2
12. Prove: ∀ n ∈ Z, b n2 cd n2 e = b n4 c.

Answer. Case 2 1 : n is even.

Note 2n n2 = n4 .
Case 1 : n is odd.
n 2−1
Note n−1
2
n+1
2 = 4 .
3.3. CHAPTER
200 3 CHAPTER 3.200
TEST BANK

Answer.

13. A binary linear code turns a 3-digit binary message b1 b2 b3 into a 6-digit
code word b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 according to the following formulas

b4 = (b1 + b2 + b3 ) mod 2
b5 = (b1 + b2 ) mod 2
b6 = (b2 + b3 ) mod 2.

(a) Make a table for the entire code.

(b) What is the weight of this code?
(c) Using nearest neighbor decoding, to what message should the code
word 111010 be decoded?

Answer. (a) Message Code Word

000 000000
001 001101
010 010111
011 011010
100 100110
101 101011
110 110001
111 111100
(b) 3.
(c) 011.

Section 3.3
1. Use any method you wish to find integers x, y such that gcd(55, 35) =
55x + 35y.

Answer. gcd(55, 35) = 5 = 55(2) + 35(−3).

2. Prove or disprove that 20x + 16y = 2 has a solution with x, y ∈ Z.

Answer. There is no such solution, since 4(5x + 4y) = 2 would

imply that 4 | 2.

3. Compute gcd(68, 20) using Euclid’s algorithm. Show your work.

Answer.
gcd(68, 20) = gcd(20, 8) since 68 = (20)3 + 8
= gcd(8, 4) since 20 = (8)2 + 4
= gcd(4, 0) since 8 = (4)2 + 0
= 4 obvio usly.

4. Use Euclid’s algorithm to find gcd(88, 32) and to write it in the form
88x + 32y for x, y ∈ Z.
3.3. CHAPTER
201 3 CHAPTER 3.201
TEST BANK

Answer.
gcd(88, 32) = gcd(32, 24) since 88 = (32)2+24, so 24 = 88−(32)2
= gcd(24, 8) since 32 = (24)1+8, so 8 = 32−(24)1
= gcd(8, 0) since 24 = (8)3+0
= 8 obviously.

Therefore,

8 = 32 − (24)1 = 32 − (88 − 2(32))1 = (88)(−1) + (32)(3).

That is, gcd(88, 32) = 8 = 88x + 32y for x = −1 and y = 3.

5. Show: ∀ n ∈ Z, n and 2n + 1 are relatively prime.

Answer. (−2)(n) + (1)(2n + 1) = 1.

6. Let m, n, c ∈ Z. Is it always true that, if c | mn and c - m then c | n?

Why?

Answer. No. Consider m = n = 2 and c = 4.

Section 3.4
1. Show that 1.403 is rational.
1403
Answer. 1.403 = 1000 and 1403, 1000 ∈ Z with 1000 = 0.

2. Show that 0.234 is rational.

Answer. Let x = 0.234. So 10x = 2.34 and 1000x = 234.34.

Since 990x = 1000x − 10x = 232, it follows that
232 116
0.234 = x = 990 = 495 .
Since 116, 495 ∈ Z and 495 = 0, we see that 0.234 is rational.
r
3. Let r ∈ R. Use only the definition of Q to show: If r ∈ Q, then 6 ∈ Q.

Answer. Suppose r ∈ Q. So r = ab for some a, b ∈ Z with b = 0.

Observe that r = a and a, 6b ∈ Z with 6b = 0. Thus, r ∈ Q.
6 6b 6

a b
4. Let a, b ∈ Z. Show: If b is in lowest terms and is positive, then a is in

lowest terms.

Answer. Suppose ab is in lowest terms and is positive. Since ab

is in lowest terms, gcd(a, b) = 1 and b > 0. Since ab is positive,
a > 0. Since a > 0 and gcd(b, a) = gcd(a, b) = 1, it follows that
b
a is in lowest terms.

14
5. Write 33 in decimal form without using a calculator. Show your work.
3.3. CHAPTER
202 3 CHAPTER 3.202
TEST BANK

Answer.

Answer.

. 4 2
33 ) 1 4. 0
- 1 3 2
8 0 remainder 8
- 6 6
1 4 remainder 14
14
So 33
= 0.42.
√ √
6. Show that 11 is irrational by mimicking the proof that 2 is irrational.
√ √
Answer. Suppose 11 is not irrational. Write 11 = ba in lowest
√
terms. So b 11 = a. So b2 11 = a2 . So 11 | a2 . Since 11 is prime,
11 | a. Write a = 11c. So b2 11 = a2 = 112 c2 . So b2 = 11c2 .
So 11 | b2 . Since 11 is prime, 11 | b. So gcd(a, b) ≥ 11. This
contradicts the assumption that ab is in lowest terms.
3
7. Use the result from problem 1 to show that √ 11−1 is irrational.

Answer. Suppose to the contrary that r = √ 3 is rational. So

11−1
√ 11 = r+3

r . Since r is clearly nonzero, the arithmetic properties

of Q guarantee that r+3 r is rational. This contradicts the result
√
from problem 1 that 11 is irrational. Hence, it must be that
√ 3 is irrational.
11−1

8. Show that log2 (11) 6∈ Q.

Answer. Suppose to the contrary that log2 (11) ∈ Q. Write

a
log2 (11) = ab , with a, b > 0. So 2 b = 11. So 2a = 11b . By
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, a = b = 0. This is a
contradiction.

9. Is the product of irrational numbers always irrational? Justify your an-

swer.
√
Answer. No. E.g. x = y = 2, xy = 2.

10. Show: ∀ x ∈ R, if x2 6∈ Q, then x 6∈ Q.

Answer. Suppose x ∈ Q. Hence, the product x2 ∈ Q.

p √
11. Use the Rational Roots Theorem to show that 1+ 2 6∈ Q.
3.3. CHAPTER
203 3 CHAPTER 3.203
TEST BANK

Answer. p Scratch√ work.

Let r = 1 + 2.
√
So r 2 = 1 + 2.
√
Hence, r 2 − 1 = 2.
So r 4 − 2r 2 + 1 = 2.
Therefore, r 4 − 2r 2 − 1 = 0.
Proof.
Let f (x) = x4 − 2x2 − 1. By the Rational Roots Theorem,
p the
√
only possible rational roots of fpare ±1. Of course, 1+ 2
√
is
p neither 1 nor −1. Since f ( 1 + 2) = 0, it follows that
√
1 + 2 must be irrational.
12. Show that √ 2+1 √3 is algebraic.

√ √ √
Answer. Let x = √ 1√ = 3− 2. So x2 = 5 − 2 6. Since
√ 2+ 3

x2 − 5 = −2 6, we see that x2 − 10x + 25 = (x2 − 5)2 = 24.

Thus, x2 − 10x + 1 = 0. Since √ 1√

2+ 3
is a root of the polynomial

x2 − 10x + 1 (which has integer coefficients), √ 1√

2+ 3
is algebraic.

Section 3.5
1. Determine if the following statements are True or False.
(a) 28 ≡ 10 (mod 3).
(b) 4 ≡ 0 (mod 8).

Answer.
(a) True.
(b) False.

2. In a single year, is it possible for July 4th and Christmas (December 25th)
to occur on the same day of the week? Justify your answer.

Answer. No, since (27 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 25) mod 7 = 6 = 0.

3. Let a, b, n ∈ Z with n > 1.

Show: If a ≡ −b (mod n), then a2 ≡ b2 (mod n).

Answer. Suppose a ≡ −b (mod n). So n | (a + b). That is,

(a + b) = nk for some k ∈ Z. Observe that

a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) = n · k(a − b)

and k(a − b) ∈ Z. Thus, n | a2 − b2 . That is, a2 ≡ b2 (mod n).

4. Compute (368135 + 35) mod 9.

3.3. CHAPTER
204 3 CHAPTER 3.204
TEST BANK

Answer. Observe that

368135 = 9 · 368133 ≡ 0 · 368133 ≡ 0 (mod 9).

Hence, (368135 + 35) mod 9 = 35 mod 9 = 8.

5. Use the fact that 34 ≡ 1 (mod 10) to compute 353186 mod 10.

Answer. 353186 ≡ (34 )13296 · 32 ≡ 113296 · 9 ≡ 9 (mod 10). So,

353186 mod 10 = 9.

6. Show: ∀ n ∈ Z, (3n4 + 1)2 ≡ 1 (mod 5).

(
0 if n ≡ 0 (mod 5),
Answer. Let n ∈ Z. First observe that n4 ≡
1 if n 6≡ 0 (mod
( 5).
1 if n ≡ 0 (mod 5),
So, 3n4 + 1 ≡
−1 if n 6≡ 0 (mod 5).

Since 12 = (−1)2 = 1, we see that (3n4 + 1)2 ≡ 1 (mod 5).

7. Use Fermat’s Little Theorem to help you compute 7123432 mod 11.

Answer. Since 11 is prime and 11 - 7, Fermat’s Little Theorem

tells us that 710 ≡ 1 (mod 11). Hence,

7123432 ≡ (710 )12343 · 72 ≡ 112343 · 49 ≡ 49 ≡ 4 (mod 11).

Therefore, 7123432 mod 11 = 4.

8. A certain product ID code is 4 characters long and is constructed using

only the letters in Table 3.1. A linear cipher with n = 7, a = 3, and b = 1

A B C D E F G
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Table 3.1: Converting Letters to Numbers

(i.e. y = (3x + 1) mod 7) is used to encode the ID’s.

(a) Encrypt ‘FACE’.

(b) Decrypt ‘GDFG’.

Answer.
(a) CBAG.
(b) EDGE.

9. Use binary expansion and repeated squaring to compute 207 mod 403.
3.3. CHAPTER
205 3 CHAPTER 3.205
TEST BANK

Answer. 266.
Note that 7 = 4 + 2 + 1, and 202 ≡ −3, 204 ≡ 9 (mod 403).
Also, 9 · (−3) · 20 ≡ −540 ≡ 266 (mod 403).

10. A company is using the RSA encryption method with p = 7 and q = 17,
so n = 119. The number a = 35 is used to encode messages via y =
x35 mod 119. Note that c = 11 is a multiplicative inverse of a modulo 48.
(a) Encrypt the message x = 2.
(b) Decrypt the message y = 5.

Answer.
(a) 25. (Note that 27 ≡ 9 (mod 119).)
(b) 45. (Note that 53 ≡ 6 (mod 119).)

11. Find and simplify [13]10 + [7]10 .

Answer. [20]10 = [0]10 .

Another random document with
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fact, stands prominently upon the low land around it, like an island in
a dried-up sea, and it is this which has given occasion for the
Abyssinians to compare their country with the orange red flower of
the Soof, (Carthamus tinctorius,)[6] the compound corolla surrounded
by sharp thorns, which are supposed aptly enough to represent the
barbarous Galla tribes that beset Abyssinia on every side.
In this delineation of Abyssinia by Ibrahim I first observed the
discrepancy between the present received opinions of our
geographers, that that country is connected on the south with a
supposed extensive table land in the interior of Africa, and that which
is entertained by the natives themselves, of the well defined and
distinctly marked isolated plateau they inhabit.
Upon the represented surface of Abyssinia two principal streams
were now delineated, one called the Abiah, flowing from the east and
the south; and the other from the north, the Abi, or Bruce’s Nile,
which falls into the Abiah immediately after leaving the table land in
the vicinity of Fazuglo. From the rivers Abi and Abiah is derived the
name Abisha, the original of our word Abyssinia, signifying the
country of the Abi; “cha” or “sha,” country, being a frequent
compound of the names of large localities, as Dembeacha, the
country of Dembea; Angotcha, the country of Angot; Damotcha, and
many others.
We now came to the more interesting examination of the sources
and course of the river Gibbee, the great geographical problem
connected with this country as yet undecided by any competent
authority. There is no doubt, however, that the Gibbee of the present
day is the Zibbee of the Portuguese travellers of the seventeenth
century, and the Kibbee of Bruce. Recent visitors to these countries,
Krapf, Beke, and Harris, all bear testimony to the correctness of the
account given by their predecessors, that this river runs to the south
and empties itself into the Indian Ocean. I have ventured to differ
altogether from these travellers; and, as will be perceived in my
diagram map at the commencement of this volume, I direct the
stream of the Zibbee or Gibbee to the north and west, contributing to
form the much larger river Abiah, which is the main branch of Assa-
abi, or red river, most erroneously written in all European maps Bahr
ul Assareek, or the Blue Nile. It is impossible to say with whom this
error originated, but probably with some speculative geographer; for
by distorting the words “assa arogue” in Amharic, the old red river, a
word, similar in sound to a Turkish one, signifying blue, has been
manufactured; and Assareek, or Blue Nile, is now the generally
received name of the time-honoured Assa-abinus, the Jupiter of the
ancient Ethiopians, and the original, I believe, of the Egyptian god
Serapis. The true blue river is, in fact, the Nile itself, “nil” being the
name of indigo at the present day all along the valley of that river;
and in the same language, let it be borne in mind, as every other
important designation of this interesting part of the world, the word
“nil” is still the word for blue, and with such a signification we find it in
many names of places both in India and Persia, of which a familiar
example is the celebrated Sanatarium station, near Madras, of
Neilgherry, from Nila gira, the blue hills. The sacred colour, also, that
which distinguished the priests of ancient Egypt, was blue, and no
doubt bore some reference to the name of the river, which was
originally the object of their worship, for in the names of two of its
principal branches, Apis and Serapis, we have the elements of the
words Abi and Assaabi, the terminal sigma being the usual Grecian
affix to foreign names.
In this manner I bring in the authority of Herodotus, and of the
Egyptian priest who informed him of the origin of the Nile, in support
of my views respecting the rivers of Abyssinia.[7] It is generally
admitted that the Bahr ul Abiad was scarcely known to the ancients;
at all events it held but a very inferior rank in any account of the
rivers of Africa that has been transmitted to our times. I am,
therefore, led to believe that the scribe of the sacred treasury of
Minerva, who willingly informed Herodotus of what he knew
respecting the sources of the Nile, alluded to the two streams of the
table land of Abyssinia, the Abi flowing from the north, and the Abiah
flowing from the south; which rivers uniting formed the Assa-abi of
ancient days, the Assa-arogue of modern times, and which most
certainly was the object of religious worship among the ancient
Ethiopians.
 I would not dare to advance an opinion so directly opposed to the
apparently well-considered conclusions arrived at by previous
travellers, but that I am convinced that those which they now
advocate have been the result of biassed consultations in the closet,
where ingenious, but not travelled, geographers have successfully
combated the actual results of information derived upon the spot.
Krapf, Beke, and Harris, all sent home maps and information, in
which the river Gibbee is made to join the Nile, and each have
successively given way to subsequent influences. The fact of the
Assa-abi, or Assareek, flooding in May, according to the observation
of Mr. Inglish, who accompanied the expedition of Mahomed Allee to
Sennaar, could not be accounted for by Abyssinian travellers
without, in fact, leading the Gibbee, or some other large river, to join
the Abi, or Bruce’s Nile, for this latter does not commence to swell
before the latter end of June, and could not therefore contribute to
the rise of the waters of the Assa-abi in May. This was another
reason that should have influenced these travellers to adhere to their
Abyssinian information, for no argument that could be brought to
bear against it could stand for a moment. But, it has been observed,
there is the positive testimony of the Father Antonio Fernandez, who,
in 1615, passed over the Kibbee twice in his journey to Enarea and
Zingero. To this I answer, that the historiographer of “The Travels of
Jesuits in Abyssinia,” F. Balthazer Tellez, so represents it, but not, I
think, upon the authority of Fernandez, but merely as an opinion of
his own; but asserted with so much positiveness, that it might readily
be supposed part of the information which he derived from
Fernandez. Compare what Tellez says in his summary of the rivers
of Ethiopia—“There is another celebrated river called Zebee, said to
be greater than the Nile itself, rising in a territory called Bora, in the
kingdom of Narea, which is the most southerly, and whereof we shall
speak hereafter. It begins its course westward, a few leagues farther
turns to the northward, and runs about the kingdom of Zingero, of
which we shall also give an account, making it a sort of peninsula, as
the Nile does the kingdom of Gojam. After leaving this kingdom, it
takes its course to the southward; and some say, it is the same that
falls into the sea at Mombaza.” Tellez alludes to the course of the
Zebee again, when recounting the visit of Fernandez to the Court of
Zingero; but merely observes, that it encompasses the kingdom of
Zingero, making it a sort of peninsula, and then runs to empty itself
towards the coast of Melinda; thus embodying, as it were, in an
account of the southern parts of Abyssinia, professed to be given by
Fernandez, that view of the course of the river he had previously
advocated and represented in the small map placed at the
commencement of his volume.
Tellez, whilst he is minute enough upon the manners and customs
of the people of Abyssinia, and dilates upon the history of the
labours of his order in that country, contrives to mystify us
considerably in the geography and politics. I cannot help thinking he
was directed by some Government to write as he did for a particular
purpose, or was jealous of other nations reaping the benefits of the
ill-judged policy of the Jesuits, which had terminated in their
exclusion from the country; and, which, he was fully conscious, was
a very available and a wide field for religious zeal or commercial
enterprise to reap rich rewards for the trouble of exploring.
It is a matter of the greatest notoriety, that even in the present
enlightened times, it does not follow, because the emissaries of any
Government visit and observe unknown countries, that they give
correct geographical or political information for the benefit of other
nations. Least of any, can such disingenuousness be expected from
the Portuguese Court of the seventeenth century; and I cannot
therefore, but believe, confirmed as the opinion is by the internal
evidence of the book itself, that the imperfect, incorrect, and
distorted account of the travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, was written
for the political purpose of misleading the enterprising spirits of other
nations. Most effectually did it accomplish this object, and for two
more centuries was this important country consigned to that
obscurity, in which, for so many ages previous to its re-discovery by
the Portuguese, its history had been involved. This, however, was
not the only injury done to the progress of human civilization; for
whilst the natives were thus allowed to fall still lower in barbarism,
the Jesuitical statements interfered with European enlightenment;
and geographers and men of letters have been misled in many
particulars respecting the character of the country, and of the
disposition of the various people who inhabit Abyssinia. I can ill
afford the space, but to illustrate the manner in which Tellez
endeavours to mislead, as regards geographical matters, I will here
introduce a most glaring instance, which, I trust, may be received as
my apology and excuse for presuming, as I have done, to question
the integrity of the great authority of recent Abyssinian travellers; for,
without Tellez, they have no authenticated evidence to oppose
against that, which I can bring forward to prove that the Gibbee
flows, not to the south, and to the Indian ocean, but to the north, and
into the Nile. Even Bruce, much as I respect him, as the prince of
travellers, evidently follows Tellez in his account of the Gibbee; and it
is curious to remark, that not only as regards this river, but upon
other subjects where he has exaggerated so much as to be
supposed to be drawing upon his imagination, he is actually using
almost the very words of the Jesuit historian.
Speaking of the Embassy dispatched to Portugal in the year
1613, by the Emperor Segued, which consisted of some natives of
rank, accompanied by the father Antonio Fernandez, and ten other
Portuguese, Tellez informs us, “These men were directed to take a
route through Narea to Melinda, upon the coast, the Emperor
believing (and he, it may be supposed, would be very likely to have
the best information) that the road was shorter and easier than the
one to Massoah.” This opinion we find still farther confirmed when
the Embassy arrived at Narea, for there the Bonero, or Governor,
determined the party should not proceed “by the way they designed,
which was the best, lest the Portuguese should become acquainted
with it.” These native authorities, however, are deemed of no value
by Tellez, who thus decides the matter at once, “Now, to deal plainly,
the way the father (Fernandez) proposed through Cafah was no
better than this (the road back again to the north and east); because,
proceeding south from Narea, there is no coming to the sea without
travelling many hundred leagues to the Cape of Good Hope, as may
appear by all modern maps, so that the whole project had nothing of
likelihood.”
Father Antonio Fernandez himself does not appear, in Tellez, to
have kept any regular account of the journey; and yet there is
internal evidence in what is given to the reader in the “Travels of the
Jesuits,” that in reality the greatest attention was paid to every
subject of interest; and as we must conceive that the first object of
the Government, who supported and encouraged the Jesuits in
Abyssinia, was to obtain correct geographical knowledge of that part
of Africa, I cannot but believe that this was particularly attended to by
their agents; but that when afterwards the travels were published to
satisfy public curiosity, it was found convenient to suppress the most
important information. This reason is sufficient also to account for the
mysterious disappearance of the greater part of the documents
which assisted Tellez in drawing up his compilation, a suspicious
circumstance of itself, that the object of this book was anything but to
give a correct description of the physical character and capabilities of
the country of Abyssinia.
I have dwelt too long, perhaps, upon an unimportant subject, but it
is necessary, because modern geographers invariably advance
Tellez as an unquestionable authority upon the subject of the water-
shed of the Gibbee; and with his assistance they have already
obliged more than one Abyssinian traveller to throw aside
information received in the country, and instead of adhering to
opinions advocated whilst there, to repudiate the whole, and follow in
supporting errors they thus confessed themselves unable to refute.
This is not the only evil of their inconsistency, for their present
opinions are so many important authorities which have an equal
claim to the attention of the scientific world as my own, and render it
impossible for my testimony, even were it demonstrated to be
correct, to be received against the conjoined evidence of two or
three others who have visited Abyssinia as well as myself. This I
admit to be fair, but not so the attempts which have been made to
convince me of my geographical errors, not by argument, but by
threats of all kinds of critical pains and penalties, for my presumption
in advancing views so contrary to generally received accounts. Be it
so, I feel quite assured there is some portion of the reviewing press,
who will scorn to be made the instruments of unfair attacks upon any
one, contending only for what he believes to be true, and for no other
motive, but the instruction of himself and others.
 Around his rude outline of Abyssinia, my native informant Ibrahim
placed representatives of the Shankalli, who surrounded that
country, except upon its eastern side, where another black race, the
Dankalli, testify by their skins, to a similar low elevation of the
country they inhabit. Ibrahim thus undesignedly proved the
correctness of his information, for it struck me, that no physical
feature is so conclusive as to the character of a country, whether
high or low land, than the complexion of its inhabitants. An
exception, however, to thus entirely surrounding the high land of
Abyssinia with the two nations of blacks was made to the north and
south of the country of Adal, where two oppositely situated water-
sheds are drained by the two rivers, the Tacazza and the Whabbee,
the former flowing into the Nile, the latter into the Indian Ocean at
Jubah. The character of both the countries through which these
rivers flow are, in one respect, similar; their elevation being
intermediate between the low plains of Adal, and the table land of
Abyssinia, or about six thousand feet high above the level of the sea.
The inhabitants of either water-shed also resemble each other in
their colour, being a dark brown, modified by parentage and descent,
for the complexion of the inhabitants of Tigre and Angotcha,
approaches to the red colour of the real Abyssinian, whilst the skins
of the Gallas around the sources of the Whabbee have a duskier
inclination towards the original colour of their Dankalli and Shankalli
parents.
To the north of Dembeacha, around the lower course of the
Tacazza, European travellers attest the existence of Shankalli, whilst
the officers attached to the exploring armies of Mahomed Allee,
found them also all along the course of Bahr ul Assareek to Fazuglo,
and report them as extending an indefinite distance to the south. On
the other hand, I have seen and spoken with Shankalli or negroes
who had been brought into Shoa from beyond Kuffah, Enarea, and
Limmoo; and Ibrahim also was most particular in stating that all
around those places to the south was the black country, Tokruah, the
Amharic name for that colour, and which is the origin of the general
native designation of interior Africa, and is synonymous with Sudan,
derived from the Arabic Asward, black.
 The inference that is to be derived from this fact, of the Shankalli
being found in the immediate neighbourhood of a very light
complexioned people, is, that the high table land of Abyssinia
suddenly slopes, on its south and west sides, from the elevation of
ten or twelve thousand feet, to a low country of less than three
thousand feet high, a scarp of perhaps thirty miles only intervening
between the two very differently situated countries.
I take it for granted the reader is aware that the light yellow-
coloured people of Enarea and Zingero attest, by their skin, the
elevation I have assumed for these southern Abyssinian kingdoms. It
is, I think, undeniable that the table-land increases in elevation to the
south, for all travellers agree that the complexion of the inhabitants
becomes fairer as they increase in distance from Shoa in that
direction; and I need not observe the contrary would naturally be
expected as we approach nearer to the equator. Several people I
have seen, however, who came from within five degrees of the line,
and were much lighter coloured than the generality of Spaniards.
This would not be the case with a people living only upon a mountain
ridge, even if the delicate frames of the yellow Zingero people
attested, by a different character, the hardy life of a mountaineer.
There must be, therefore, I should suppose, a considerable
continuity of surface to seclude a large family of man from the
otherwise unavoidable intercourse with the darker skinned
inhabitants of the low land, and to have enabled a very ancient
people to continue unchanged their fair complexion nearly in the
centre of a continent of blacks.
These are the principal reasons which have led me to contend for
the tabular character of Abyssinia to the south, instead of, as modern
travellers invariably represent it, as being divided through its extent
by an anticlinal axis, which divides the waters that flow to the north-
west and to the Nile, from those which, on the contrary, proceed to
the south-east and to the Indian Ocean. This impression, and
Tellez’s apparently positive statement that the Zibbee flows to the
southward, I am afraid, however will still be proof against my
arguments, and until some enterprizing traveller visits the countries
of Enarea and Zingero, and decides by actual observation, my
readers may still amuse themselves by forming opinions upon this
debatable subject. For their assistance I have, therefore, recorded
the results of my observations, and the information I received in a
country scarcely one hundred miles from these interesting and
remote localities.
The Gibbee, or Zibbee, by Ibrahim’s account, rose in Enarea,
where its sources were called Somma, which, in the Gonga
language signifies, “head.” At this place, annually, many superstitious
practices are observed, the last remains, I expect, of the ancient
river worship that was once general throughout the whole of
Abyssinia. The Agows of Northern Abyssinia, who are of Gonga
origin, still profess to worship the Abi, although no traveller has yet
given us any account of their ceremonies; the more to be regretted,
as it would throw considerable light upon the ancient customs of an
early state of society, when Abyssinia was the centre of all
civilization in the world.
After flowing some distance to the south and east, the Gibbee
was represented to me as taking a course similar to that of the Abi
around Gojam, nearly encircling the kingdom of Zingero, which is
separated from Gurague by this very stream, then a large river, and
still flowing to the south. After passing westward between Zingero
and Kuffah, the Gibbee then takes the name of Ankor from the
principal province of Zingero which borders upon it, and in which the
King resides; it then bends towards the north and west, passing to
the south of Enarea, where it is called Durr, and receives a large
river, the Omo, coming from Kuffah. From several reasons I believe
the Omo to be the main branch, and the Durr merely another name
for it; however, as some large stream does join the Gibbee from the
south, I have so designated in my map one which I have laid down
as coming from that direction. After the Gibbee has passed Enarea,
it flows to the west of Limmoo, where it is best known as the Abiah,
the common Galla name of the large river which, in that situation,
breaks from the table-land, and then proceeds towards the north
some distance through the country of the Shankalli before it
receives, in the neighbourhood of Fazuglo, the waters of the Abi,
which drains northern Abyssinia. After the junction of these two, the
name Gibbee then re-assumes in part its most ancient name Assa-
arogue, the original of Assareek, meaning in Amharic the old Assa,
or red river, so called from flowing through the country of the red
people, in contradistinction to that portion of the Nile supposed to
flow from a country of the whites: hence, the name of Ab-Addo, the
principal western branch of the Bahr ul Abiad, which, as in Arabic,
signifies “the river of the whites.”
Gibbee, the modern form of Zibbee, lends its name to assist in
unravelling the mystery of its course, for I derive it from the word
Azzabe, or Assabi; the origin of the Assabinus, whom Latin authors
represent to have been the Jupiter of the Ethiopians, by which is
meant, I presume, the principal god of the people. If it be admitted
that its name and that of the Zibbee are the same, there can be but
little doubt of their streams being one, and that the latter is the early
course of the former. Strange rumours reach the ears of travellers in
Abyssinia, of human sacrifices being still practised by the Pagan
inhabitants of Zingero, whilst even in the Christian kingdom of
Enarea it is not unusual for slave Kafilahs, on crossing the Gibbee,
to propitiate the god of that river by immolating the most beautiful of
the virgin slaves in its waters. A similar custom was formerly
practised in Egypt; for an Arab geographer, quoted by Mr. Cooley,
either in his Notes to “Larcher’s Herodotus,” or “The Negroland of the
Arabs,” records this circumstance. This coincidence of an inhuman
practice seems also to point to a connexion between the sacred
character of the Gibbee and that of the Nile. Another ceremony also,
in which, on the election of a king, the inhabitants of Zingero collect
upon the banks of the Gibbee, until upon some one’s head a bee
should rest, who is immediately proclaimed to be the sovereign, I
have some idea was the reason of that little insect being made the
hieroglyphical representative of king or chief among the ancient
Egyptians, and perhaps at one period of their history a similar
custom prevailed among them.
The Gibbee is at the present time a holy river, as was the Assabi
among the Ethiopians, and which was also the original of the
Egyptian god, Serapis. This latter supposition is confirmed by the
fact that, in some parts of its course, the Abi of Northern Abyssinia at
the present day is similarly worshipped, and that its sources, in the
time of the Portuguese missionaries, were actually the scene of
Pagan sacrifices. The ancient Apis I consider to have been no other;
for the Grecian terminal being rejected, the identity of the two names
Abi and Api is manifest, whilst that of Assabi and Serapi is equally
evident.
That the river Gibbee cannot be the earlier tributary of the Gochob
of Dr. Beke, is proved by what we are told by Major Harris, of a river
so called, entering the sea at Jubah. If this be the case there can no
longer be any doubt of the identity of the Gochob with the Whabbee,
and which I feel more assured of, from the information I have
received, compared with the accounts sent to the Geographical
Society of Paris, by M. d’Abbadie, from Berberah, on the Soumaulee
coast, respecting the entrance of the Whabbee into the sea at
Jubah.
Nor is this idea at all affected by the discoveries of Lieut.
Christopher on the coast near Brava, respecting a river said to be
the Whabbee, which runs parallel to the sea-coast in that situation
for more than one hundred miles, and then terminates in a fresh-
water lake, some short distance inland; for this may be the northern
arm of a delta-formed termination of the river, which has been
prevented from reaching the sea in that situation, by the strong
marine current known to exist along that coast, to the south-west.
This has occasioned the silting up of this entrance of the river, so
that it is only in very high seasons indeed of flood, that the fluvatile
water bursts through, or overflows the barrier, and escapes to the
sea. The mouths of several other African rivers present similar
phenomena. The discovery of the Haines branch of the delta of the
Whabbee proves, in fact, the correctness of all native accounts, who
represent a large branch as leaving the main trunk of the Whabbee
at Ganana, and terminating in a lake of fresh water, not far distant
from Brava, and which intercepted river is supposed to resemble “a
tail,” and hence the name, “Ganana.” All informants agree, however,
that the principal stream, still called the Whabbee, proceeds to
Jubah, so that unless the Gochob is admitted to be that river, some
other embouchure must be procured for the latter.
 Denying, in this manner, the connexion of the Gibbee with the
Gochob of Dr. Beke, for every Abyssinian informant states positively
that the Gibbee does not go to the Whabbee, and which, as far as I
can judge, appears to be the original of the Gochob, there is but one
other river flowing to the south, which the Gibbee can be supposed
to join. This is the Kalli, which empties itself into the Indian Ocean by
many mouths, about three degrees south of the equator, the
principal of which appears to be that of Lamoo. No traveller gives
any account of this river, though certainly it is a most important one
in connexion with our future intercourse with the high land of
Abyssinia. It is, as its name, Kalli, implies, a river of the black people,
as the Assabi, or Zebee, of the table land above belongs exclusively
to the country of a red race. The Portuguese name, Killimancy, is
merely the addition of a word, signifying river in the Shankalli
language, to the original Arian term, Kalli. The sources of this river
are upon the southern scarp of the Abyssinian table land, in the
same manner as the tributaries of the Hawash arise upon the
eastern border. The two principal branches of the Kalli, I was told,
enclose or receive in the bifurcation, the termination of the table land
to the south.
A considerable degree of interest attaches itself to this river, and I
could wish to see the attention of our geographers and politicians
directed to its examination. All the red Abyssinian slaves, after a
month’s journey through the country about the upper part of its
course, are then embarked and conveyed down this river to Lamoo,
to be carried away and disposed of in the Asiatic markets. It is by
this channel also the Abashee colonies on the Malabar coast, of
which Major Jervis has written some notices in a late volume of the
“Bombay Geographical Society’s Journal,” are recruited. Those of
the native Christians on the same coast I have seen myself are
decidedly of Abyssinian origin, and perhaps that religion may have
been introduced into India by missionaries from that country. It was
singular that when an important and expensive Political Mission was
about being sent into Abyssinia, some inquiries were not made
respecting this southern route, along which a considerable
intercourse at the present day exists between India and Abyssinia.
 Independently of the table land to the south of the Gibbee
increasing considerably in elevation, every other circumstance
connected with its name and situation tends to show that the
direction of its stream cannot be towards the south to join the Kalli.
The stream of the Gibbee, in fact, is a large and navigable river,
crossed immediately by slave Kafilahs from Enarea and Zingero
during their journey to Lamoo, and they have then to proceed an
entire month before they come to another river, the Kalli, to convey
them to their destination. The Whabbee and the Kalli, therefore, can
neither of them be supposed to be the lower stream of the Gibbee;
but there is a large river of which every Galla speaks who comes
from Limmoo, Jimma, and other districts in that neighbourhood; and
which flows south, say Mr. M’Queen and Major Harris, whilst Dr.
Beke denied its existence altogether, until my views were laid before
the Geographical Society. He admitted certainly having heard, the
small stream of the Dedassa, flowing into the Abi, in one instance
called the Abiah. This gentleman appears to have confounded the
names Abi and Abiah, believing that the latter was the Galla
pronunciation of the former, and his Geography of Southern
Abyssinia being founded upon this supposition, he fell into the
opposite error to Major Harris; and crowded into a position too close
upon the south of the Abi, countries which, upon the authority of the
latter, have been carried to a situation not far from the equator; and
the Abiah, contrary to any sound information that could possibly
have been received, is taken away, to flow through unknown lands to
the south and west, where it is made to join the Bahr ul Abiad. Such
are travellers’ reports, and I profess to give no better, only that I
cannot afford to sacrifice the information I have obtained upon this
subject, to the speculative ideas of geographers, however learned,
and therefore obstinately persist in what they consider to be error,
when it has more the appearance of truth, than have the theories
which they can only advance in opposition.
The Abiah, which is almost denied to exist by one traveller, and
taken into remote countries by another, I believe to be the main
branch of the Gibbee, and have accordingly so laid it down in the
sketch map of the different water-sheds of Abyssinia I have projected
to assist me in explaining my ideas upon the subject.
 I will not, as I am almost tempted, recapitulate the evidences that
the Gibbee, the Abiah, and the ancient Assabi, are one and the
same river, and the principal branch of the Abyssinian Nile; for if that
which I have said is not sufficient to convince; to continue would only
be to fatigue the reader with suppositions, probabilities, and beliefs,
that would still, in the end, leave the subject in quite as
unsatisfactory a state as it remains at present.

FOOTNOTES:
[5] This individual figures in Major Harris’s “Highland of Ethiopia”
as Hadjji Mahomed; and the whole occurrence there related
happened during the journey to the coast in 1843. It is difficult,
therefore, to understand how it could be recorded as an incident
of a journey in 1841, and in an account stated to have been
written in the heart of Abyssinia. Numerous other instances of this
kind of interpolation of adventure could be pointed out which
would be immaterial, only, as I shall probably allude to the same
circumstances myself, of course I am anxious not to be supposed
to borrow them from the work of a cotemporary.
[6] By the old Portuguese writers denominated “the flower
Denguelet.”
[7] None of the Egyptians, or Africans, or Grecians, with whom I
had any discourse, would own to me their knowledge of the
fountains of the Nile, except only a scribe of the sacred treasury of
Minerva, in the city Sais in Egypt. He, indeed, cheerfully told me
that he certainly was acquainted with them. But this was the
account he gave, that there were two mountains, with peaked
tops, situated between Syene, a city of Thebais, and Elephantina;
the name of one of which was Krophi, of the other Mophi; that
from the midst of these two mountains arose the bottomless
fountains of the Nile; one part of its stream ran towards Egypt and
the north, the other part towards Ethiopia and the south. But that
the fountains were bottomless, he said that Psammeticus, a King
of Egypt, had made the experiment; after having tied ropes of
great length and let them down into the fountains, he could not
reach the bottom.—​Herodotus, book ii.
 CHAPTER VIII.
Water cure.—​Nearly killed by it.—​Ordered to leave Shoa.—​Proceed
to Angolahlah.—​Courteous treatment of the officers of the
Negoos.—​Entertainment.—​Remarks upon the character of Sahale
Selassee.—​The Mahomedan religion.
My illness increasing, each succeeding paroxysm of fever leaving
me in a more weakened condition, my servant proposed a remedy,
boasted never to fail in effecting a cure. I had but a scanty stock of
medicines, that I had brought with me from Aden, and these seemed
to have little or no effect upon my disease; so I determined to give
Walderheros a chance of distinguishing himself by conferring health
upon his “gaitah” (master).
To do this properly, it was deemed necessary that some water
should be fetched from a spring by a man, and as this is a species of
labour always performed by women, Walderheros, not to be seen at
such employment, undertook to take the water-jar for that purpose
the next morning before daylight. I also learnt that the cure was to be
effected by a kind of shower-bath, to which I was to submit, sitting
down whilst the water was poured from a height upon my head,
during the attack of the rigors which preceded the hot stage of the
ague fit.
The next day, accordingly, the water having been properly
procured, on the first symptoms of the fit coming on, I sat down in
the shade of a large ankor tree, a variety of the myrrh, that grows at
an elevation of seven thousand feet above the sea, but yields no
gum. Here, wrapt up in an Abyssinian tobe, which upon the first fall
of the water I was to drop from my shoulders, I awaited the coming
shower from above, for Walderheros had climbed into the tree, whilst
some assistants lifted up to him the large jar which contained the
water. The remedy, however, when it did come down, immediately
laid me full length upon the earth, for what with the collapse of the
system attendant upon the cold stage and the cold falling water, it
certainly cut short the fever, but nearly at the expense of my life, for
even when I recovered from the first shock, and was taken back to
my bed, I was delirious for several hours after,—a circumstance that
I have often had reason to be thankful for, had not been a very usual
symptom of my disease.
After this experience, that white men required a very different
medical treatment to the red Abyssinians (for in this manner
Walderheros endeavoured to account for the failure of his
hydropathic remedy), I was not asked again to submit to any more
native means of cure for some time; as my recovery, however, was
of the greatest importance to me, I commenced a regular course of
quinine and James’s Powder, and had it not been for a most
disagreeable interruption in the quiet and retired life I was leading in
Aliu Amba, I might, perhaps, have been soon restored to health.
On the tenth day after my last visit to Ankobar, the Negoos and
the members of the Embassy having, in the meantime, left that city
for Angolahlah, a message was brought to Miriam’s house for me to
go immediately to the Governor of the town, who had just arrived
from the Court on purpose to have me brought before him.
Feeling a little better than I had been for some time, and being
curious to know what business the Governor could have with me, I
followed his messenger, taking with me, as a present on being
introduced, an old pocket telescope. It was fortunate that I
recollected to do this, for on my giving it to him he was so highly
pleased, that he told me, through an Islam Hadjji named Abdullah,
that he was willing to serve me in any way he could in the very
awkward position I now learned I was placed in, by the order he had
received from the Negoos. For some reason or other, my presence
in the kingdom had raised a jealous feeling somewhere, and, in
consequence, a most arbitrary mandate, considering the then
relations between Shoa and England, was issued, and I was directed
to leave the country the very next day. Whilst we were speaking, two
men were sent with Walderheros for my boxes, to be brought at once
to the Governor’s house, previous to their being forwarded to Farree,
where the Kafilah with which I had come up, and which was now on
the eve of starting, afforded the opportunity of my proceeding to the
sea-coast. Here was another practical proof of the value of the
commercial treaty, and bitterly I commented, as may be supposed,
upon the worthless parchment. I felt quite assured that it would be of
no use applying to our Ambassador for redress, so considered it
would be best to submit in peace, and made no objections,
therefore, to my boxes being taken to the Governor’s house.
Not having made up my mind though, for all that, to leave the
country, I determined, after I had left Tinta (the name of the
Governor) to go and consult with a sincere friend of mine, an Edjow
Galla named Sheik Tigh, who had shown himself possessed of the
kindest disposition by his disinterested and patient attendance upon
my sick bed during the short period I had resided in Aliu Amba. He
was a Mahomedan mollum, or scribe, for his occupation was writing
copies of the Koran, which he used to sell to the slave merchants
who came from the more barbarous countries around Shoa. Either
on account of the trifling sum that these manuscript Korans can be
purchased for in Abyssinia, or the excessive neatness with which
Amhara Mahomedans write Arabic compared with even Arabs
themselves, these Abyssinian copies are highly prized even along
the sacred or eastern coast of the Red Sea, and in Jeddah will
command an increased value of two hundred per cent. upon their
original cost.
Sheik Tigh concurred immediately in my proposed plan, either of
endeavouring to remain in Shoa by a personal request to be made to
the Negoos; or of going away to Giddem, and from there to the court
of Beroo Lobo, the Mahomedan chief of that portion of the Argobbah,
or valley country that extends to the north of Efat, as far as the river
Tahlahlac, one of the most northern tributaries of the Hawash. The
state of my finances, however, I found would not admit of this latter
alternative; for, excepting the thirteen dollars remaining of the Hy
Soumaulee money, I had only seven dollars in the world.
It was at length determined amongst us, for Hadjji Abdullah had
joined in our consultation, that I should take another present to Tinta,
as a kind of bribe, and the real object of which Sheik Tigh was to
explain to him. I accordingly packed up a damask table-cloth, and
provided myself with three of the most favoured dollars I was
possessed of, and thus armed, went again in the dusk of the evening
to the house of the Governor. My offering was very quietly received
and concealed, by which I perceived the business had been properly
managed by Sheik Tigh, and that it was understood I was to have
unmolested, three hours’ start of him the next morning, to get over
the most difficult portion of the road to Angolahlah before he followed
in pursuit; a little manœuvre necessary to keep up appearances with
the Negoos; for although it would have been no very heinous offence
to have permitted me the opportunity of appealing to the justice of
Sahale Selassee, Tinta might have suffered for his generosity in
permitting me to come to Angolahlah, when he had received orders
to accompany me to Farree. Tinta, like most Abyssinians, was a
really kind-hearted man, but his education as a courtier, and that in a
despotic court, had taught him dissimulation and caution.
Walderheros, it may be supposed, was violently affected at the
prospect of losing his father, mother, brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts,
and cousins, all being, according to his account, rolled up in me. He
often used to observe, he was my child; though he was (beautiful
boy) at least ten years older than myself. He now protested he
should never survive our cruel separation. If it had not been for that
“kaffu” (wicked) Hawash, those “kaffu Adaloitsh,” (wicked Dankalli,)
and that “kaffu bahr,” (wicked sea,) he swore that he would have
followed me over the rest of the world. In this manner he went on
talking during the whole of the evening, with many imprecatory
bursts of “woi Negoos,” and “min Abat,” at the same time busying
himself making preparations for our sanctioned escape next morning
to Angolahlah, and what with cooking and expostulating with some
imaginary evil destiny that pursued him, he kept me awake nearly
the whole night.
As Hadjji Abdullah, after it was dark, had brought me his own
mule, it was stabled for the night in my house, and long before cock-
crow the next morning we were carefully descending in the dark the
step-like road of rough stones which leads from the top of Aliu Amba
into the direct road to Ankobar. We were obliged to be very cautious
in our progress along the steep slippery bank, and the edges of deep
muddy pools produced by the first showers of the rainy season,
which had fallen the few days previously, and had not at all improved
the condition of the road.
The sun had risen before we reached Ankobar. On this occasion it
was unnecessary to go through that town; so having surmounted the
long ridge in front, instead of continuing along it, we crossed directly
over, leaving the little wooden cross and church of Goodis Gorgis
(St. George) in its encircling grove of quolqual and wild fig-trees, on
our left hand. The road we followed was exceedingly narrow, and fell
very gradually in a prolonged sweep down the steep descent into the
valley of the Airahra. Half way down is a broad terrace of
considerable extent covered with immense boulders from the
destruction of the ridge above, and which appears to be more rapidly
denuded upon this face than upon the opposite one looking towards
Aliu Amba. On a mound of the detached rocks and soil in this
situation is built a church, dedicated to “Abbo,” the father, the only
one I have ever seen so situated except the meeting-houses of the
Tabibe sect, who do not pay that respect to ancient superstitions that
still influences the other Christians of Abyssinia. A sufficient reason,
however, accounts for its low elevation.
At the commencement of the reign of the present Negoos, a great
portion of the ancient grove of Abbo and its church still occupied the
highest point of the ridge over which we had just come. The
denuding operations of the conjointed actions of earthquakes and
rainy seasons overcame every endeavour that was made to protect
the sacred spot from being encroached upon, it having been one of
the most ancient and most revered of the sacred edifices in Shoa.
Annually large portions were precipitated into the valley of the
Airahra; and ultimately the last portion of the walls of the church
disappeared, after a violent convulsion of the earth, and a single line
of trees, the remains of a once extensive grove, now marks its
former site. The spot is still considered sacred, and so attached were
the monks upon the establishment, to the ancient edifice, that,
observing that the greater portion of the debris had fallen upon the
terrace beneath, they determined to erect upon it a representative of
the old church, although on so low an elevation compared with the
numerous heights around.
This is, however, the only instance I know of a church of the
Abyssinian Christians being so situated, for it is a particular feature
of the worship in this country that all religious buildings should
surmount “some earth o’ertopping mountain;” and to such an extent
is this feeling carried, that sacred hills which have become lowered
in consequence of the greater denudation of their summits, is a
reason sometimes for changing the site of the church to some
neighbouring hill that, from more favourable causes, has preserved
its height undiminished. A striking instance of this change, and its
assigned cause, is found in the circumstances connected with the
erection of the new church of St. Michael, which stands upon a hill to
the east of the Negoos’s residence, in the valley of the “Michael
wans.” Here two groves are observed standing on hills near to each
other, the more modern one being of much greater elevation than the
other. Both are dedicated to the same saint, and on asking
Walderheros why there should be two, he pointed out the difference
in the height of the hills upon which they stood as a reason why the
lower should be deserted, and preference given to the higher hill for
the site of the “bate y Christian,” and the residence of the monks.
Looking upon these groves surrounding temples of religion, and
serving as retreats for officiating priests, each of whom has his little
cottage among the trees, it is impossible to help reflecting upon the
changes in man’s history, recalled by observing such existing
monuments of former feelings and religious prejudices. The question
naturally suggested itself, what could have been the popular belief
when the more ancient of the St. Michael’s groves was first planted;
for a long period must have elapsed to have occasioned, by the
disintegrating action of its vegetation, so much denudation of the hill
it crowns, as to make it more than one hundred feet lower than the
present frequented one; and originally it must have been the highest
in the neighbourhood. I have observed other customs existing in
Abyssinia that strongly reminded me of Druidism and of similar
characteristic observances among the ancient Persians; and I
certainly looked with some degree of interest upon a grove, that