materials

Review
The Present State of the Use of Waste Wood Ash as an
Eco-Efficient Construction Material: A Review
Rebeca Martínez-García 1 , P. Jagadesh 2 , Osama Zaid 3, * , Adrian A. S, erbănoiu 4 ,
Fernando J. Fraile-Fernández 1 , Jesús de Prado-Gil 1 , Shaker M. A. Qaidi 5 and Cătălina M. Grădinaru 4

1 Department of Mining Technology, Topography and Structures, Campus of Vegazana s/n, University of León,
24071 León, Spain; [email protected] (R.M.-G.); [email protected] (F.J.F.-F.);
[email protected] (J.d.P.-G.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641014, Tamil Nadu, India;
[email protected]
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Swedish College of Engineering and Technology, Wah Cantt 47080, Pakistan
4 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Ias, i,
700050 Ias, i, Romania; [email protected] (A.A.S, .); [email protected] (C.M.G.)
5 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, Duhok 42001, Iraq;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A main global challenge is finding an alternative material for cement, which is a major
source of pollution to the environment because it emits greenhouse gases. Investigators play a
significant role in global waste disposal by developing appropriate methods for its effective utilization.
Geopolymers are one of the best options for reusing all industrial wastes containing aluminosilicate
Citation: Martínez-García, R.; and the best alternative materials for concrete applications. Waste wood ash (WWA) is used with other
Jagadesh, P.; Zaid, O.; S, erbănoiu, waste materials in geopolymer production and is found in pulp and paper, wood-burning industrial
A.A.; Fraile-Fernández, F.J.; de facilities, and wood-fired plants. On the other hand, the WWA manufacturing industry necessitates
Prado-Gil, J.; Qaidi, S.M.A.; the acquisition of large tracts of land in rural areas, while some industries use incinerators to burn
Grădinaru, C.M. The Present State of wood waste, which contributes to air pollution, a significant environmental problem. This review
the Use of Waste Wood Ash as an paper offers a comprehensive review of the current utilization of WWA with the partial replacement
Eco-Efficient Construction Material:
with other mineral materials, such as fly ash, as a base for geopolymer concrete and mortar production.
A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 5349.
A review of the usage of waste wood ash in the construction sector is offered, and development
https://doi.org/10.3390/
tendencies are assessed about mechanical, durability, and microstructural characteristics. The impacts
ma15155349
of waste wood ash as a pozzolanic base for eco-concreting usages are summarized. According to the
Academic Editor: Dumitru Doru findings, incorporating WWA into concrete is useful to sustainable progress and waste reduction
Burduhos Nergis as the WWA mostly behaves as a filler in filling action and moderate amounts of WWA offer a
Received: 7 July 2022 fairly higher compressive strength to concrete. A detail study on the source of WWA on concrete
Accepted: 2 August 2022 mineralogy and properties must be performed to fill the potential research gap.
Published: 3 August 2022
Keywords: geopolymer concrete; waste wood ash; environmental impact mechanical properties;
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
durability
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.

1. Introduction
Globally, 0.74 kg of solid waste is generated per capita per day, with national rates
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. varying between 0.11 and 4.54 kg per capita per day depending on urbanization rates and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. income levels [1–3]. The Europe and Central Asia regions, with 20% (392 million tons per
This article is an open access article year), rank second in solid waste generation [4–6]. The overall composition of waste mainly
distributed under the terms and
corresponds to organic and green waste (44%); paper and cardboard (19%); other materials
conditions of the Creative Commons
(14%); plastics (12%); glass (5%), metal (4%); wood (2%); and rubber and leather (2%). As for
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
waste treatment, it mainly focuses on recycling (20%) and incineration (17.8%), providing
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the possibility of giving a new useful life to the materials after their use and ensuring
4.0/).

Materials 2022, 15, 5349. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155349 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 5349 2 of 20

adequate final disposal [7]. This is in line with the adaptation of a circular economy as a
novelty and eco-friendly production model. In the specific case of the construction industry,
part of the environmental impact is due to the demolition of structures, which generates
different types of solid waste. On the other hand, the use of cement in the production of
bricks/block and concrete, which is used in the latter to make it more resistant [8], implies
a significant anthropic emission of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) of 5–8% worldwide, which could
increase, according to projections, to 27% by the year 2050, especially taking into account
that one cubic meter of concrete is produced annually per person [8–11]. Based on this
reality and the projected scenario, the cement and concrete industry has been developing
a series of strategies and innovations to reduce CO2 emissions. One of these innovations
is the production of geopolymers to be used as alternative materials to replace all or
part of the ordinary Portland cement used in construction, which is obtained either from
metakaolin or from industrial, forestry, and agricultural waste with a high aluminosilicates
content [12–15]. A geopolymer is a binder of mineral origin (inorganic) obtained from
the dissolution [16–19] and subsequent polycondensation of ashes rich in aluminosilicates
in the presence of an alkaline solution (hydroxides and silicates of alkali metals, Na and
K) [13,20,21]. Additionally, the use of mixed geopolymers, which are generated by the
combination of two or more types of chemically stabilized industrial wastes or ashes, has
been considered [22]. The use of this type of materials can reduce CO2 production by up
to 90%, while preserving or even improving their mechanical properties (e.g., porosity,
structure, compressive strength, water absorption, and durability) [12,23].
Several researchers have devoted themselves to using different raw materials for the
production of concrete, for example, agricultural residues such as rice husk ash and palm
oil ash [24], sugar cane bagasse [25,26], and corn cob ash [27], finding good results in the
properties of concrete [28]. On the other hand, wood waste ashes [29,30] have emerged as a
good option for the fractional replacement of binder and kaolin used in the formation of
geopolymers, since in addition to increasing workability, porosity, and drying shrinkage,
these wastes are given an alternative use, and potential environmental pollution [29–33]
is reduced by their entry into the environment, contributing directly to sustainable de-
velopment [34,35]. Ekaputri reported [36] obtaining a concrete (geopolymer) with high
compressive strength (48.5 MPa to 48.5 MPa) from class F ash with 10 mol/L NaOH due to
the generation of hydroxide ions that significantly influence the dissolution of the Si and Al
atoms of the source material. Despite the advantages of using high concentrations of alkali
(NaOH, between 8–10 M) to obtain a high compression strength product of 104.5 MPa and
71 MPa for the paste and mortar, as well as a lower change in length due to temperature
and water evaporation that have the lowest shrinkage percentage [37], it has been proven
that the use of ashes from forest biomass (wood) can decrease the requirements of alka-
line activators by up to 20% without the loss of properties [38–41]. However, when the
substitution level of these ashes is higher than 10% by mass, the mechanical properties of
the geopolymer are affected [42–45], proportionally reducing the compressive and flexural
strength of the mortars, for all curing times [35]. Likewise, it is highlighted that different
conditions can be used during the process of obtaining geopolymers, such as the type of
curing, humidity control, temperature, concentration and proportions of alkaline activators,
type and quantity of raw material or proportions of starting materials (in case of mixtures),
which will influence the properties of the final product. Among the findings, it can be
mentioned that the increase in SiO2 /Al2 O3 ratios positively influences the mechanical
compressive strength of geopolymers [15], and it was found that the inclusion of 5–15%
wood ash in the process can generate greater strength and durability depending on the
age (aging time) of 3–7 days as a consequence of the formation of gels and minerals that
increase alkalinity [12]. Research has also been conducted on the effects of the solid–liquid
ratio and the alkaline activator in the synthesis of pure geopolymers. Alves et al. [46] used
as precursor material ground blast furnace slag with a solid–liquid ratio between 1.5 and
2.2, and as activator solutions (a) a sodium hydroxide/sodium silicate/water mixture and
(b) a potassium hydroxide/potassium silicate/water mixture, finding that the resulting
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 3 of 20

geopolymer possessed high compressive strength depending on the solid–liquid ratio and
the percentage of water added to the mixture, which is further impacted by the composition
of the activating solution. They also noticed that the strength increases with aging [46].
Currently, the addition of plastics to the optimized wood ash-based geopolymer is being
tested; for example, in the case of polypropylene (PP), it has been reported that the ad-
dition of 1% PP fiber generates an increase in compressive, tensile, and flexural strength
by 3.7%, 15.6%, and 10%, respectively [47]. Other types of materials are also being devel-
oped. Kristály et al. [48] produced a composite of geopolymer foam and glass to obtain a
lightweight and environmentally friendly concrete from waste materials (secondary raw
material), which is a valuable building material useful for thermal and acoustic insulation
of walls that is also heat-, fire-, and acid-resistant [48].
Cement consumption in the world currently amounts to approximately 3 billion tons,
which translates into 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide emitted into the environment [34].
According to the United Nations, the world population has increased in recent years, from
5300 million inhabitants in 1990 to 7300 million inhabitants in 2015; with a projected increase
by the year 2050 of 24.74%, the requirements for cement, concrete, and other types of
construction materials will increase significantly [49]. In this sense, the development of new
and better alternative materials for the efficient substitution of cement for other materials
at a global level will reduce production costs while reducing emissions, contributing to
goals 11 and 13 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, “Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” and “Climate action”, respectively.
This literature review focuses on the approach to the processes for obtaining geopolymers
from the use of wood ash, as well as the physical and chemical effects that take place under
different production conditions. As per the authors’ best knowledge, no significant review
study exists on the physical, chemical, strength, durability, and microstructural analysis of
concrete, which points to the originality of present work.

2. Environmental Impact of WWA

2.1. Air Pollution
Energy extracted from burning the wood results in the formation of WWA. WWA is
very fine, which results in the ease of pollution causing respiratory problems for human be-
ings and animals around the site of WWA production [50]. Loose ash has a high possibility
for harmful influence on ground vegetation [51], predominantly to the cover and certain
kinds of moss groups [52].

2.2. Land Pollution

WWA is problematic if spread regularly and requires slow delivery rates from spread-
ers [51]. Because of the huge variety of WWA quality, reliance on the sort of chemical
structure of WWA is needed before demonstrating the direction of management as agri-
cultural or forest-related systems [53]. WWA recycling to agricultural or forests appears a
decent environmental solution, but there are a lot of possible difficulties related to its use in
systems, which are more multifaceted [51].

2.3. pH Increase
The topsoil of the system is affected by pH differences and its blocks the crop or tree
to obtain enough amount of nutrition from the soil. The delivery rate of calcium to soils is
reliant on the primary shape of the ash, with loose ash such as WWA possibly instigating a
temporary quick increase in pH in the soil [54]. For the first 7 years, the soil under 100 mm
depth had a very minor change in pH value after WWA application, but after 16 years, an
increase in pH value was observed [51]. The land dumping of WWA results in the slow
transfer of pH from the topsoil to bottom soil, which can be observed over time. There
is an increase in the pH of runoff water over the same period where WWA is applied, as
observed by Fransman et al. [55].
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 4 of 20

2.4. Higher Production Rate

Approximately 2.5 kilo-tons of WWA are annually discarded in lands, as of 2006 [51],
but it may increase at a high rate and a decrease in forest land has been observed. In
several countries across the globe, 90% of WWA is sent to landfill and the balance part goes
as land applied purpose, co-composed with sewage sludge [51]. Apart from the several
environmental effects discussed above, Pitman et al. (2006) [51] studied specifically soil
properties and soil vegetation.

2.5. PH Affects the Nutrition (Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Potassium) Addition of Soil
When WWA is in contact with water, the pH solution becomes higher as the hydroxides
and oxides in the WWA are dissolved and hydroxide ions are developed. WWA has a
liming impact when introduced into soils and could be utilized to neutralize acidity. Three
tons of WWA have a liming effect equal to one ton of quicklime. The solubility of different
nutrition elements in the WWA varies considerably. Generally, the solubility of the nutrients
elements are in the order of potassium > magnesium > calcium oxide > phosphorus [56].

2.6. Heavy Metal Contamination of Soil

pH, organic material content, and hydrous oxide play the main roles in the adsorption
of heavy metals from the soil [57]. When WWA dissolves in an acid environment such as
soils in forests, the alkalinity of WWA is consumed and the metals are exposed to a pH
far lower than that of the ash, causing higher solubility [56]. WWA could also have high
concentrations of heavy metals due to the fuel, which is contaminated. Wood from and
wood preservers and demolition in waste wood generally comprise higher proportions of
heavy metals. As a result of the relatively low volatilization temperatures for many of the
heavy metals, they become enhanced by WWA. In the combustion of untreated wood [58],
the concentrations of lead and antimony are one order of magnitude higher, while the
concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc are approximately
twice as high.

2.7. Soil Water Leachate

Williams et al. (1996) [59] observed that there are amplified concentrations of both
calcium and potassium in groundwaters and soils, with some movement of aluminum
and magnesium in it. In a long-term experiment, soil leachate at a 20 cm depth taken from
mineral soils displayed elevated levels of calcium, magnesium, and potassium, but no
significant impact on nitrate concentration, pH or Cd, Cu, Cr, and Pb levels [51]. The storage
of moistened WWA in the air led to an adverse effect: it increased potassium leaching. The
leaching of phosphorous, magnesium, and metal species from the ash matrix is generally
low with a high pH prevailing in the water phase during short-term leaching [60].

3. Source and Production of WWA

As per Grau et al. [61], the WWA obtained from the total amount of available quantity
is from 0.4 to 2.1%.

4. Physical and Chemical Compositions

4.1. Physical Properties
As per the report from Etiegni and Campbell et al. [62], 80% of WWA consists of
particles size less than 1.0 mm and the balance is unburned wood particles with different
sizes. Specifically, WWA consists of 25.4% of fine particles, which are less than 75 µm. Wood
ash shows a relatively high specific surface area that provides good absorption. The specific
gravity of WWA is 2.41, pH 12.57, average particle diameter d50 (mm) is 0.223, bulk density
(kg/m3 ) is 663–997, and specific surface area (m2 /kg) is 4200–100,600 (Grau et al., 2015) [61].
An increase in the particle size increases the concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, barium,
and copper, and decreases the concentrations of boron, cadmium, manganese, lead, zinc,
potassium, magnesium, and calcium [63].
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 5 of 20

4.2. Chemical Properties

Wood combustion produces highly alkaline ash (pH varies from 9 to 12) [62]. Ash
yield is decreased approximately to 45% with an increase in burning temperature from
538 ◦ C to 1093 ◦ C. The metal contents in ash increase with the increase in the burning
temperature. With the increase in the burning temperature, elements such as calcium, iron,
magnesium, manganese, and phosphorus increase, and elements such as zinc, potassium,
and sodium decrease [62].
The alkalinity of WWA depends on the carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide content
in it. WWA composition also varies during storage and under different environmental con-
ditions as carbon dioxide and moisture react with WWA to form carbonates, bicarbonates,
and hydroxides [62]. An increase in potassium, sodium, and manganese concentration
increases linearly with ash concentration. The leaching of these elements increased to result
in a decrease in pH. Table 1 shows the chemical elements of different types of ashes.

Table 1. Chemical elements of the ashes (ppm) [53].

Type of Ash P K Ca S Cu Fe Mn Zn Ni Cr Pb As
Birch wood 20,853 71,290 132,583 5631 97.10 6518 17,585 212.67 34.91 39.07 40.48 1.01
Pine wood 18,618 116,436 201,109 7142 196 3665 10,693 193.13 45.84 62.04 28.89 1.59
Oak wood 15,071 57,331 156,738 5107 190.67 9256 10,114 169.33 125.67 89.87 54.49 1.91
Horen beam
16,548 69,905 249,050 3956 140.67 8598 18,587 155.0 158.67 10.65 40.20 1.13
wood
Ash wood 17,967 70,442 279,785 3077 121.00 5758 10,545 183.0 24.84 30.66 15.31 0.78
Wood residue
17,680 69,104 203,935 1546 188.0 3403 6920 171.0 110.33 95.64 50.67 1.44
chips—forest
Wood residue
32,039 108,081 245,075 8464 181.0 4678 2815 320.33 176.33 25 12.69 0.13
chips—municipal
Poplar wood 6419 64,985 173,872 5015 96.92 4612 549.67 81.41 26.19 20.57 9.65 0.18
Willow 3342 37,339 135,981 4732 123.5 2662 910 394.0 32.0 45.97 8.93 0.34
Acacia wood 2679 38,799 227,225 1826 158.0 6156 794.3 244.0 59.72 36.31 15.83 0.49
Average (%) 15,121.6 70,371.2 200,535.3 4649.6 149.286 5530.6 7951.297 212.387 79.45 45.578 27.714 0.9

Zajac et al. [53] divided ash components into three categories based on their concen-
tration: 1. macro-elements: phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and sulfur; 2. micro-elements:
manganese, iron, copper, and zinc; 3. toxic elements: chromium, nickel, arsenic, and
lead. The quantity and quality of WWA content depend upon the organic, inorganic, and
impurity elements present in it. The chemical and physical characteristics of WWA depend
upon on the sampling point, the sort of biomass, plant kind, growth process, growth
circumstances, plant age, fertilization, the applied dosage of plant protection products,
harvesting conditions, and process of burning (preparation of fuel, burning method used,
and circumstances) [51,53].
Szakova et al. [64] determined the chemical composition of WWA (wood chips and
wood waste) using the XRF technique. Different elements analyzed (in ppm) were P:
5300–10,800; S: 1200–11,100; K: 38,000–58,000; Ca: 78,000–159,000; Cr: 118; Mn: 6200–10,700;
Fe: 29,300–34,800; N: 28.9; Cu: 153; Zn: 300–1100; As: 9.8; and Pb: 313. Tarun et al. (2003)
revealed the subsequent elements in wood ash: C (5% to 30%), Ca (5% to 30%), carbon (7%
to 33%), K (3% to 4%), Mg (1% to 2%), P (0.3% to 1.4%), and Na (0.2% to 0.5%). Elemental
arrangement varies for WWA because ashes derived from branches and roots are rich in
many elements than those derived from stem wood [51].
The following compound composition limits were also reported: titanium dioxide (0%
to 1.5%), sulfur trioxide (0.1% to 15%), silica (4% to 60%), aluminum oxide (5% to 20%),
ferric oxide (10% to 90%), magnesium oxide (0.7% to 5%), potassium oxide (0.4% to 14%),
calcium oxide (2% to 37%), loss of ignition (0.1% to 33%), moisture content (0.1% to 22%),
and available alkalis (0.4% to 20%). Table 2 shows the chemical compounds in waste wood
ash that were obtained in past research.
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 6 of 20

WWA is usually very low in nitrogen because it evaporates during incineration. Trace
elements such as boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) have been
observed in WWA, which are called micronutrients [65].

Table 2. Chemical compounds of WWA from past studies.

SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO K2 O NaO L.O. I Ref.

31.8 28 2.34 10.53 9.32 10.38 6.5 1.13 [66]
32.8 27.0 2.2 11.7 9.1 10.5 6.7 0.7 [61]
30.4 26.5 1.9 12.8 9.4 11.4 5.9 1.7 [67]
32.4 27.4 2.1 10.3 9.4 10.85 6.4 1.15 [68]
31.8 28.2 2.4 10.6 9.2 10.80 6.0 1.00 [69]
33.6 27.8 2.6 11.2 8.3 10.2 5.7 0.60 [70]
32.7 26.4 2.2 10.25 9.45 10.45 7.21 1.34 [71]
31.5 26.3 2.6 10.4 9.3 10.72 8.2 0.98 [72]

5. Influence of Waste Wood Ash on Hardened Concrete

5.1. Strength Properties
Waste wood ash is an easily available agricultural discarded material that enhances the
workability, quality of microstructure, and improves the strength characteristics of concrete
samples. The key characteristics of concrete can be enhanced, and most importantly, the
time for hydration is reduced due to the pozzolanic effect [70]. The distinct proportioning
of the mix can be achieved by substituting cement with waste wood ash and slag and other
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The different characteristics of concrete
from the previous literature that were assessed through different forms of strength and
durability testing are presented in Table 3.
The properties of various mixes have been studied with different water to binder ratios.
The optimal dose was 20% WWA with rice husk ash, which improved the compression
strength significantly and also showed enhanced durability [73]. Because of the low amount
of silica in waste wood ash, a low water to cement ratio of 0.4 was selected. Ramos et al.
noted that waste wood ash seemed a potential fractional substitute pozzolanic material
for cement because it improves strength and durability characteristics and also assists in
making concrete sustainable [68].
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 7 of 20

Table 3. Influence of waste wood ash on the characteristics of concrete.

Level of Substitution Observed Properties Results Discussion Ref.

Specific gravity 2.21
Bulk density 755 kg/m3
When the water to cement ratio was kept at 0.55, the
Initial setting time 221 min
maximum slump was 55 mm for 25% and 30% WWA,
10–35% (25% optimum dosage) Final setting time 547 min [66]
and maximum strength was 23.2 MPa for 25% WWA at
Compression strength 7.5–23.2 MPa at 56 days
56 days and then reduced
Slump value 40–55 mm
Water demand 134–140 mL
40–48 MPa at 90 days (before acid test), When the water to cement ratio was kept at 0.45 and
Compression strength
29–41 MPa (after acid test) utilizing 10% sulfuric acid, the highest loss in strength
0–25% (20% optimum dosage) Water absorption [74]
2.2%–2.64% was 29 MPa 90 days for; 20% WWA loss in weight was
Weight loss
6–10.5% minimum with only 6%
Compression strength 17 MPa to 29 MPa at 28 days At a water to binder ratio of 0.50, samples with 15 and
Flexural strength 4 MPa to 6.25 MPa at 7 and 28 days 20% WWA had maximum compressive strength with
5–25% (15–20% optimum dosage) [67]
Slump value 0–15 mm 17 and 29 MPa at 28 days, and then strength began to
Water absorption 0.20% to 1.70% decrease
At a water to binder ratio of 0.48, at 20% WWA, the
Split tensile strength 4.25 MPa to 6.70 MPa at 28 and 90 days strength was slightly less than the reference sample
10–30% (20% optimum dosage) [72]
Compression strength 42 to 49 at 28 days and 47 to 55 MPa at 90 days due to WWA acting as a filler, not a binder, but
microstructure was enhanced
39 to 54 MPa at 28 to 90 days
Compression strength The highest compression strength was obtained at
7 to 9 MPa at 56 days
Flexural strength 54 MPa at 90 days with water to cement ratio of 0.52
0–20% (20% optimum dosage) Expansion of ASR at 28 days was 0.17% [68]
Alkali silica reaction with 20% WWA; the same w/c led to a sample with
at 20% WWA
Carbonation low ASR levels and carbonation depth
The average depth was 3.75 mm at 20% WWA
Sample with w/c of 0.55 had the highest slump value
12–15 MPa at 21 days without admixture, with
Compression strength 40 mm at 15% WWA, utilizing admixture enhanced
0–40% (25% optimum dosage) admixture the strength 28 MPa, [75]
Slump value compression strength significantly with 45% more
With w/c 0.55, the slump was 40 mm
strength at 25% WWA
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 8 of 20

Table 3. Cont.

Level of Substitution Observed Properties Results Discussion Ref.

The creation of pores in mortars was With constant w/c of 0.44, mix with 20% WWA and 5%
10–25% with 5% silica fume (20% SEM analysis considerably impacted because of the SF had the highest mechanical strength, and further
[76]
+ 5% SF optimum dosage) Compression strength substitution of the binder with WWA and SF adding of WWA led to the development of pores in
20–42 MPa at 28 days the matrix
At later ages, the concrete strength improved
Compression strength 29.5–54 MPa at 90 days
10–35% (20% optimum dosage) considerably, because the water absorption from the [77]
Compaction factor 0.741
blend by WWA reduced the workability slowly
With a 25% dose of WWA, the samples had the least
Pressure resistance 2.9–3.8
0–30% (25% optimum dosage) absorption and maximum pressure resistance in [78]
Water absorption 9–11.5
comparison to the reference sample.
Slump value With a w/c of 0.55, the optimal mechanical strength
45 mm with 20% WWA
Compression was 35.4 MPa at 90 days with 20% WWA as a partial
0–25% (20% optimum dosage) 10.57 to 35.47 MPa at 20% WWA for 28 days [79]
strength substitute for cement, and workability was in an
Size ranged from 0.059 to 32.5 mm
Sieve analysis acceptable range
Comprised 70.5% silica, alumina, and ferric
that was similar to class F type pozzolanic
material and mean size, bulk density, and
specific gravity of WWA were 170 microns,
720 kg/m3 , and 2.21, respectively
Chemical and physical analysis
For w/b of 0.40, the strength was 36.3 MPa At a w/b ratio of 0.40, with 15% of waste wood ash as
Compression strength
at 28 days a partial substitute of cement, the highest compression
5–20% (15% optimum dosage) Flexural strength [80]
For w/b of 0.40, the strength was 6.52 MPa at 28 days was 36.3 MPa, which was more than the
Split tensile strength
at 28 days control sample
X-ray diffraction spectra
For w/b of 0.40, the strength was 2.37 MPa
at 28 days
WWA comprised silica both in crystal and
formless shapes with the highest peak at
29 degrees against 2-theta
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 9 of 20

5.2. Effect of Waste Wood Ash (WWA) on the Durability Characteristics of Concrete
5.2.1. Acid Resistance Test
Dashibil and Udoeyo (2002) [81] examined the capability of waste wood ash concrete
to withstand acid tests. Two groups of samples had a similar content of aggregates, water,
and binder. The only difference was that the first group had only cement as the primary
binder and the other group had 15% waste wood ash as a fractional binder substitute. The
concrete samples were dipped in strong acid (sulfuric acid) for 54 days. It was revealed
that concrete samples that had waste wood ash had a less decrease in their mass loss in
comparison to concrete with no waste wood ash at all.
Ejeh and Elinwa (2004) [82] investigated the impact of adding WWA in samples for
acid tests against the possibility of corrosion. Two sorts of acids were tried; one was sulfuric
acid and the other was nitric acid at 20% concentration. One group of samples had 10%
WWA utilized as a fractional binder substitute and the other group of samples was the
same as the previous mixes but without WWA. Both groups of samples were dipped in both
sorts of acids for 35 days. It was noticed that, in samples with 10% WWA, their resistance
to nitric acid was much more enhanced because the loss in mass was lower in comparison
to the samples with no WWA, as shown in Figure 1. However, samples with 10% WWA
had less resistance to sulfuric acid in comparison to samples with no WWA. This is because
of a higher loss in the weight of 10% WWA concrete in comparison to the control sample
when dipped in 20% H2 SO4 , as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1. Change in concrete mass with a period of dipping samples in nitric acid (data from
reference [82]).

Figure 2. Change in concrete mass with a period of dipping samples in sulfuric acid (data from
reference [82]).
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 10 of 20

5.2.2. Water Absorption

Ejeh and Elinwa (2004) [82] inspected the influence of the inclusion of WWA as a
fractional binder substitute in mortar blends on the properties of water absorption. Two
groups of mortars were developed with similar mixing content except for cement; one blend
had only cement as a binder and the other one had 15% WWA as a fractional substitute of
cement in the blend. It was revealed that the addition of WWA as a binder substitute at
15% of cement weight assisted in decreasing the water absorption of the developed blends.
The mean water absorption of the blends with 15% WWA and no WWA proportions were
noted to be 0.75% and 1.30%, correspondingly, but both of the blends were still lower than
10% of the highest water absorption criteria.
Udoeyo et al. (2006) [67] studied the characteristics of water absorption with WWA as
a fractional binder substitute material. Sample blends with proportions of WWA ranging
from 5 to 30% at an interval of 5% were developed to evaluate the water absorption proper-
ties. The water absorption of the sample with WWA as a fractional binder substitute was
noted to rise steadily from 0.15 to 1.10% with a rise in the proportion of binder substitution
from 5% to 30%, as displayed in Figure 3. At proportions of binder substitution by WWA
up to 30%, the developed sample had still reasonable values of water absorption under
10%, which is a tolerable criterion for all of the materials that are used for construction.

Figure 3. Co-relation of water with WWA in concrete (data from reference [82]).

5.2.3. Permeability of Chloride Test

Wang et al. (2008) [83] examined the resistance against the permeability of chloride of
air entrained in the sample with a fractional substitution of the binder with wood/coal fly
ash (WCFA) and wood fly ash (WFA). Proportions of binder substitution by different sorts
of FA were utilized as a fractional substitution of binder, such as Class F fly ash, class C
fly as, ash from the combusted wood, and coal fly ash. All the concrete specimens were
placed in water for 56 days before placing in the chloride permeability test, and the chloride
permeability test was conducted per ASTM C 1202 [84]. From the test outcome, it was
revealed that the inclusion of WWA at a 25% substitution of cement in the sample had no
adverse effect from the chloride on the concrete. The usage of class F/coal mixed and wood
ash in fractional replacement of cement had considerable help in dropping the permeability
of chloride property of the sample. A minor rise in the permeability of chloride in the
sample mix with 25% WWA as cement substitute was noted in comparison to the control
sample, perhaps ascribed to the coarse size of WWA particles (30 to 130 microns).
Horsakulthai et al. (2010) [73] investigated the impact of adding very fine ash from the
combustion of rice husk, wood, and sugarcane waste from bagasse as a fractional binder
substitute on the permeability of chloride of a developed blend of concrete. To assess the
concrete permeability of chloride, an accelerated salt ponding technique was utilized for
two distinct grades of concrete (grades 20 and 35) developed by the inclusion of ash from
rice husk, wood, and bagasse at cement substitution proportions of 0, 10, 20, and 40% of
cement weight. The test outcome revealed that the inclusion of fine size ash from rice
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 11 of 20

husk, wood, and bagasse as a fractional replacement of binder in the sample led to the
improvement in permeability against chloride and also reduced the coefficient of chloride
diffusion. The existence of fine size ash from rice husk, wood, and bagasse in a blend at
binder substitutions of 10, 20, and 40% caused a decrease in the coefficient of chloride
diffusion by 35–45%, 65–75%, and 80% correspondingly, as compared to the reference
mix with only Portland cement as a binder. The inclination of a steady decrease in the
coefficient of chloride diffusion for the two distinct grades of concrete was evaluated. The
raising dose of binder substitution by ash from rice husk, wood, and bagasse is displayed in
Figure 4. The term “PC” in Figure 4 denotes plain concrete; BRWA denotes co-combination
of bagasse, rice and waste wood ash; and the numbers after them denotes their percentage
added in the mix.

Figure 4. Coefficient of the chloride diffusion of samples at 28 days (data from reference [82]).

5.2.4. Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

Baxter and Wang (2007) [85] studied the conduct of expansion in mortar blends due to
ASR comprising an opal aggregate, which is a very reactive, highly alkaline cement, and
three distinct sorts of fly ash (FA). The different sorts of FA were acquired from heating
the class C coal. Four groups of mortar blends with the same proportions of ingredients
were arranged. The first group of mortar had only Portland cement as a binder and the
remaining three groups of mortar blend had three distinct sorts of FA utilized at a uniform
dose of binder substitution with 35% of cement by weight. The test outcome revealed
that coal fly ash had a higher quantity of alkaline matter as compared to class C FA. The
utilization of coal FA in the blend of mortar was revealed to be capable of decreasing the
expansion of the alkali-silica reaction at 180 days under 0.1% (highest expansion stated
by ASTM C33) from 0.27%. This happened with the reference blend of mortar having
Portland cement as the only binder. Between the different sorts of fly ash that were tested,
coal fly ash was revealed to have optimal behavior in the mitigating expansion of the
alkali-silica reaction.

5.2.5. Shrinkage Test of WWA Concrete

Naik et al. (2003) [86] examined the dry shrinkage characteristics of sample mixes
developed by the inclusion of WWA as a fractional binder substitution material. For blends
developed in the research, WWA was utilized at cement replacement levels of 0, 5, 8, and
12%. A variation in length in the formed concrete samples was observed up to 240 days. It
was revealed that the value of shrinkage for the reference concrete samples was 0.009% for
7 days and 0.05% for 240 days. The values of shrinkage for sample mixes with 5, 8, 12%
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 12 of 20

were observed to be 0.01–0.02%, 0.0139–0.014%, and 0.049–0.044%. From the test outcomes
of dry shrinkage, it was noted that the incorporation of WWA considerably helped in the
decrease in the extent of concrete upon drying. This is an essential property that could
reduce the development of micro-cracks within the sample upon drying.

6. Microstructural Study
Garcia et al. [71] studied the microstructure properties with the help of a scan electron
microscope (SEM) of ground waste wooden ash, obtained from forest regions surrounding a
power plant in Portugal. From the SEM images, it was observed that ground waste wooden
ash has two governing properties of particles and fibers in layers. The SEM micrographs of
the ground waste wooden ash at higher magnification and electron dispersive X-ray (EDX)
spectra are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. SEM micrograph and EDX analysis of waste wood ash (used with permission from
Elsevier [71]).

Awolusi et al. [87] investigated the microstructure characteristics of OPC mortar with
waste wood ash from sawdust. The mortars were developed with WWA ranging from 0 to
10% with a water to binder ratio of 0.6. SEM micrograph displayed maximum inter-spatial
distance between the particles of WWA in comparison to the binder, which was dense with
each other [87]. The SEM outcomes of a composite made from corn cob–polypropylene–
WWA displayed that the pores present in matrix become smaller as the proportion of WWA
was raised. This can be attributed to the pores between the corn cob and polypropylene
being filled by the waste wooden ash. Due to the increased dose of waste wooden ash
in the mix, the stress concentration stretched, and the shape of WWA was revealed to be
considerably small; thus, the distances became very less. The bridging behavior of waste
wooden ash could lead to a maximum wrap among corn cobs [88].
It can be observed from the SEM image shown in Figure 6 that waste wood ash with
silica fume enhanced the matrix when the ash was dispersed uniformly. Figure 6 shows the
study of pores enclosed in the reference sample and sample with different proportions of
waste wood ash and silica fume. The doses of waste wood ash and silica fume added to the
mix considerably impacted the pores shaped in concrete mortars. The proof of this effect
is displayed in the formation of larger pores in the reference specimen. Concrete mixes
utilized different proportions of silica fume and waste wood ash by substituting the binder
with 15% reduced estimate of pores. This positive test outcome was due to the rich silica in
the silica fumes [76].
Chowdhury et al. [80] studied the X-ray diffraction of waste wood ash concrete.
Figure 7 displays the X-ray diffraction spectra of waste wood ash concrete. The hump
specifies that the specimen was formless, with the peaks of silica demonstrating a crys-
talline behavior. Thus, waste wood ash comprises silica in crystalline and formless shapes.
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 13 of 20

Crystals of silica present high peaks at 29 degrees at 2-theta. Formless silica concentrates in
the mixture as a suitable binder substitution material due to its pozzolanic behavior [80].
Similar observations were also noted by Elahi et al. [89] from the X-ray diffraction spectra
of waste wood ash, which displayed the existence of formless silica, although only in low
proportions. A study of the waste wood ash concrete microstructure showed that the
inclusion of waste wood ash impacted the pore estimations, and a significant reduction
in porosity occurred [90]. The succeeding samples showed a microstructure that was very
dense with a lower permeability [90].

Figure 6. Pores in the reference concrete and reference sample with different proportions of WWA
and SF (used from an open source journal of MDPI [91]).
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 14 of 20

Figure 7. XRD analysis of waste wood ash (used with the permission from Elsevier [71]).

WWA consists of particles sizes that vary between 10 µm and 200 µm, as is observed
in Figure 8. The shape and size of particles vary for WWA with small particles adhering to
the surface, as is observed. WWA consists of particles with an irregular shape due to the
inorganic particles present in it (Etiegni and Campbell, 1991) [62].

Figure 8. SEM image of WWA (Grau et al., 2015) (Used from an open source journal of MDPI [61]).

7. Effect of WWA Concrete on the Environment

WWA can have a positive influence in developing cement from an environmental
standpoint [92]. The mineralogical and physical assembly of burning ash, such as WWA ash,
and the availability of metals depend on the treatment of temperature and feed material [93].
The last method for using waste wood ash must be appropriately sustained due to the
fineness of particles and lenience of air pollution, which can lead to breathing issues for the
public near the manufacturing places [50]. In addition to this impact, the impact of waste
wood ash on acidic material can result in releasing heavy metals into the environment [67].
Thus, issues have to be raised and more studies must be performed on the environmental
impacts of waste wood ash concrete. Udoeyo et al. [67] utilized waste wood ash as a
mineral material to research its effect on the environment and revealed that, if the waste
wood ash is discarded in lands, then acidic rain releases heavy metals to the surrounding
area. Thus, the usage of waste wood ash decreases pollution by reducing the necessity of
discarding [73].
Gorpade et al. [72] assessed the impact of the inclusion of waste wooden ash from 0%
to 30% in concrete. It was revealed that up to 10% of cement can be efficiently substituted
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 15 of 20

with waste wood ash. If waste wood ash is utilized as a mineral material in concrete, the
amount of discarded WWA and its adverse effects on the environment can be diminished
significantly. Adding waste wood ash as a substitute for cement decreases the usage of
cement in concrete, which reduces the manufacturing cost of binders and its related outflow
of harmful gases. Waste wood ash is a very fine material compared to cement and it
can fill all the voids within the microstructure of concrete, which makes it hard for the
outside chlorides or salts to enter the concrete. Making concrete buildings near the sea
areas with waste wood ash concrete is recommended to avert structure catastrophes from
heavy salt-oriented climates [94].
Waste wood ash seems to be an auspicious pozzolanic material for the partial replace-
ment of binder, with no reduction in concrete strength, with enhanced durability of sample,
and contributing significantly to the sustainability of the construction industry [68]. Waste
wood ash in samples help to makes an eco-efficient substitute cementitious material, which
is efficient and cost-friendly [80]. Studies [70,95] have been performed to evaluate the
creation of sustainable construction material by providing waste wood ash as a binder re-
placement material. The natural influence of the usage of waste wood ash in cement mortar,
carbon impression, and the degree of consumed energy was taken as a major parameters
that can be used as a quantitative limitation to signify the likely recompences of waste
wood ash applications in cementitious materials. The study was carried out according to
the exclusive method shown by Pavlikova et al. [69]. Waste wood ash can be an actual
pozzolanic additive used as a partial substitute of cement to assist in the environmentally
friendly concrete construction of buildings.

8. Conclusions
The quality and quantity of waste wood ash are dependent on different features, specif-
ically, the temperature of the burning of waste wood and the type of burning technique
utilized for waste wood. Thus, the appropriate classification of WWA is obligatory before
its usage as an ingredient material in the development of geopolymer concrete mixes.
• The distribution of wood ash particles is usually grainier as compared to cement. How-
ever, the specific surface of WWA is moderately smoother than that of Portland cement
because of the higher irregularity in wood particles and their permeable behavior.
• The chemical arrangement of WWA differs considerably within types of trees from
which the biomass of wood is obtained, but it is usually rich in CaO and SiO2 elements.
• Binders blended with WWA as a fractional substitute have higher initial and final
times and high standard consistency. Geopolymer mixes having WWA are inclined to
have a low heat of hydration.
• A considerable amount of ettringite crystals is shaped within a paste of binder upon
the hydration of OPC–WWA geopolymer samples, specifically at high doses of binder
replacement with WWA.
• Geopolymer mixes of mortar and concrete comprising WWA as a fractional substitu-
tion of the binder have more water requirements to obtain a desirable level of slump
value in comparison to similar geopolymer mixtures with no WWA.
• The addition of WWA as fractional binder substitution in mixes of mortar and concrete
at a high dose of binder substitution could lead to a steady decrease in the bulk density
of hard mixes of geopolymer mortar and concrete.
• Usually, the inclusion of WWA as fractional binder substitution in the preparation
of geopolymer concrete blend decreases the compression, flexural, and split tensile
strength of geopolymer concrete. However, there are hopeful outcomes as the addition
of WWA at a low dosage level of binder substitution truly assisted in the improvement
of the compression strength of the developed mixes of geopolymer concrete. WWA as
a fractional substitute for binder at a substitution level of 10% by binder weight can
make geopolymer mortar or concrete, which can be produced and utilized in building
applications with suitable strength and durability characteristics.
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 16 of 20

• Metakaolin can be utilized as an activator for making geopolymer concrete or mortar

with WWA as a fractional substitute of binder to improve the mechanical strength of
geopolymer concrete or mortar.
• Geopolymer concrete blends comprising WWA as fractional binder substitute display
more resistance against rusting when exposed to strong acids in comparison to mixes
with no WWA.
• Geopolymer concrete blends having more quantity of WWA as a partial substitute of
binder can have a high degree of water absorption.
• The utilization of WWA as fractional replacement of binder in geopolymer concrete
blends at substitution levels of up to 25% by binder weight does not have detrimental
impacts on the resistance of the geopolymer concrete against chloride ion diffusion.
Furthermore, the utilization of 80% fly ash and 20% WWA in geopolymer concrete
considerably improves the sample’s capability to resist chloride ions diffusion.
• The advantage of present study is that the addition of very fine size WWA, made from
burning of rice husk, wood, bagasse, assists considerably in enhancing the durability
characteristics of the geopolymer sample in terms of ASR and resistance against
chloride ions. The existence of WWA in geopolymer concrete had a considerable role,
as it reduced the extent of the geopolymer sample’s drying shrinkage considerably.
• The disadvantage of present study is that, to make WWA, it needs a considerable
higher degree of fire to burn the waste wood, which will need a lot of energy and
resources, and finding naturally burnt WWA is highly difficult.

9. Recommendations
Waste wood ash has the possibility of being a substitute construction material for
sustainability purposes, as a fractional substitute of binder and aggregates. The usage of
waste wood ash in large volumes is conceivable. Some research has been conducted on this
and some hopeful outcomes have been observed, as WWA can be utilized as an eco-efficient
material with little to no compromise on the properties of geopolymer concrete samples.
However, for now, WWA has been utilized in a limited amount in the development of
samples. This extensive review study of WWA on geopolymer concrete as a fractional
substitute of binder showed that the shape, size, source, method of making WWA, and
chemical and physical composition of WWA have a significant impact on the strength and
durability properties of the sample in which WWA is utilized. Thus, waste wood ash is
suitable as a binder replacement, and if it is used in construction as a building material,
it will reduce the demand for cement, which will reduce the outflow of greenhouse gases
from the production of cement and also preserve the natural reserves of limestone used
in the making of cement, thus helping the environment and assisting the construction
industry by increasing its sustainability.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.M.-G. and P.J.; methodology, R.M.-G. and O.Z.; soft-
ware, P.J. and S.M.A.Q.; validation, C.M.G., J.d.P.-G. and A.A.S, .; formal analysis, F.J.F.-F.; investigation,
A.A.S, .; resources, F.J.F.-F.; data curation, C.M.G.; writing—original draft preparation, R.M.-G. and
O.Z.; writing—review and editing, O.Z.; visualization, S.M.A.Q.; supervision, R.M.-G.; project ad-
ministration, A.A.S, .; funding acquisition, J.d.P.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data can be provided upon request from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2022, 15, 5349 17 of 20

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