EVOLUTION

Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth.

The process of gradual modification of simpler forms into the present complex forms over
millions of years is called evolution.
THE BIG BANG THEORY
The universe is almost 20 billion years old.
Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe.
Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust.
A scientific theory called big bang theory explains that, the unimaginable large explosion created
the universe.
As the universe expanded and cooled, the temperature came down and materials condensed
under the influence of gravitation to form present day galaxy.
Our galaxy is called Milky Way formed 4.5 billion years back.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
There was no atmosphere on early earth.
Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from molten mass covered the
surface.
The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen and Oxygen and the lighter H2
Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and others.
The ozone layer was formed, as it cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the depressions
and form oceans.
Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion years back.

There are different theories regarding the origin of life on earth-

Some scientist believes that life comes from other planets. Early Greek thinker thoughts that unit
of life is called spores transferred from other planets.
According to other theory, life comes out of dead and decaying matters like straw and mud. This
theory is called theory of spontaneous origin.
Louis Pasteur experimentally proved that life arises only from pre-existing life. Spontaneous
theory of origin of life is dismissed after that.
Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-
living organic molecules like RNA and protein etc. The formation of life preceded by chemical
evolution. At that time condition on earth were- high temperature, volcanic eruption, reducing
atmosphere containing CH4and NH3.
Miller’s experiment of Origin of Life-
S.L. Miller in 1953, conducted an experiment to show the origin of life on earth in the physical
environment similar to condition prevails at that time.
Miller created similar condition of temperature and pressure in laboratory scale. He created
electric discharge in a flask containing CH4, H2 and NH3 and water vapour at 8000C.
He observed formation of amino acids in flask after 15 days of electric discharge. Similar
experiment by other scientist found formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
Experimental representation of Miller’s experiment
The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They could have
been giant molecules like RNA, Protein, and Polysaccharide etc.

The cellular form of life was probably single cell and originates in water medium. The theory
that first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is
called biogenesis
Evidences of Evolution: Evidence that evolution of life forms has taken place on earth have
many proofs as mentioned below-

1. Paleontological evidence- different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life forms
that probably died during the formation of particular sediment. Fossils are remains of hard parts
of life-forms found in rocks .The study showed that different form varied over time and certain
life forms are restricted geological time span. Hence, new forms of life have arisen at different
times in history of earth.

2. Homologous organs- those organs that perform different function but have similar origin and
structure are called homologous organs. For example human, cheetah, bat and whales share
similarities in pattern of bones of forelimbs although these forelimbs perform different functions
in these animals. In these animal similar structure developed along different directions due to
adaptation of different needs. This is called divergent evolution.
3. Analogous structures-they are not anatomically similar organs but perform similar function.
For example eyes of mammals and octopus or flippers of penguin and dolphins. This is due to
similar habitats that resulted in similar adaptive features in different groups of organisms. This
kind of evolution is called convergent evolution.

4. Biochemical evidences – similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among
diverse organisms give hints to common ancestry. These biochemical similarities point to the
same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse organisms.
5. Embryological: The phrase “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” was coined by Ernst Haeckel
in 1866 and for many decades was accepted as natural law. Haeckel meant it in the strict sense:
that an organism, in the course of its development, goes through all the stages of those forms of
life from which it has evolved.
Evolution by natural selection- Industrial melanism
A case of natural selection was seen in England in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation in a
peppered moth (Biston betularia). This moth had two forms: grey colour and black colour
(Carbonaria). In the early part of the nineteenth century , before industrialization only the grey
coloured forms of moths were present; the dark forms were rare. The grey coloured moths were
seen on the tree trunks covered with lichens and so they were able to escape from their enemies.
Later on in 1920, due to the development of industries, post industrialization, the lichens were
killed and the tree trunks looked dark due to the deposition of industrial soot. Birds, now were
able to spot these moths and feed upon them. So the grey coloured moths were eaten by the birds
and the dark coloured moths escaped from the birds. Then now the coal is replaced by the
industries and oil and electricity is used. This has reduced the soot production and ultimately less
deposition of soot on the tree trunks. These tree trunks have, now, again become grey in colour.
Consequently, grey coloured moths have again increased in number. This example clearly brings
out the action of natural selection.

Evolution by anthropogenic action – Resistance of mosquitoes to pesticides.

When DDT was introduced to control mosquitoes it was tremendously successful. Most of the
mosquitoes were sensitive to DDT and were therefore killed. In that population of mosquitoes,
few mosquitoes became resistant to DDT and survived. They multiplied and now almost total
population of mosquitoes became resistant to DDT.
Same pattern has been observed in bacteria which are multidrug resistant due to excess use of
drugs and medicines.
Adaptive Radiation- the process of evolution of different species in given geographical area
starting from a point and radiating to other areas of geography (habitat) is called adaptive
radiation. Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of adaptive radiation. These were
small black birds, which Darwin observed in Galapagos island.
(a) He observed many varieties of finches in the same island.
(b) All varieties of finches had evolved from original seed-eating finches.
(c) There was alternation in beaks enabling some to become insectivorous and some vegetarian.
Australian marsupials, each with different from other evolved from one ancestral stock, but all
within Australian island continents.

When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical
area (representing different habitats), we can call this convergent evolution e.g Placental
mammals and Australian marsupials.
Marsupials and placental mammals in Australia provide another example of convergent
evolution. These two subclasses of mammals have adapted in similar ways to a particular food
supply, locomotor skill, or climate. They have produced varieties of species living in similar
habitats with similar ways of life. Their resemblances in overall shape, locomotor mode,
and feeding and foraging are superimposed upon different modes of reproduction, the feature
that accurately reflects their distinct evolutionary relationships.
Biological Evolution – the nature selects for fittest and fitness is based on characteristics which
are inherited. Some organisms are better adapted to survive in otherwise hostile environment.
Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
Lamarck had said that evolution of life form had occurred but driven by use and disuse of
organs. He gave the example of giraffe to evolve their neck by foraging leaves on tall trees and
had to adapt by elongation of their necks.
Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory of
Evolution .Darwin theory of natural selection was based on certain observations like-
Limited natural resources.
Over population
Competition for resources
Struggle for existence
Survival of the fittest.

Mechanism of Evolution
Hugo deVries based on his work on evening primrose brought forth the idea of mutation.
Mutation is the large difference arising suddenly in a population.
Mutations are random and directionless while Darwin variations are small and directional. Hugo
de Vries believed that mutation causes speciation and hence called saltation (single step large
mutation).
Hardy- Weinberg Principle- in a given population, frequency of occurrence of alleles or genes
can be finding out. These frequencies remains fixed and even remain the same through
generation. This fact was represented by Hardy-Weinberg principles using algebraic equation.

This principle states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from
generation to generation. The gene pool remains constant. This is called genetic equilibrium and
sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
Binomial expansion of (p+q)2 = p2+2pq+q2=1 where p and q represent the frequency of allele A
and allele a in a population . The frequency of AA individuals in a population is simply p2 . This
is simply stated in another ways, i.e., the probability that an allele A with a frequency of p appear
on both the chromosomes of a diploid individual is simply the product of the probabilities, i.e., p2
. Similarly of aa is q2 , of Aa 2pq. Hence, p2+2pq+q2=1.
When frequency is measured, the actual value varies that indicates the extent of evolutionary
changes. Change of frequency in a alleles (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium) in a population resulted
due to evolution.

The factors that affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are-

• Gene migration or gene flow.
• Genetic drift
• Mutation
• Genetic recombination
• Natural selection.
During genetic drift, sometimes change in alleles frequency is so different in a sample of
population that they become a different species. The original drifted population becomes founder
and that effect is called founder effect.
Types of Natural selection:
Natural selection can take many forms.
Stabilizing selection
When selective pressures select against the two extremes of a trait, the population experiences
stabilizing selection. For example, plant height might be acted on by stabilizing selection. A
plant that is too short may not be able to compete with other plants for sunlight. However,
extremely tall plants may be more susceptible to wind damage. Combined, these two selection
pressures select to maintain plants of medium height. The number of plants of medium height
will increase while the numbers of short and tall plants will decrease.
Directional selection
A type of selection that removes individuals from one end of a phenotypic distribution and thus
causes a shift in the distribution. occurs when natural selection favors one extreme of continuous
variation. Over time, the favored extreme will become more common and the other extreme will
be less common or lost.

Disruptive selection
A type of selection that removes individuals from the center of a phenotypic distribution and thus
causes the distribution to become bimodal: occurs when natural selection favors both extremes of
continuous variation. Over time, the two extreme variations will become more common and the
intermediate states will be less common or lost. Disruptive selection can lead to two new species.

Brief Account of evolution

About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
Some cellular forms had the ability to release O2 and slowly single cell organisms became
multicellular organisms.
By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
First organisms that invaded land were plants.
Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water was about 350 mya.
In 1938, a lobe finned fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which evolved
into first amphibians that lived on both land and water and these were the ancestors of modern
day frogs and salamanders.
The amphibians evolved into reptiles which lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun.
The modern day descendants of reptiles are the turtles, tortoises and crocodiles.
In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth.
Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
Some of the reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles around 200 mya.
The land reptiles were the dinosaurs and the biggest of them is Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20
feet in height and had huge fearsome dagger like teeth.
About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth, some of them evolved into
birds or might be killed by the climatic changes.
The first mammals were like shrews and their fossils were small sized.
Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body.
Mammals dominated the earth when the population of reptiles came down.
In South America there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc.
Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were
overridden by North America.
Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of
competition from any other mammal.
Some mammals live wholly in water.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN
The stages of evolution of man are-

Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus-

About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing.
They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania.
These revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates
walked in eastern Africa.
Australopithecus-
About two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
They hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit.
Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different.
They were intermediate between apes and man.
Homo habilis-
The brain capacities were between 650-800cc.
They probably did not eat meat.
They were the makers of stone tools.
Homo erectus-
About 1.5 mya, Homo erectus arose.
Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc.
Homo erectus probably ate meat.
Neanderthal man-The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east and
central Asia between 1, 00,000-40,000 years back.
They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead.
Homo sapiens or modern man-
Arose in Africa and moved across continents.
During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.