STRUCTURAL SYSTEM DESIGN

EARC327

Presentation 9

Lecturer Yaşar Umut Barış Bektaş

What is Substructure and Superstructure?
● There are two major components of a building project which are substructure and superstructure. The substructure is the part of
the building that is built below the ground level whereas superstructure is the part of the structure that is constructed above the
ground level.

● Superstructure

● The superstructure is the portion of a building which is constructed above the ground level and it serves the purpose of structure’s intended
use. It includes columns, beams, slabs, walls, door and windows, flooring, roofing and lintels.

● Substructure

● The substructure is the lower part of a building which is constructed below the ground level. The function of substructure is the transfer of
loads from the superstructure to the underlying soil. So, the substructure is in direct contact with supporting soil. Substructure involves
foundation and plinth of a building.
Components of a Building’s Superstructure
● The structural components of a building constructed above the ground level constitute the superstructure. The basic components
of a building's superstructure are columns, beams, slab and wall. These components safely transfer the dead loads, live loads and
other loads to the substructure (foundation and plinth) which further distributes it to the underlying earth.

● Mentioned below are the some basic components a building's superstructure:

○ Walls

○ Roof

○ Columns

○ Beams

○ Slab
What is Column?

● Vertical continuous structural elements that carry the loads transmitted to them by the beams and then transfer them safely to the
foundation are called columns. Columns with different cross-section types and cross-section sizes can be constructed using
reinforced concrete, wood and steel profile materials. In other words, vertical bearing elements that transfer the loads from
beams or floors to other columns or foundations are called columns.
What is Column?

● A column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load. Therefore, columns are typically constructed
from materials such as stone, brick, block, concrete, timber and steel which have good compressive strength.

● These structural members are relatively slender that are designed primarily to support axial compressive loads applied to the
ends of the members.

● Columns are very important components of a structure. Failure of columns results in the collapse of the structure. A column may
also be nonstructural, used for a decorative purpose or as a freestanding monument.
Different Column Types in Historical Process

● Classical Greek and Roman architecture made use of four major orders or styles of columns, carved from single blocks or
created from stacks of massive stone blocks for their buildings and temples. These four types of columns were Doric, Ionic,
Corinthian, and Tuscan.

● In ancient Egypt and the Middle East, columns, usually large and circular, were used with great effect to decorate and support
massive structures, especially in the absence of arches.

● In Eastern architecture, columns tend to be simple in shape but richly decorated.

● Craftsmen of the Gothic and Romanesque era, used the bases and capitals of supporting stone columns as spaces for intricate
carving.

● Baroque designs often featured sinuously carved columns of marble.

● Modern columns tend to be made of iron, steel, or concrete and are simply designed.
Structural Behaviour of Columns

● Columns are the vertical members that span between the substructure to the superstructure.

● The columns take the axial compressive loads coming from the top beam and slab elements and transfer them safely to the
footing and then to the soil. It has an important role in the load transfer mechanism of a complete building structure. A building
structure does not exist without column members.

● Every column is designed for a compressive strength to sustain the most expected axial load over it. Failure occurs when the
direct stress from the axial load exceeds the compressive strength of the material that is available in the column section.

● The external forces create internal stresses within the structural elements that contribute to sustaining the external force.

● Columns can fail mainly due to crushing or buckling phenomena. The failure of the column would result in sudden failure,
unlike beams and slabs. Hence, it demands accurate design and careful construction.
General Rules for Column Design

● Size of the Columns

● Distance Between the Columns

● Alignment and Place of the Columns

● Generally reinforced concrete column in 3-4 story residential building size is 30x30 cm.

● A column could be in each corner of the building.

● The maximum column spacing in a dwelling is 7.5-8 meters, but there should be a minimum of 3 columns per axis.

● Close columns should preferably be on the same axis.

● Minimum column distance is 3-3.5 meters.

● Necessary columns should be provided around the ladder to hold.

General Rules for Column Design

● Column and Shear Wall Dimensions

● Columns:

● As the building height increases, column dimensions must also increase. For this, the following relation must be used: Narrow
side of column > hmax (of building) / 50.

● So for example; If the height of the building including the basement is 30 meters; The narrow side of a column must be at least
60 cm. (3000 cm / 50 = 60 cm) This means that the minimum column size should be 60 x 60.

● Shear Walls:

● When evaluating reinforced concrete shear walls, the horizontal ratio of 1/6 is taken as basis. When designing vertical shear
walls, the following criteria should be taken into account: Narrow side of the curtain > hmax (of building) / 80.

● So for example; If the height of the building including the basement is 30 meters; The narrow side of a curtain wall must be at
least 40 cm. (3000 cm / 80 = 37.50 cm). This means that the minimum curtain wall size should be 40 x 240.
Types Of Columns

● There are different column types used in structures. Columns are classified based on the several conditions which include:

● Types Of Columns Based On Materials Used

● Types Of Columns Based On The Type Of Reinforcement

● Types Of Columns Based On Shape

● Types Of Columns Based On The Type Of Loading

● Types Of Columns Based On Slenderness Ratio

Types Of Columns Based On Materials Used

● Reinforced Concrete Column

● Reinforced concrete columns are the most widely used columns for framed structure. This columns have an embedded steel
mesh (known as rebar) to provide reinforcement. Concrete carries the compressive load and reinforcement resists tensile load.
Types Of Columns Based On Materials Used

● Reinforced Concrete Column

● The reinforcing materials can be made of steel, polymers, or alternate composite materials. For a strong, ductile, and durable
construction the reinforcement needs to have some properties such as thermal compatibility, high resistance to tensile stress,
good bond to concrete and anti-corrosive. The design of reinforcement can be either spiral or tied.

● Spiral columns are cylindrical with a continuous helical bar wrapped around the column. This spiral provides support in the
transverse direction.

● Tied columns have closed lateral ties spaced approximately uniformly across the column. The spacing of the ties is limited in
that they must be close enough to prevent failure between them, and far enough apart that they do not interfere with the setting
of the concrete.
Types Of Columns Based On Materials Used

● Steel Columns

● Steel columns have good compressive strength, but have a tendency to buckle or bend under extreme loading. This can be due to
their length, cross-sectional area, method of fixing and shape of the section. Steel columns are made of steel entirely.

● Steel columns created using a single profile with large cross-sections are often exposed to stresses exceeding the safety stress
due to buckling when the pressure load is very high. For this reason, instead of a single profile with a large cross-section, the
column can carry more load by using two or more small profiles whose sum of cross-sectional areas is equal to the cross-
sectional area of the large profile.

● Brick Columns

● Brick columns are found in masonry structures. They can be reinforced with concrete to increase strength or can be
unreinforced. Brick columns can be a round-shaped, rectangle, or square, or elliptical in cross-section.
Types Of Columns Based On Materials Used

● Wooden Columns

● Wooden columns are mostly made of timber produced from hard and high-strength trees, and they can be made as solid,
combined or separate, depending on the size of the load they will transfer. They provide an aesthetic appearance creating a
feeling of space and openness.

● Composite Columns

● Composite columns are constructed using various combinations of structural steel and concrete. The interactive and integral
behavior of concrete and the structural steel elements makes the composite column a very stiff, more ductile, cost-effective, and
consequently a structurally efficient member in building and bridge construction. This type of column has great fire and
corrosion resistance also.
Types Of Columns Based On The Type Of Reinforcement

● Tied Columns

● A tied column is one in which smaller diameter transverse bars, commonly known as ties, attach the reinforcing bars at regular
intervals. The major purpose of the ties is to maintain the longitudinal bars vertical while they are built. It also contributes to the
column’s buckling resistance. Ties are usually evenly spaced along with the column’s height.

● Spiral Columns

● Spiral columns are normally cylindrical with continuous spiral bars wrapped around them. Spiral reinforcement helps to provide
transverse support. Spiral columns are used when high strength and/or high ductility are required. Because the spiral acts to
resist the lateral expansion of the column bars under high axial loads. They are used more extensively in seismic regions.

● Composite Column

● These columns consist of structural steel or cast iron columns enclosed with concrete, reinforced with longitudinal and spiral
reinforcement. Composite columns are mostly used in truss structures to avoid the corrosion of steel.
Types Of Columns Based On Shape

● Square Column & Rectangular Column

● Square or rectangular columns are mostly used in building construction. These types of columns are economically good and
easy to construct because of their easy shuttering and reinforcement placement.

● Circular Column

● Circular columns are specially designed columns, which are mostly used in piling and elevation of the buildings. They provide a
smooth and aesthetic finish. Its bending resistance is usually higher than square or rectangular columns. Other than buildings,
circular columns are also used as bridge pillars due to good deflection resistance.
Types Of Columns Based On Shape

● L Type Column

● Commonly, L type column is utilized in the corners of the boundary wall and has similar characteristics of a rectangular or
square column. This design of the column can be a good replacement to resist both axial compression and biaxial bending of
corners.

● T Type Column

● T type column has same feature as square/ rectangular column and is mostly used in bridge and retaining wall construction.
Types Of Columns Based On The Type Of Loading

● Axially Loaded Column

● When the resultant of the load coincides with the centroid of the cross-section of a column, it is called axially loaded or
concentrically loaded column. These types of columns rarely used in construction.

● Interior column of multi-storey buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs from all sides is an example of this type of
column.
Types Of Columns Based On The Type Of Loading

● Eccentrically Loaded Column

● When the resultant of the load does not coincide with the centroid of the cross-section of a column, it is called eccentrically
loaded column. There are two types eccentrically loaded column:

● Uniaxially Eccentrically Loaded Column

● When vertical loads do not coincide with center of gravity of column cross section, but rather act either on X or Y axis of the
column cross section, then it is called uniaxially eccentric loading column. Column with uniaxial loading are generally
encountered in the case of columns rigidly connected beam from one side only such as edge columns.

● Biaxially Eccentrically Loaded Column

● When vertical loads on the column is not coincide with center of gravity of column cross section and does not act on either axis
(X and Y axis), then the column is called biaxially eccentric loaded column. Columns with biaxial loading is common in corner
columns with beams rigidly connected at right angles at the top of columns.
Types Of Columns Based On Slenderness Ratio

● Based on slenderness ratio, (effective length/ least lateral dimension), columns are categorized as follow:

● Short Column

● When the ratio of the effective length of the column to its least lateral dimension is less than 12, it is called short column. In
short column mechanical failure mainly occur due to shearing. The loads that a short column may support depend on the
dimension of cross-section and the strength of materials.

● Long Column

● When the ratio of the effective length of the column to its least lateral dimension exceeds 12 the column is considered a long
column.

● Long column fails due to buckling effect which reduces load-bearing capacity. Long columns are weaker compared to short
columns of same cross-sectional area and are not generally preferred. Also, the load-carrying capacity is less compared to short
column of same cross-sectional area.
What is Beam?

● Horizontal structural elements that first carry the loads transmitted to them by the floor slabs and then safely transfer them to the
column are called beams. Beams carry the loads from slabs and also the direct loads as masonry walls and their self-weights.

● Beams with different cross-section types and dimensions can be constructed using reinforced concrete, wood and steel materials.
What is Beam?

● Beams are structural elements that carry loads perpendicular to their axis and try to bend under the influence of load. Beams
also withstand vertical loads, shear forces, and bending moments. Beams transfer these loads that imposed along their length to
their endpoints such as walls, columns and foundations.

● Spacings up to 8 meters in buildings can be crossed economically with reinforced concrete beams. In larger spans, the cross-
sectional dimensions of the beam become very large.
What is Beam?

● When creating reinforced concrete beams, the floor plan of the building should be taken into account. First of all, a beam is
placed under each partition wall that determines the boundaries of the spaces in the floor plan. Then, columns are placed at the
corner points of each space, ensuring that both ends of the beams are supported on the columns. Columns should be placed
evenly in both directions, if possible.
Types of Beams

● Different types of beams are utilized in buildings and constructions, and each one has a distinct purpose. The different beams are
categorized based on the types of support they give, the loading conditions they face, the shape of their cross-sections, and the
materials used. There are different types of beams which are classified based on the following conditions:

● Types Of Beams Based on Construction Materials

● Types Of Beams Based on Support Conditions

● Types Of Beams Based on Shape Of Cross-Section

● Types Of Beams Based on Geometry

● Types Of Beams Based on Equilibrium Condition

● Types Of Beams Based on Method of Construction

Types Of Beams Based on Construction Materials

● Timber Beam

● Timber beams can be a variety of woods and each has specific strengths, colours, hardness, permeability, and durability.

● The timber beam is commonly utilized in the building of wooden roof trusses. A timber frame structure is used with columns
and posts to support beams. They are also utilized to support floor slabs in historic timber-framed dwellings. If treated and cared
for properly, timber is a sturdy and long-lasting building material. However, the application of such a beam in the construction
industry is significantly declined now.

● Reinforced Concrete Beam

● Plain cement concrete and reinforcement bars make up a reinforced concrete beam. It is the most frequent type of beam used in
building construction. This sort of beam can be seen in many residences.

● Concrete beams can handle powerful stressors and enormous loads. They are also suitable for larger-scale, weight-bearing
construction.
Types Of Beams Based on Construction Materials

● Steel Beam

● Steel beams are one of the strongest beams, so they often seen in large commercial projects, like apartment complexes and
shopping malls. Apart from withstanding heavy loads, these beams rarely corrode, so they can typically withstand extreme
weather like temperatures, wind and rain.

● Composite Beam

● This is a structural component built from two different materials linked together to form a single unit. Steel and concrete
composite beams, for example, are utilized in building construction. A broad steel flange is used to secure this concrete slab.
Types Of Beams Based on Support Conditions

● The type of support for beams refers to how and what a builder uses to reinforce or attach the beam to other structures. Builders
can attach supports at the ends, middle, or anywhere along a beam's horizontal line. There are four common types of support:

● Fixed supports: A fixed support is rigid and prevents the beam from rotating or moving horizontally or vertically. An example is
a beam attached directly to a wall.

● Pinned supports: Pinned or hinged supports allow a beam to rotate or pivot but not move vertically or horizontally. Bridges and
trusses often require pinned supports.

● Roller supports: Roller supports can resist vertical loads, but they can't resist horizontal force, so they typically require a second
support like a hinge support.

● Simple supports: Simple supports can't resist horizontal loads but can resist vertical forces.
Types Of Beams Based on Support Conditions

● Examples of beams classified by one of these support types include:

● Simply Supported Beam

● It is one of the simplest structural elements that both ends rest on supports but is free to rotate. It contains pinned support at one
end and a roller support at the other end. Based on the assigned load, it sustains shearing and bending. Also called free support
beams, these beams can be used to build earthquake-resistant buildings and suspension bridges. This is as opposed to a fixed
beam which is fixed at those ends or an overhanging beam where the supports are set in from the end of the beam.

● Fixed Beam

● A fixed beam is one that is fixed on both ends of the beam with supports. This type of beam does not allow for bending moment
production and will not have any vertical movement or rotation. This is as opposed to a simple supported beam which is merely
supported at each end but not fixed so is free to rotate with no moment resistance. The fixed beam is positioned to withstand
high pressure. Fixed beams are most frequently used in trusses and similar structures. It is also employed in the construction of
high-rise buildings and industrial structures.
Types Of Beams Based on Support Conditions

● Cantilever Beam

● Beams with one end supported on a column or beam and the other end free are defined as cantilever beams. This type of beam is
capable of carrying loads with both bending moment and shear stress. Cantilever beams are used to enlarge buildings with small
floor areas by extending them to the upper floors. Cantilever beams are also used to create balcony floors with wide openings.

● Overhanging Beam

● An overhanging beam is one that is supported at two different areas, typically at one end and in the middle of the beam, but does
not have a support at the other end of the beam, leaving it hanging. This type of beam extends beyond the walls or columns and
the overhanging section of the beam is unsupported. An overhanging beam is a combination of a simply supported beam and a
cantilever beam.
Types Of Beams Based on Support Conditions

● Continuous Beam

● A continuous beam is one that has at least three supports that reinforce the beam. These supports are used under and between the
beams and are typically vertical in nature. Because they have multiple supports, they offer more stability if one support fails. In
bridge construction, a continuous beam is most usually employed. Continuous beams are more economical and safer.

● Trussed Beam

● These beams are commonly utilized to construct workshop sheds and warehouse sheds where a long span and open space are
required.
Types Of Beams Based on Shape Of Cross-Section

● A beam's cross-section shape can affect how it performs. Every cross-section shape has distinct pros and cons, depending on the
type of construction required. These beams can be constructed from reinforced concrete, steel, or composite materials:

● Rectangular Beam

● The cross-section of the rectangular beam endures tension at the bottom and compression at the top. As a result, the bottom of
the beam’s cross-section receives more reinforcement than the top. This type of beam is widely used in the construction of
reinforced concrete buildings and other structures.

● T-section Beam

● This type of beam is mostly constructed monolithically with a reinforced concrete slab. Sometimes, Isolated T-beam is built to
increase the compression strength of concrete. Added to that, inverted T-beam can also be constructed according to the
requirements of loading imposed.
Types Of Beams Based on Shape Of Cross-Section

● I -section Beam

● In the construction of steel constructions, I beams are used. In steel structures, I beams can safely withstand deflection and
bending forces. With greater strength than other beam sections, the I beam protects the structure’s integrity more than other
beam sections.

● L-section Beam

● L-Beam is a type of beam used at the corner or around the perimeter of a slab. This type of beam is constructed monolithically
with a reinforced concrete slab at the perimeter of the structure. Their design makes them especially strong because they can
prevent bending while resisting shear stress.
Types Of Beams Based on Geometry

● The shape of a beam determines its geometry, which can affect how it is used. Certain shapes naturally offer more strength than
others.

● Straight Beam

● Straight beams have a straight contour along their length. The majority of the structures are composed of straight beams.

● Tapered Beam

● Because of their excellent stiffness-to-mass ratio, tapered beams are widely used in structural applications. They have several
advantages over prismatic beams, including increased shear bearing capacity, increased lateral stability, and reduced weight.

● Curved Beam

● Curved beams are those that have a curved shape or profile. It is commonly employed in the construction of circular or curved-
shaped buildings.
Types Of Beams Based on Equilibrium Condition

● Statically Determinate Beam

● Based on the basic equilibrium condition, the support reaction created in this beam is computed. The basic equilibrium position
used as a beam is used to examine statically determinate beams. These beams are suitable for buildings and structures that may
experience varying levels of stress, like bridges.

● Statically Indeterminate Beam

● Statically indeterminate beams are more stable because they typically have more supports than required, ensuring the complete
stability of a structure.
Types Of Beams Based on Method of Construction

● Cast In-situ Concrete Beam

● These are the beams that are cast and cured on-site. Formwork is placed in a specific size for the casting of the beam, and fresh
concrete is poured into the forms, which are then compacted using various machinery.

● Precast Concrete Beam

● Precast beams are cast or created in a controlled environment away from the structure, and perfect conditions are provided to
castings to assure the beam’s full strength. They’re made at facilities and cured with a high-quality check in a very controlled
environment. After that, the precast beams are brought to the construction site to be used.

● Prestressed Concrete Beam

● The pre-stressed concrete beam is constructed by stressing strands before applying loads on the beam. Prestressed-concrete
beams can span greater distances than reinforced-concrete beams. This type of beam is very thin and light.
Types Of Beams Based on Method of Construction

● Lintel Beam

● Lintel beams are small-span concrete or reinforced concrete beams built to cover door and window openings in buildings and to
transmit the wall load on door and window joinery to the wall sections next to them. Therefore, its major purpose is to limit the
amount of force applied to the door and window frames. The lintel should be supported on the walls at least 15–20 cm.
Difference Between Beam and Column

● Column and beam are the main parts of the structural frame. Beams transfer the total loads from the slab to the column and
columns carry it to the foundation and provide stability to the structure.

● Beams and columns are similar structural elements and work in a similar way. They provide a safe load path so structures
effectively transfer weight and other forces to the foundations. Beams are typically horizontal in nature, carrying loads in a
perpendicular direction. They mainly resist lateral loads along their axis and deflect loads via bending. Any loads or forces that
go to the beam create a reaction force at the support points of the beam. Beams help to support the weight of flooring, the
ceilings or roofing of a building and also transfer loads of any vertical load-bearing elements.

● Columns are vertical structural components normally attached to the roof slab, ceiling or beam. They transfer loads to the
footings of a structure, unlike a beam that carries loads from the slabs to the columns while withstanding bending. Beams and
columns use the same materials and shapes but each has its own unique function in the building, so designs differ.
Difference Between Beam and Column

● Beam and column have several differences. Sources of the main difference between column and beam are definition, types of
loads to carry and transmission, response to loads, confinement bars, types, importance and design criteria. The following are
the key differences between beam and column:

● Definition

● Beams are horizontal load-bearing members transfer loads from slabs & walls to the columns beneath them. / Columns are
vertical load-bearing members of the structure which carry the beam loads and transfer the loads down to the foundation.

● Types of Loads to Carry and Transmission

● The beam carries all the dead loads, and live loads with the lateral loads. Beams transfer those loads down to the attached
column. / Columns carry all the loads transferred by the beams on top of it. Columns also directly carry the lateral loads.
Columns transmit those carried loads to the foundation which is located beneath the ground surface.
Difference Between Beam and Column

● Response to Loads

● In response to the loads shear force & bending moment is produced on the beam. Compressive & tensile stress occurs at the top
& bottom of the beam respectively. These forces and stresses cause strain & deflection of the beam. Also, reaction forces occur
at the beam supports. / Unlike the beam, only compressive stress occurs at the column. Because the column carries loads
through compression. Lateral deflection occurs due to the lateral loads.

● Types

● The main classification of beams is defined according to the types of supports under them. Beams can also be classified
according to the construction materials. / Columns are classified based on materials, shape, reinforcement, loading method,
slenderness ratio, and others.
Difference Between Beam and Column

● Importance

● Beams are necessary to transfer the loads to the columns. But a building structure can be made without the beams by providing a
flat slab and drop panel column by following proper guidelines. / Columns are the mandatory elements of the structure. A huge
amount of loads (both compressive and lateral) are transferred through columns. Failure in columns will result in the collapse of
the whole structure.