Magnetic

Materials
Magnetic Materials
￮ Materials that can be magnetized are called magnetic materials.
￮ When electron travels around the nucleus it also produces a magnetic field in addition to
an electric field
￮ Charge electron is equal to 1.6 x 10-19C
￮ Time period = 10-16s
￮ Current = 1.6 x 10-3 A
￮ Magnetic field (H) at center = 20A/m
￮ Net magnetic field produced by an electron at nucleus is generally zero
Magnetic Dipoles
￮ Magnetic dipole is an arrangement of two unlike
magnetic poles of equal pole strength separated by a very
small distance, e.g., a small bar magnet, a magnetic
needle, a current carrying loop etc.
Magnetic
Laws
Biot – Savart’s Law
￮ Biot-Savart’s law is an equation that gives the magnetic
field produced due to a current carrying segment. This
segment is taken as a vector quantity known as the current
element.
Ampere’s Circuit Law
￮ The magnetic field created by an electric current is
proportional to the size of that electric current with a
constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free
space
Magnetic flux density
￮ Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction is the number
of magnetic lines of force passing through the unit area of
the material. Magnetic flux density is measured in tesla.
The magnetic flux density (B) is related to the magnetic
field (H) by the equation
￮ B =μH
￮ B is the magnetic flux density or magnetic induction
￮ H is the magnetic field
￮ μ is the magnetic permeability of the medium
Magnetic susceptibility
￮ Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality
constant that indicates the degree of magnetization of a
material in response to an applied magnetic field. It is
caused by interactions of electrons and nuclei with the
externally applied magnetic field.
￮ The mathematical definition of magnetic susceptibility is the
ratio of magnetization to applied magnetizing field intensity.
This is a dimensionless quantity.
￮ χ = M/H
Magnetic moment
￮ The magnetic moment is a determination of its tendency
to get arranged through a magnetic field. As we all know, a
magnet has two poles, i.e., North and South.
￮ In the definition for the current loop, the Magnetic moment
is the product of the current flowing and the area, M = I A
• So, the unit conferring to this definition is articulated
by Amp-m2.
• It can also be suggested in terms of torque and moment.
Conferring to that, the torque is measured in Joules (J) and
the magnetic field is measured in tesla (T) and thus the unit
is J T -1.
• So, these two units are equivalent to each other and are
provided by 1 Amp-m2 = 1 J T -1.
Magnetization
￮ The magnetization of a given sample material M can be
defined as the net magnetic moment for that material per
unit volume.
￮ Mathematically,
Magnetization
￮ Let us now consider the case of a solenoid. Let us
take a solenoid with n turns per unit length and the
current passing through it be given by I, then the
magnetic field in the interior of the solenoid can be
given as,

￮ Now, if we fill the interior with the solenoid with a

material of non-zero magnetization, the field inside
the solenoid must be greater than before. The net
magnetic field B inside the solenoid can be given as,

µ0 is the constant of permeability of a vacuum.

M is Magnetization
Magnetic Intensity
￮ The magnetic intensity of a material can be given as,

￮ Here, the magnetic field due to the external factors such as

the current in the solenoid is given as H and that due to the
nature of the core is given by M. The latter quantity, that is
M is dependent on external influences and is given by,

￮ χ is the magnetic susceptibility of the material

Origins of Magnetic Dipole
￮ Each electron in an atom has 2 magnetic moments
1. Due to revolution around the nucleus “Orbital Dipole
Moment”
2. Due to spin on its own axis
Orbital dipole moment
￮ When an electron corresponding to a particular subshell
revolves around the nucleus at high speed, it acts as a
hypothetical current carrying loop. Every current carrying
loop has a dipole moment associated with it. Thus for every
electron orbit we have an orbital dipole moment associated
with the motion of the electron.
Orbital dipole moment
Orbital dipole moment
Bohr Magneton
￮ Smallest unit of magnetic moment is Bohr Magneton
𝑛ⅇℎ
￮ 𝑃𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑚

￮ For n = 1
￮ PB = 9.27x 10-24 Am2 or J/T
Quantum number
￮ Principle Quantum number (n)
￮ It gives the location of electron in a
particular orbit
￮ As orbit size increases energy of electron
increases
￮ The maximum number of electrons than
can be accommodated in orbit = 2n2
￮ N = 1, 2 electron
￮ N = 2, 8 electron
￮ N = 3, 18 electron
￮ N = 4, 32 electron
Quantum number
￮ Orbital Quantum number
￮ It gives the number of subshells in an
orbit from l =0 to n-1
￮ Number of subshells is equal to orbital
quantum number
￮ 2(2l + 1) is the number of electron that
can be filled in each subshell
￮ Angular momentum of an electron
revolving around nucleus is also
quantized, It is always a multiple of
ℎ
￮ ℏ=
2𝜋
ℎ
￮ 𝐿𝑙 = 𝑙 ℏ = 𝑙
2𝜋
Quantum number
￮ Magnetic Quantum Number
￮ The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of
these orbitals are determined by the magnetic quantum number.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘ml’. This number yields the projection
of the angular momentum corresponding to the orbital along a
given axis.

￮ The value of the magnetic quantum number is dependent on the

value of the azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum
number. For a given value of l, the value of ml ranges between
the interval -l to +l. Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value of
n.
Quantum number
￮ Magnetic Quantum Number
￮ For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of
the magnetic quantum number are -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and +3.
Quantum number
￮ Electron Spin Quantum Number

￮ The electron spin quantum number is independent of the

values of n, l, and ml. The value of this number gives insight
into the direction in which the electron is spinning, and is
denoted by the symbol ms.
￮ The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the
electron is spinning. The possible values of the electron spin
quantum number are +½ and -½.
Quantum number
Pauli exclusion principle
￮ Pauli exclusion principle states that in a single atom no two
electrons will have an identical set or the same quantum
numbers (n, l, ml, and ms).
￮ There are two salient rules that the Pauli Exclusion Principle
follows:
￮ Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital.
￮ The two electrons that are present in the same orbital
must have opposite spins or it should be antiparallel.
Types of
Magnetic
Materials
Diamagnetic material
￮ Diamagnetic materials create an induced magnetic
field in a direction opposite to an externally applied
magnetic field.
￮ They are repelled by the applied magnetic field.
￮ The permanent dipoles are absent in Diamagnetic
materials
Diamagnetic material
￮ Diamagnetic Materials experiences a repelling force when
brought near the pole of a strong magnet.
￮ The magnetic susceptibility χ of these materials is always
negative.
￮ The relative permeability μr is always less than one.
￮ In the absence of external magnetic field ,The net
magnetic dipole moment over each atom or molecule of a
diamagnetic material is zero. This is due to pairing of
electrons.
￮ Examples:-Bismuth, Copper, Lead, Zinc etc.
Paramagnetic materials
￮ Paramagnetic materials exhibit magnetism when
the external magnetic field is applied.
Paramagnetic materials loose magnetization in
the absence of an externally applied magnetic
field. These materials are weakly attracted
towards magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials
￮ Paramagnetic materials experiences a feeble attractive force
when brought near the pole of a magnet
￮ These materials possess some permanent dipole moment
which arise due to some unpaired electrons.
￮ The magnetic susceptibility χ is small and +ve.
￮ Examples:-Platinum, Aluminium, Copper sulphate etc.
 Magnetic field is
absent
Ferromagnetic materials
￮ It is the phenomenon in which a material gets
magnetized to a very large extent in the presence of an
external field. In presence of
￮ The direction in which the material gets magnetized is Magnetic field

the same as that of the external field.

Ferromagnetic materials
￮ Ferromagnetic materials experience a
very strong attractive force when
brought near the pole of a magnet.
￮ Permeability is very much greater than
one.
￮ Susceptibility is +ve and high.
￮ Examples:-Fe, Co, Ni, Mn As etc.
Ferromagnetic materials
￮ Coercivity: The capability of a ferromagnetic material to hold up (resist) a
peripheral magnetic field without getting demagnetized.
￮ Retentivity (Br): It is the amount of magnetism that a ferromagnetic
material can maintain even after the magnetic field is decreased to zero.
￮ Permeability: It is used to determine how a material reacts to the applied
magnetic field.
￮ Magnetic materials are mainly classified (based on the magnitude of
coercive force) into two sub domains – hard magnetic materials and soft
magnetic materials.
Soft Ferromagnetic materials
￮ The soft magnetic materials can be simply magnetised
and demagnetised. This is because only small energy is
needed for the same. These materials have coercive field
very small which is less than 1000A/m.
Hysteresis Loop
￮ It is actually a loop which is traced by the material which is
magnetized when subjected to an alternating magnetic field.
For soft magnetic materials, the loop will be of small area.
So, hysteresis loss is minimum.
Properties of Soft Magnetic
Materials
￮ Utmost permeability.
￮ Slight coercive force.
￮ Small hysteresis loss.
￮ Small remanent induction.
￮ High saturation magnetization
Examples of Soft magnetic Material
￮ Pure Iron
￮ Silicon Iron Alloys
￮ Nickel Iron Alloys (Hypernik)
Hard Ferromagnetic materials
￮ These materials are really hard in the basis that it is very
difficult to get magnetised. The reason is that the domain
walls are motionless owing to crystal defects and
imperfections.
￮ They have coercive force greater than 10kA/m and have
high retentivity.
Properties of Hard Magnetic
Materials
￮ Utmost retentivity and coercivity.
￮ Value of energy product (BH) will be large.
￮ The shape of BH loop is nearly rectangle.
￮ High hysteresis loop.
￮ Small initial permeability.
Hard magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic Domains
Magnetic Anisotropy
Magnetic Anisotropy
Magnetostriction
Magnetostriction
Antiferromagnetic material
￮ It is refer to a phenomenon in which the magnetic interaction
between any two dipoles align themselves anti-parallel to each
other.
￮ Since all dipoles are of equal magnitude , the net magnetization
is zero.
Antiferromagnetic material
￮ Like ferromagnetic materials antiferromagnetic materials also
possess dipole moment due to spin of the electron.
￮ The opposite alignment of adjacent dipoles due to an exchange
interaction.
￮ The susceptibility is very small and is +ve.
￮ These materials become paramagnetic above a transition
temperature, known as the Néel temperature, TN. (Cr: TN=37ºC).
Ferrimagnetic Material
￮ Ferrimagnetism is a phenomenon in which the magnetic interaction
between any two dipoles align anti-parallel to each other.
￮ Since the magnitude of dipoles are not equal. The cancellation of
magnetic moments become incomplete resulting in a net
magnetization in the material.
Ferrimagnetic Material
￮ Ferrimagnetic materials possess magnetic dipoles moment due to
the spin of the electron.
￮ A Ferrimagnetic material is composed of more state of different
transition elements.
￮ The susceptibility is very Large and +ve.
￮ Examples:-Nickel, Ferrite and Ferrous ferrite.
Temperature vs Susceptibility
Summary of Magnetic
Materials
Calculations of
magnetization in
Magnetic
Materials
Magnetization of Paramagnetic
materials
￮ When magnetic field is applied then some dipoles align parallel to magnetic
field & some anti-parallel.
￮ When magnetic field increases, alignment of dipoles in the direction of field
increases.
￮ M = μin Np − μin μa
= Np − Na μin
−Ep −Ea
￮ Np = No exp NA = No exp
KB T KB T
￮ N = Np + N a
Magnetization of Paramagnetic
materials
Energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field.
Ep = − μm cos θ B
= − μm μo μr cos θ H
if μr = 1

Ep = − μm . μo H = −μm μo H
Ea = −μm μo H cos 180 = μm μo H
Na Ep − Ea
= exp
Np KBT
Magnetization of Paramagnetic
materials
Na −2μm μo H
￮ = exp
Np KB T
￮ = exp −2 ∝
μm μo H
￮ ∝=
K8 T
￮ N = Np exp −2 ∝ + Np
￮ = Np 1 + exp −2 ∝
N
￮ Np =
1+ⅇxp −2∝
Na 1
￮ N= Na + = Na 1 +
ⅇxp −2∝ ⅇxp −2∝
N ⅇxp −2∝
￮ Na =
Magnetization of Paramagnetic
materials
In region 3, H is very high and T is very low
μo μm H↑
∝= ∝≫> 1
KB T↓
tan h ∝= 1
Msat = Nμm
This is a condition when all dipoles are aligned to
direction of field.
In region 2, H and T are normal
μo μm H
∝=
KB T
∝≪ 1
tan h ∝ =∝
μo μm H
M = Nμm
KB T
Magnetization of Paramagnetic
materials
MΤ Nμo μ2m
X= H =
KB T
M C Nμo μ2m
X= = C=
H T KB
M
X= = 10−3 μr = 1 + X > 1
H
Due to antiparallel alignment of same dipoles
diamagnetic nature also exists in paramagnetic materials.
Magnetization in ferromagnetic
material
￮ Hi = H + γM
￮ γM = internal field constant
μo μm H
￮ M = Nμm tan h KB T
→ paramagnetic magnetization
μo μm H+γM
￮ M = Nμm tan h → ferromagnetic magnetization
KB T

￮ Case 1:- At normal magnetic field and temperature

μo μm H+γM
￮ M = Nμm tan h KB T
μo μm H+γM
￮ ∝′ = KB T

￮ tan h ∝′ =∝′
μo μm H+γM
￮ M = Nμm KB T
Magnetization in ferromagnetic
material
Nμ2m μo H Nγ μ2m μo M
￮ M= + K T
KB T B

Nγ μ2m μo Nμ2m μo H
￮ M 1− =
KB T KB T

￮ M K B T − Nγ μ2m μo = Nμ2m μo H
M Nμo μ2m 1ൗK
B
￮ = 1 2
H KB T−Nγμm μo
KB
Nμo μ2
m
KB
￮ = Nγ μ2 μo
T− Km
B

Nμo μ2m
￮ = =C
KB
M C C
￮ = T−C = T−θ → micro T > θf
H γ f
Magnetization in ferromagnetic
material
￮ Micro,
N C
￮ X= , X=
H T−θf
1 1
￮ = 𝑇 − θf
X C
￮ This equation holds good for T > θf
￮ If temp < θf (ferromagnetic curie temp),
ferromagnetic properly holds good i.e. hysteresis
curve.
Magnetization in ferromagnetic
material
Case-2 : Ferromagnetic behaviour ￮ T is very low
￮ T < θf ￮ ∝′′ ≫> 1
￮ In this region, spontaneous ￮ tan h ∝′′ ≈ 1
magnetization exist and hence ￮ Msat = NμB
￮ M≠0 , H=0 ￮
M
= tan h ∝′′
μo μB H+γM Msat
￮ M = NμB tan h ￮ Since, ∝′′ =
μ0 μB γM
KB T
KB T
μo μB γM KB T
￮ = NμB tan h ￮ M= ∝′′
KB T μ0 μB γ
μo μB γM 𝑇
￮ ∝′′ = ￮ = μ0μB ∝ ′′
KB T 𝛾
KB
￮ ∝′′depends only on ‘T’
￮ Saturation magnetization
Magnetization in ferromagnetic
material
𝑀 T
￮ = μ0μB ∝”
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 γ μBN
KB
T
￮ = Nμ0μB2 ∝”
KB
γ

T
￮ = ∝”
C.γ
𝑀 T
￮ = ∝”
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 Qf

￮ Case – 1: T < Qf : towards x – axis

￮ Case – 2: T = Qf : m = 45o
￮ Case – 3: T > Qf : towards y - axis
￮ T < Qf : ferromagnetic behaviour exists
A large value of the exchange interaction energy in a
ferromagnetic material implies
(a) Large saturation magnetization
(b) High curie temperature
(c) High melting point
(d) Large diamagnetic susceptibility

Q1
Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched?
(a) Copper: Diamagnetic (b) Sodium: Anti ferromagnetic
(c) Iron: Ferromagnetic (d) Ferrite: Ferrimagnetic

Q2
Ferromagnetic behavior is shown by those transition metals where the ratio of the
atomic diameter to 3d orbital diameter is
(a) in the range of 0.5 to 1 (b) in the range of 1 to 1.5
(c) in the range of 1.5 to 2 (d) greater than 2

Q3
Which one of the following materials cannot be used for
permanent magnets?
(a) Alnico
(b) Barium Ferrite
(c) Carbon-steel
(d) Iron-Cobalt alloy

Q4
Up to about 4% silica is added in iron to be used as a soft magnetic
material. The major reason for this is to
(a) increases permeability of the material
(b) increase electrical resistivity of the material
(c) increase the coercive force
(d) increase the saturation flux density

Q5
Susceptibility of a diamagnetic material is
1. Negative
2. Positive
3. Dependent on the temperature
4. Independent of the temperature
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3

Q6
Q7
Which one of the following is the temperature below
which certain material are anti-ferromagnetic and above
which they are paramagnetic?
(a) Curie temperature (b) Neel temperature
(c) Transition temperature (d) Weiss temperature

Q8
Match List – I (Type of the material) with List – II (name
of the material) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below:

Q9
Q10
Q11
Q12
Above the Curie temperature, ferro-magnetic
materials behave like
(a) Paramagnetic (b) Diamagnetic
(c) Anti-ferromagnetic (d) Ferrimagnetic

Q13
Q14
Q15
Q16
When the temperature of a magnetic material
is raised above the Curie point, it becomes
(a) diamagnetic (b) paramagnetic
(c) ferromagnetic (d) ferrimagnetic

Q17
Q18
Q20
Q21
Q22
Q23
Q24
Q25