LIFE SCIENCES GRADE 12 - PAPER 1

(Answers from past Assessment Guidelines)

REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES

EXTERNAL FERTILISATION AND INTERNAL FERTILISATION

External fertilisation:
The sperm cell fertilises the egg cell OUTSIDE the body of the female.
Water is always required, physical contact not required. E.g. fish, frogs
Disadvantages:
- Chances of fertilisation is very reduced and large amounts of sperm need to
be produced
- Resulting zygote is not well protected from predators
Internal fertilisation:
The male deposits the sperm inside the body of the female, where fertilisation occurs
inside the female reproductive system. E.g. Birds and mammals
Disadvantages: copulatory organ required
Advantages:
- Chances of fertilisation increased and small amounts of sperm need to be
produced
- Resulting zygote is well protected inside the female body.

OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY AND VIVIPARY

Ovipary- Eggs are laid and development of the embryo takes place outside the
mother’s body. (with internal or external fertilisation)
Disadvantage: Eggs may be preyed on by predators

Ovovivipary- Internal fertilisation and the eggs are retained inside the mother’s body
and obtain nourishment from the egg yolk. The young hatch inside the mother’s body
and are then born.
Advantages: Increased chance of offspring being produced, well developed offspring
produced. Protection from predators.

Vivipary- Internal fertilisation and the young develop inside the uterus of the mother
and obtain nourishment from the mother’s placenta.
Advantages: Increased protection for developing embryo

AMNIOTIC EGG
Has extra-embryonic membranes: chorion, amnion, allantois and yolk sac
- Chorion: allows oxygen to enter and CO2 to leave through to the shell and out
- Amnion: membrane enclosing the amniotic cavity which contains amniotic
fluid which protects the embryo against mechanical damage.
- Allantois: stores waste produced by the embryo; also functions in gaseous
exchange
- Yolk sac: provides nourishment to the embryo
- Shell: prevents dehydration and gives protection
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PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT

Precocial Altricial
1. Eyes are open when they hatch 1. Eyes are closed when they hatch
2. Body is covered in soft feathers 2. Bodies are not covered by “down”
called “down”
3. Able to move soon after hatching 3. Unable to move soon after hatching
4. Able to feed themselves 4. Unable to feed themselves
5. Independent of their parents 5. Dependent on parents
6. Eggs provide high energy to 6. Eggs provide less energy to
developing embryos developing embryos

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

NB: MALE & FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS (LABELS & FUNCTIONS)

OOGENESIS

- Under the influence of FSH

- diploid (germinal epithelium) cells in the ovary
- undergo mitosis to form numerous follicles
- One of these follicles enlarges and
- undergoes meiosis
- Of the four cells produced, only one survives to form the haploid ovum

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF OVUM

- Haploid nucleus which
- fuses with sperm's nucleus to form a diploid zygote
- jelly layer which protects the ovum and
- makes the ovum impenetrable once fertilisation has occurred
- the cytoplasm which provides nourishment
(Be able to draw the ovum with labels)

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HORMONAL CONTROL OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
(OVARIAN AND UTERINE cycles)
- FSH is secreted
- By the pituitary gland
- FSH stimulates the development of a primary follicle
- into a Graafian follicle
- As the Graafian follicle develops, it secretes Oestrogen
- Which causes the lining of the uterus/ endometrium
- To become thicker/more vascular
- In preparation for a possible implantation
- The pituitary gland
- Secretes LH
- Which causes the Graafian follicle to rupture, releasing the ovum
- This is called ovulation
- The empty follicle changes and becomes the corpus luteum
- Which begins to secrete progesterone
- Which causes further thickening
- Of the endometrium
- High levels of progesterone
- Inhibit the secretion of FSH
- Which prevents the development of a new follicle in the ovary
- If there is no fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates
- Which leads to a drop in the progesterone levels
- The endometrium disintegrates and is shed during menstruation
- If fertilisation occurs, the corpus luteum remains intact
- Which leads to high levels of progesterone
- To maintain the pregnancy
- The secretion of progesterone is eventually taken over by the placenta

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 Hormonal control of the female reproductive cycle
Hormonal changes taking place at A, B, C and D in the graph

PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS AND FORMATION OF SEMEN

- Spermatogenesis takes place under the influence of testosterone
- In the seminiferous tubules in the testes
- Diploid germinal epithelial cells undergo meiosis
- to form haploid sperm cells

Formation and transport of semen

- Sperm mature and are temporarily stored
- in the epididymis
- During ejaculation
- sperm move into the vas deferens
- As it passes the seminal vesicles
- the prostate gland and
- Cowper’s glands
- fluids are added that provide nutrition
- promotes the movement of the sperm
- and neutralize the acids produced in the vagina and urethra
- The semen passes through the urethra
- of the penis
- into the vagina
- during copulation
- and "swims" up the Fallopian tube where it meets the ovum.

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STRUCTURAL SUITABILITY OF THE SPERM FOR FERTILISATION
- The front of the head of the sperm cell has an acrosome
- which carries enzymes to dissolve a path into the ovum
- The nucleus of the sperm
- carries genetic material of the male
- The middle piece contains mitochondria
- which release energy so that the sperm can move
- The presence of a long tail
- enables sperm to "swim" towards the ovum
- The contents of the sperm cell, such as the cytoplasm, is reduced
- making the sperm light for efficient movement

PROCESS OF FERTILISATION
- In the fallopian tubes
- one sperm cell makes contact with the ovum’s membrane
- The nucleus of the sperm enters the ovum
- and the ovum becomes impenetrable to other sperm
- The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ovum
- to form a diploid zygote
- This is called fertilisation

EVENTS AFTER FERTILISATION

- The zygote divides by mitosis many times
- to form an embryo
- which first consists of a ball of cells
- called the morula
- The morula then develops into a hollow ball of cells
- called the blastula
- which embeds itself into the uterine lining/endometrium
- using chorionic villi
- This structure is called the placenta

EVENTS AFTER IMPLANTATION

- Cells of the embryo continue to divide
- and differentiate
- to form the different organs and limbs
- It is now called a foetus
- The foetus is enclosed in a sac/membrane called the amnion
- filled with amniotic fluid
- which protects the foetus against temperature fluctuations,
- dehydration and
- mechanical injuries/acts as a shock absorber.
- The chorionic villi and the endometrium form the placenta
- where the blood of the foetus and the mother
- run close to each other
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- allowing nutrients to diffuse into the blood of the foetus
- The umbilical vein carries the absorbed nutrients from the mother to the
foetus
- The umbilical artery
- carries all the waste away from the foetus to the mother's blood

GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND NOURISHMENT OF THE FOETUS IN HUMANS

- In the placenta, the mother’s blood comes into close contact with the foetal
blood,
- Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the mother’s blood into the foetal blood in
the umbilical veins
- This nutrient rich blood is carried to the foetus through the umbilical cord
- CO2 diffuses from the foetal blood in the umbilical artery into the maternal
blood

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (BRAIN & SPINAL CHORD)

Position & Functions of the following parts:

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Every organ/gland is controlled by two sets of nerves/double innervation

- that act antagonistically
- to control involuntary events
- Sympathetic nerves
- generally, stimulates a response
- Parasympathetic nerves 
- generally, inhibit a response

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REFLEX ACTION AS A RESULT OF A REFLEX ARC (e.g. finger & flame)

- Pain receptors in the skin of the finger (MAKE APPLICABLE TO ANY OTHER EXAMPLE)
- convert the stimulus
- into an impulse
- which is transmitted to the spinal cord
- via the sensory neuron
- which makes synaptic contact with the
- connector neuron
- Connector neuron transmits the impulse via
- the motor neuronto the
- effector/muscles of the arm/hand
- causing them to contract
- pulling the finger away from the flame

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SENSE ORGANS (Structure of the eye and the ear & functions of parts)

THE EYE

HOW HUMANS RECEIVE AND INTERPRET LIGHT STIMULI (able to see)

- Light enters the eye
- through the cornea
- which refracts light
- It then passes through the aqueous humour
- and the pupil
- The size of the pupil is adjusted by the iris
- to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye
- The light then passes through the lens
- which further refracts the light
- It then passes through the vitreous humour and
- reaches the retina
- which has the photoreceptors/ rods and cones which convert the light into a
nerve impulse
- The impulse is sent via the optic nerve
- to the cerebrum of the brain
- where the image is interpreted

PUPIL MECHANISM IN:

BRIGHT LIGHT
- The circular muscles of the iris contract and
- the radial muscles relax
- causing the pupil to constrict/ smaller pupil diameter
- so that less light enters the eye

DIM LIGHT
- The radial muscles of the iris contract and
- the circular muscles relax
- causing the pupil to dilate/ larger pupil diameter
- so that more light enters the eye

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ACCOMODATION of the eye (objects further than 6m)
- Ciliary muscles relax
- Suspensory ligaments become taut
- Tension on the lens increases
- Lens becomes less convex
- Refractive power of the lens decreases
- A clear image falls on the retina

ACCOMODATION of the eye (objects closer than 6m)

- Ciliary muscles contract
- Suspensory ligaments slacken
- Tension on the lens decreases
- Lens becomes more convex
- Refractive power of the lens increases
- A clear image falls on the retina

STRUCTURAL SUITABILITY OF THE LENS

- Lens is elastic
- therefore, can change shape/convexity change to allow for accommodation
- Lens is transparent
- to allow light rays to pass through
- Lens is biconvex
- to refract light rays

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VISUAL DEFECTS

THE EAR

HEARING
- Sound waves are directed by the pinna
- through the auditory canal
- to the tympanic membrane
- causing it to vibrate
- The vibrations are transferred to the ossiclesin the middle ear
- which causes the oval window to vibrate
- This sets up pressure waves in the perilymph 
- Pressure waves are then transferred to the endolymph in the cochlea
- This stimulates the Organ of Corti
- in the cochlea
- to convert the stimulus into an impulse
- which is then transported along the auditory nerve
- to the cerebrum
- where the sound is interpreted

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BLOCKED EUSTACHIAN TUBE
- Air will not be taken in
- to equalise pressure 
- on both sides of the tympanic membrane 
- Tympanic membrane/ossicles may not vibrate freely
- This may lead to the tympanic membrane bursting  and
- could lead to hearing loss /deafness/ pain

AMPLIFICATION OF SOUND

BALANCE
- Changes in the direction and speed of movement of the head
- causes the endolymph to move  in the semi-circular canals
- The cristae
- found in the ampulla are stimulated and
- convert the stimulus into an impulse
- which is transmitted via the auditory nerve
- to the cerebellum from which
- impulses are transmitted via motor neurons
- to the skeletal muscles/effector to restore balance to the body

- Changes to the position of the head.

- causes the endolymph to move in the semi-circular canals
- which stimulates the macula
- found in the utriculus and sacculus to
- convert the stimulus into an impulse
- which is transmitted via the auditory nerve
- to the cerebellum from which
- impulses are transmitted via motor neurons
- To the skeletal muscles/ effector to restore balance to the body
HEARING DEFECTS

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HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AN ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE GLAND

- Exocrine glands release their secretions into ducts (glands with ducts)
- Endocrine glands release their secretions directly into the blood stream (ductless glands)

DEFINITION OF A HORMONE
- It is a chemical messenger
- that is protein in nature
- Secreted by glands, but
- act on target organs (far from the glands)

THE HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

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FUNCTIONS/EFFECT OF ADRENALIN
- Increases the heart rate – to supply more O2 and glucose and to remove CO2
- Increases the blood pressure - to supply more O2 and glucose and to remove
CO2 to the tissues
- Stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose by the liver so that more
glucose is available for energy ( through cellular respiration)
- Increases blood supply to the heart, brain and skeletal muscles to ensure
effective functioning of these organs
- Decreases blood flow to the digestive system to conserve blood for the vital
organs
- Decreases blood flow to the skin to conserve blood for the vital organs
- Increases rate and depth of breathing to supply more O2 and glucose and to
remove CO2 to the tissues
- Increases the rate of metabolism/ respiration to provide more energy for the
cells
- Causes pupils to dilate, to increases visual awareness

HOMEOSTASIS

CONTROL OF CO2 (HOMEOSTASIS)

- Receptor cells
- In the carotid artery/aorta are stimulated
- to send impulses to the medulla oblongata in the brain
- which then stimulates the heart
- to beat faster
- and the breathing muscles (diaphragm, intercostal and abdominal)
- to contract more actively
- thus, increasing the rate and depth of breathing
- More CO2 is taken to and exhaled from the lungs
- The blood CO2 returns to normal

CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE (HOMEOSTASIS)

HIGH GLUCOSE LEVELS
- When blood glucose levels rise above normal
- the pancreas/ islets of Langerhans are stimulated to
- secrete more insulin into the blood
- which travels to the liver/ muscle cells
- and stimulates them to absorb more glucose from the blood
- and convert the excess glucose to glycogen
- which decreases the blood glucose levels

LOW GLUCOSE LEVELS

- When blood glucose levels drop below normal
- the pancreas/ islets of Langerhans are stimulated to
- secrete more glucagon into the blood
- which travels to the liver/ muscle cells
- and stimulates them to convert glycogen to glucose
- which increases the blood glucose levels

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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK BETWEEN TSH and THYROXIN
- When thyroxin levels are low
- the pituitary gland is stimulated
- to secrete more TSH
- which stimulates the Thyroid gland to secrete
- more thyroxin
- which causes an increase in metabolic rate
- to increase energy production
- When thyroxin levels are high
- the pituitary gland
- secretes less TSH
- which causes the thyroid gland to secrete
- less thyroxin
(Also learn Negative feedback between Insulin & Glucagon as well as between
Progesterone & FSH)
OSMOREGULATION (low water levels in blood)
- Due to dehydration/exercise/ sweating
- osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated
- An impulse is sent to the pituitary gland
- and more ADH is secreted
- The ADH causes walls of the renal tubules
- to become more permeable to water
- More water is reabsorbed
- and the blood volume increases
- Less urine is produced
- and the urine is more concentrated
OSMOREGULATIO FOR high water levels in blood - just the opposite reactions
SALT BALANCE and the role of ALDOSTERONE
- When sodium (salt) levels are low in the blood
- the adrenal glands are stimulated
- to secrete more aldosterone
- which causes the walls of the renal tubules
- to become more permeable
- allowing for a greater reabsorption of sodium ions
- from the filtrate into the blood capillaries
- and a decreased excretion of sodium ions
- from the blood into the filtrate
FOR HIGH SALT CONCENTRATION - just the opposite reactions
THERMOREGULATION (during exercise or high environmental temperatures)
- Increased respiration (as a result of exercise)
- causes increased body temperature
- Hypothalamus is stimulated which
- sends impulses to the muscle layer in the walls of the skin's blood vessels
- This leads to the dilation of blood vessels/vasodilation
- and more blood flows to the skin
- More heat is lost by radiation
- More blood flows to the sweat glands
- which become more active/produce more sweat
- to lower the body temperature

THERMOREGULATION (in a cold environment - opposite reactions)

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PLANT RESPONSES TO STIMULI FROM THE ENVIRONMENT

PLANT HORMONES

FUNCTIONS OF AUXINS
- Responsible for photo- and geotropism/gravitropism
- Promote cell division
- Promote cell elongation
- Responsible for apical dominance
- by inhibiting lateral branch growth
- and promoting growth in the apical buds
- Promotes root development

FUNCTIONS OF GIBBERELLINS
- Bring about elongation of internodes
- Stimulates root growth
- Promote development of flowers
- Stimulates the germination of seeds
- Increases fruit size

FUNCTIONS OF ABSCISIC ACID

- Causes seed dormancy
- Promotes the aging and falling of leaves and fruit
- Causes closing of stomata during drought periods

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PHOTOTROPISM
- Auxins are sensitive to light
- Light stimulus from one side (unilateral light) causes auxins to move to the
- shaded side/destroyed on the illuminated side
- Auxin concentration is higher on the shaded side
- This promotes cell elongation on the shaded side of the plant
- Resulting in more growth on this side
- The stem grows towards the light stimulus
- This is called phototropism

NEGATIVE GEOTROPISM/GRAVITROPISM (STEMS)

(for a stem placed horizontally)
- Auxins will accumulate on the lower side of the stem
- as they are attracted by gravity
- and stimulate cell elongation on the lower side
- while the upper side grows slowly
- causing the stem to grow upward

POSITIVE GEOTROPISM/GRAVITROPISM (ROOTS)

(for a root placed horizontally)
- Auxins will accumulate on the lower side of the root
- as they are attracted by gravity
- and inhibit cell elongation on the lower side
- while the upper side grows faster
- causing the root to grow downward

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