MOBILE COMPUTING

Mobile computing refers to the utilization of portable computing devices, such as smartphones, tablets,
laptops, and wearables, to access and interact with data, applications, and services while on the move.
Difference between FDMA, CDMA and TDMA:
FDMA TDMA CDMA

FDMA stands for Frequency TDMA stands for Time CDMA stands for Code Division
Division Multiple Access. Division Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

In this, sharing of bandwidth In this, only the sharing of In this, there is sharing of both i.e.
among different stations takes time of satellite transponder bandwidth and time among different
place. takes place. stations takes place.

There is no need of any There is no need of any

Codeword is necessary.
codeword. codeword.

Synchronization is not
Synchronization is required. Synchronization is not required.
required.

The rate of data is low. The rate of data is medium. The rate of data is high.

Mode of data transfer is Mode of data transfer is signal Mode of data transfer is digital
continuous signal. in bursts. signal.

It is little flexible. It is moderate flexible. It is highly flexible.

Wired Network vs Wireless Network

S.No Wired Network Wireless Network

A wired network employs wires to “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up
link devices to the Internet or another of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared
1.
network, such as laptops or desktop waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all
PCs. wireless devices

2. Faster transmission speed Slow transmission speed

3. Propagation delay is Low Propagation delay is high

4. More Secure & hence Reliable Less Secure & hence less Reliable
 5. Devices must be hard-wired Installation is Quick

6. Less Expensive More Expensive

7. High installation & maintenance cost Low installation & maintenance cost

8. Hub, Switch, etc. devices are used Wireless routers, access points, etc. are used.

Review of generation of mobile services

1. 1G (First Generation):
 Introduction: 1G marked the advent of mobile telephony, primarily analog-based, and offered basic
voice calling capabilities.
 Limitations: Low call quality, susceptibility to interference, and limited coverage.
 Technologies: Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) and Total Access Communication System
(TACS).
2. 2G (Second Generation):
 Introduction: 2G brought digital transmission, enhancing voice quality and enabling additional
services like SMS (Short Message Service).
 Advancements: Digital encryption for secure communication, improved spectrum efficiency, and
the introduction of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access) technologies.
 Expansion of Services: Introduction of SMS, MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service), and basic
internet browsing capabilities.
3. 3G (Third Generation):
 Introduction: 3G introduced higher data transfer rates, enabling advanced multimedia services such
as video calling, mobile internet, and mobile TV.
 Technologies: UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and CDMA2000.
 Advancements: Higher data speeds (up to several Mbps), improved network capacity, and enhanced
multimedia capabilities.
4. 4G (Fourth Generation):
 Introduction: 4G marked a significant leap forward in terms of data speeds, supporting broadband
internet access, HD video streaming, and advanced gaming.
 Technologies: LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access).
 Advancements: Peak data rates exceeding 100 Mbps, low latency, and improved spectral efficiency.
5. 5G (Fifth Generation):
 Introduction: 5G represents the latest generation of mobile services, promising ultra-fast speeds, low
latency, massive connectivity, and support for emerging technologies like IoT (Internet of Things)
and AI (Artificial Intelligence).
 Technologies: NR (New Radio) for air interface, utilizing higher frequency bands like mm Wave.
 Advancements: Potential peak data rates surpassing 10 Gbps, ultra-low latency (less than 1
millisecond), massive device connectivity, and network slicing for tailored service delivery.
Overview of wireless telephony
Wireless telephony is a technology that that operates by transmission of information through space, there is
no fixed connection b/w the sender and receiver device. By using wireless telephony people can transceiver
the information from airplane and driving cars
It consist of two variants:

 Cordless Phones (Sometimes called portable telephone)

 Mobile phones (Sometimes called cell phone)

Basically, in cordless phone, consisting of a base station and a handset, base station attached to telephone
n/w as the same way a coded telephone does
Mobile phones connect to a base station & satellite phones are connected to orbiting satellites. Both n/w are
interconnected to PSTN so that any phone in the world can be dialled
Cellular concept
The cellular concept in telecommunications refers to a system of dividing geographical areas into smaller
units called cells to provide wireless coverage and manage network capacity efficiently. This concept is
fundamental to the architecture and operation of mobile cellular networks. Here's an overview of the cellular
concept:
Cell Structure:

 In a cellular network, a geographic region is divided into numerous small hexagonal or circular cells,
each served by a base station or cell site.
 Each cell typically has a radius ranging from a few hundred meters to several kilometres, depending on
factors such as population density, terrain, and frequency allocation.
 Cells are arranged in a grid-like pattern to provide continuous coverage across the service area.

Base Stations:

 Each cell is equipped with a base station, also known as a cell site or radio transmitter, which transmits
and receives radio signals to and from mobile devices within the cell.
 Base stations are connected to the mobile switching centre (MSC) or base station controller (BSC) in the
network's core infrastructure.
Frequency Reuse:

 To maximize the utilization of radio frequencies and minimize interference between adjacent cells, the
cellular concept employs a technique called frequency reuse.
 In frequency reuse, the same set of radio frequencies is reused in different cells that are sufficiently far
apart to minimize interference.
Handover and Mobility Management:

 As mobile users move between cells while making calls or using data services, the cellular network
system must manage the handover process seamlessly to maintain the connection.
 Handover refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell to another as
a mobile device moves out of the coverage area of one cell and into the coverage area of another
Types of Handoff

 Hard Handoff
 Soft Handoff
 Delayed Handoff
 Mobile-Assisted Handoff

1. Hard Handoff
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to another Base
Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching takes place so quickly that it
can hardly be noticed by the users. The connection quality is not that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break
before make’ policy.

 Hard Handoff is cheaper in cost as compared to soft Handoff because only one channel needs to be
active at a time.
 It is more efficient than soft handoff, that’s why hard handoffs are widely implemented.
 Sometimes, a delay can be experienced while switching base stations.
a. Intra cell handoff:
In Intra cell Handoff, the handover occurs within the same cell. Intra cell handover switches a cell in
progress from one physical channel of a cell to another physical channel of the same cell.
b. Inter cell handoff:
In Intra cell Handoff, the handover occurs between two cells. The inter cell handover switches a cell in
progress from one cell to another cell. It can be of two types of Inter BSC: Here the MS moves from one cell
to another cell controlled by the different BSCs. Inter MSC: Here the MS moves from one cell to another
cell controlled by the different MSCs.
c. Inter System Handoff:
In inter system handoff; the handover occurs between two systems. This type of handoff occurs when the
mobile unit moves from one cellular system to a different cellular system. Example from GSM to UMTS.
2. Soft Handoff
Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device gets connected with two or more base stations at the same
time. At least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or removed to the Base Station. Soft
Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. If a channel is in power loss then another channel will
always be on standby mode so this makes it best in terms of quality as compared to hard handoff. Soft
handoffs are used in devices supporting CDMA/WDMA networks

 High Transmission speed as more than one repeater can transmit signals.
 It has a very low delay in signals.
 It can’t be implemented on devices supporting GSM or LTE networks.

3. Delayed Handoff
Delayed handoff occurs when no base station is available for accepting the transfer. The call continues until
the signal strength reaches a threshold, and after that, the call is dropped. Generally, it happens when the
user is out of the network coverage area, or at some dead spots where network reach is very low.
4. Mobile-Assisted Handoff
Mobile-Assisted handoff is generally used when a mobile phone helps a base station to transfer the call to
another base station with better-improvised connectivity and more signal strength. This handoff is used in
TDMA technique-based GSM devices.
GSM architecture
The architecture of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) encompasses various components
that work together to provide mobile telecommunication services. Here's an overview of the GSM
architecture:
Mobile Station (MS):

 The Mobile Station, often referred to as the user equipment, comprises the physical device used by the
subscriber. It includes the mobile phone or GSM modem.
 The MS consists of two main parts: the Mobile Equipment (ME), which refers to the physical device (the
handset), and the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), which stores subscriber information such as the
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and authentication keys.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

 The Base Station Subsystem is responsible for managing radio communication between the Mobile
Station and the network.
 It consists of two main components: Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and Base Station Controller (BSC).
 The BTS is responsible for transmitting and receiving radio signals to and from the Mobile Station
within its coverage area.
 The BSC controls multiple BTSs, managing radio resources, handovers between cells, and call setup and
release procedures.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):
The Network Switching Subsystem provides switching, mobility management, and access to external
networks for GSM subscribers.
It comprises several elements:

 Mobile Switching Centre (MSC): The MSC is the central component responsible for call switching,
routing, and management of calls within the GSM network. It also interfaces with other networks such as
the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or other mobile networks.
 Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores subscriber information, including
subscriber profiles, current location, and authentication data.
 Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a database that temporarily stores subscriber information
when they are within the coverage area of a particular MSC.
 Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC stores authentication and encryption keys used for subscriber
authentication and data security.
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is a database that stores information about mobile
devices, including their International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers, to prevent the use of
stolen or unauthorized devices on the network.
Operations and Maintenance Centre (OMC):
The Operations and Maintenance Centre is responsible for network management, monitoring, and
troubleshooting.
It includes various elements such as the Operation and Maintenance Centre-Base Station Subsystem (OMC-
BSS) and the Operation and Maintenance Centre-Network Switching Subsystem (OMC-NSS), which
provide tools and interfaces for monitoring and managing the respective subsystems.
GSM Air Interface
The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) air interface refers to the set of protocols and
standards governing the wireless communication between mobile devices and the cellular network
infrastructure in GSM-based systems. It encompasses various aspects such as modulation techniques,
channel access methods, error correction mechanisms, and signalling protocols.
Key components of the GSM air interface include:

 Modulation: GSM uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation for digital data
transmission. GMSK is a form of continuous-phase frequency shift keying (CPFSK) that provides
efficient spectrum usage and good resistance to interference.
 Multiple Access: GSM employs Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) as its multiple access
technique. In TDMA, the available frequency spectrum is divided into time slots, with each user being
assigned one or more time slots for transmission. This allows multiple users to share the same frequency
band by transmitting in different time slots.
 Channel Structure: The GSM frequency band is divided into multiple carrier frequencies, each of
which is further divided into timeslots. Each timeslot is 577 microseconds in duration and carries a burst
of user data.
 Error Correction: GSM employs various error correction techniques to ensure reliable data
transmission over the air interface. These include convolutional coding and cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) for error detection, as well as interleaving and ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) for error
correction.
 Signalling: GSM defines various signalling channels for functions such as call setup, handover, and
network management. These include the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), Common Control Channel
(CCCH), Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH), and Synchronization Channel (SCH), among others.

GSM Channel Structure

1. Logical Channels: Logical channels represent different types of communication within the GSM
system. These channels include:
 Traffic Channels (TCH): Used for carrying user speech or data.
 Control Channels: Used for signalling and control purposes. Examples include:
a) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): Carries system information broadcasted by the base station.
b) Common Control Channels (CCCH): Used for initial access to the network, including paging and
random access procedures.
c) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH): Used for signalling during established connections, such as call
setup, handover, and release.
d) Synchronization Channels: Used for synchronizing mobile devices with the base station.
e) Frequency Correction Channels (FCCH) and Synchronization Channels (SCH): Used for initial
synchronization and frequency correction.
2. Physical Channels: Physical channels are the actual radio channels used for communication. These
channels are defined by combining a specific carrier frequency with a particular timeslot. Physical
channels include:
 Traffic Channels (TCH/F): Full-rate traffic channels used for speech or data transmission.
 Traffic Channels (TCH/H): Half-rate traffic channels used to double the capacity of the system.
 Control Channels: Physical channels dedicated to carrying control information, such as paging,
access grant, and system information.

3. GSM Call Setup and Handover:

 Call Setup: The process involves identifying the called subscriber, allocating resources, and establishing
a connection. It includes signalling between the mobile station, base station, and the network's switching
elements.
 Handover: Handover occurs when a mobile station moves from one cell to another during an active call.
The network ensures a seamless transition without call interruption.
Location Management in Cellular Systems
1. HLR
2. VLR
3. Hierarchical Location Management: Hierarchical Location Management (HLM) is a technique used in
mobile communication networks, particularly in cellular networks, to efficiently manage the mobility of
mobile devices.
In traditional mobile communication systems, such as those based on the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), mobile devices often need to register
their current location with a central database known as the Home Location Register (HLR) or Visitor
Location Register (VLR). Every time a mobile device moves from one location area to another, it needs to
update its location information in the HLR/VLR.
Hierarchical Location Management aims to reduce the signalling overhead associated with frequent location
updates by organizing the location areas into a hierarchical structure. Instead of updating the location
information with each movement within a small location area, a mobile device only updates its location
when it moves between different levels of the hierarchy.
The location areas are typically organized into a tree-like structure, with smaller areas at the leaf nodes and
larger areas at higher levels of the hierarchy. When a mobile device moves within a small area, it doesn't
need to inform the central database about its movement unless it crosses a boundary into a different branch
of the hierarchy.
Advantages of Hierarchical Location Management:
1. Reduced Signalling Overhead: HLM reduces the frequency of location updates by only requiring
updates when a mobile device moves between different levels of the hierarchical structure. This reduces
the signalling load on the network, improving its efficiency.
2. Conservation of Battery Power: Since mobile devices don't need to constantly update their location
information, HLM can help conserve battery power, extending the battery life of mobile devices.
Disadvantages of Hierarchical Location Management:
1. Complexity: Implementing and managing a hierarchical structure for location management adds
complexity to the network architecture and operations. This complexity can increase the cost of network
deployment and maintenance.
2. Handover Latency: Since location updates are only triggered when a mobile device moves between
different levels of the hierarchy, there may be increased handover latency when a device moves from
one branch of the hierarchy to another.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):

 CDMA is a channel access method used in various mobile communication standards, including
CDMA2000 and WCDMA (Wideband CDMA).
 In CDMA, multiple users can transmit simultaneously over the same frequency band by encoding their
signals using unique codes.
 Each user is assigned a unique code, and all users share the same frequency band simultaneously.
 CDMA allows for more efficient use of the available spectrum and provides better resistance to
interference compared to other multiple access methods like TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) or
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).
 CDMA technology has been widely used in 2G and 3G cellular networks for voice and data
transmission.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):

 GPRS is a packet-switched technology used to enable data transmission over GSM networks.
 It allows mobile devices to connect to the Internet and other IP-based networks by establishing a packet-
switched connection between the mobile device and the GPRS network infrastructure.
 GPRS introduced the concept of packet data transmission, where data is broken into packets and
transmitted over the network only when needed, unlike circuit-switched networks where a dedicated
circuit is established for the duration of the communication.
 GPRS enables various mobile data services, including web browsing, email, and multimedia messaging.
 GPRS technology paved the way for more advanced mobile data technologies like EDGE (Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution) and eventually evolved into the 3G and 4G standards for mobile
broadband.
Mobile Computing Architecture
Issues in mobile computing
1. Battery Life: One of the most persistent issues in mobile computing is battery life. Users demand longer
usage times, but advancements in battery technology have been slower compared to other technological
advancements.
2. Limited Processing Power: Mobile devices have limited processing power compared to desktop
computers. While they have improved significantly over the years, they still can't match the processing
capabilities of desktops or servers.
3. Security Concerns: Mobile devices are more vulnerable to security threats such as malware, phishing
attacks, and data breaches due to their always-connected nature and the vast amount of personal data
they store.
4. Network Connectivity: While mobile networks have improved, network connectivity can still be
unreliable, especially in rural or remote areas. Additionally, network congestion can impact the
performance of mobile applications.
5. Device Fragmentation: The Android ecosystem, in particular, suffers from device fragmentation due to
the wide variety of hardware configurations and software versions. This makes it challenging for
developers to create apps that work seamlessly across all devices.
Three Tiers in Detail
Presentation Tier
It is the user interface and topmost tier in the architecture. Its purpose is to take request from the client and
displays information to the client. It communicates with other tiers using a web browser as it gives output on
the browser
Application Tier
It is the middle tier of the architecture also known as the logic tier as the information/request gathered
through the presentation tier is processed in detail here. It also interacts with the server that stores the data. It
processes the client’s request, formats it and sends it back to the client.
Data Tier
It is the last tier of the architecture also known as the Database Tier. It is used to store the processed
information so that it can be retrieved later on when required. It consists of Database Servers like- Oracle,
MySQL, DB2, etc. The communication between the Presentation Tier and Data-Tier is done using middle-
tier i.e. Application Tier.
Mobile File System
It is the file system that is designed for mobile environment
a) Need to be simple and low on resources
b) Should be extensible
c) Should be able to process data over wireless network
Cache Manager- A cache manager is a software component responsible for managing a cache, which is a
temporary storage location that stores frequently accessed or recently used data. The primary purpose of a
cache manager is to improve system performance by reducing access times to data that would otherwise be
retrieved from slower or more distant storage locations, such as disk or network storage.

Problems
a) Limited Resources
b) Low Bandwidth, High Protocol Overhead
c) No standard PC architecture
Solution
a) Data Replication- Copying, Cloning, Caching
b) Prefetching – Downloading files when connected before usage
c) Consistency – If there are two copies of the same object, one is updated, and other is not leading to
inconsistency
Mobile Database
1. It is the database that is transportable, portable and physically detached from the corporate database but
has capability to communicate with the server from remote site allowing sharing of data
2. With mobile database, user can interact with the corporate data on their laptop, personal digital assistant
(PDA) at their remote sites.
3. Corporate database server & DBMS in mobile database environments deals with storing corporate
database and providing corporate applications
4. Example – SQL server express (Microsoft) , DB2 Everywhere (Oracle)
Limitations:

 It has limited wireless bandwidth.

 It required unlimited battery power to access.
 It is less secured.
 It is Hard to make theft-proof.

What is Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)?

WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-browsers and it enables
access to the internet in mobile devices. It uses the mark-up language WML (Wireless Markup Language
and not HTML), WML is defined as an XML 1.0 application. It enables the creation of web applications for
mobile devices.
WAP Model
The user opens the mini-browser in a mobile device. He selects a website that he wants to view. The
mobile device sends the URL encoded request via network to a WAP gateway using WAP protocol.
The WAP gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP URL request and sends it over
the internet. The request reaches to a specified web server and it processes the request just as it would
have processed any other request and sends the response back to the mobile device through WAP gateway
in WML file which can be seen in the micro-browser.
WAP Protocol stack
1. Application Layer: This layer contains the Wireless Application Environment (WAE). It contains
mobile device specifications and content development programming languages like WML.
2. Session Layer: This layer contains Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It provides fast connection
suspension and reconnection.
3. Transaction Layer: This layer contains Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). It runs on top of UDP
(User Datagram Protocol) and is a part of TCP/IP and offers transaction support.
4. Security Layer: This layer contains Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). It offers data
integrity, privacy and authentication.
5. Transport Layer: This layer contains Wireless Datagram Protocol. It presents consistent data format
to higher layers of WAP protocol stack.
 UNIT 2
Introduction to Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local Area Wireless
Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a
wireless connection.
The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path sharing, 802.11
standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance).
It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building or an office.
WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still connected to the network.
In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable, while in other cases,
it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the public.
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) is a medium access control (MAC) layer protocol used
in wireless ad hoc network. It is used to solve the hidden terminal problem and exposed terminal problem. It
is an alternate to Carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) which have the hidden terminal problem and the
exposed terminal problem.

Working:-
The main condition for MACA to work, is that the stations are in sync with frame sizes and data speed. It
includes transmission of two frame called RTS and CTS preceding information transmission. RTS means
Request to Send and CTS means Clear to Send. Stations near to the transmitting station can hear RTS and
remains silent to hear the CTS.
Assume a transmission station A has data frame to send to a receiving station B.
The whole process will work as follows:

 A will send RTS frame to the B

 Then b will send CTS frame to A
 When CTS frame is received by A then it will start sending data frame to B
 Upon receiving data successfully it will send acknowledgment frame (ACK)

Solution to Hidden/Exposed Terminal Problem:

MACA protocol uses RTS and CTS to avoid hidden and exposed terminal problem. In hidden terminal
problem two nodes try to contact same node at a same time which can create collision to combat this if two
nodes send RTS to same node then the node which receives CTS will send the data not the other one which
will avoid the collision.
In exposed terminal problem one node stop receiving because it assumes that it can cause interference and
so stops its transmission attempts which will make the further nodes out of range. In this case RTS and CTS
solves the problem and no terminal can stop transmission because of interference.

Inhibit Sense Multiple Access (ISMA)

ISMA is used for packet data transmission in AMPS mobile phone systems. It is also known as Digital
sense multiple Access. (DSMA)
Working
1. Here the current state of the medium is signalled via a busy tone.
2. Base Station signals on the downlink from the base station to terminals if the medium is free or not.
3. Terminals must not send if the medium is busy.
4. Terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops.
5. If collision occurs, the base station signals collision via the busy tone.
6. If the data has been transmitted successfully, the base station signals the successful transmission via
acknowledgments. Media access is not coordinated within this approach.

Spread spectrum
Spread spectrum is a technique used in telecommunications and signal processing to spread the bandwidth
of a signal over a wider frequency range than the original signal. This spreading of the signal's energy
over a larger frequency range offers several advantages, including increased resistance to interference and
jamming, improved security, and enhanced privacy.
Principles of Spread Spectrum process:

 To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each station should be much
larger than needed.
 The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are modulated by the source
signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal. At one moment signal modulates one carrier
frequency and at the subsequent moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies.
A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some pattern for each hopping period
Th. The frequency corresponding to the pattern is used for the hopping period and is passed to the
frequency synthesizer. The synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that frequency. The figure above
shows the spread signal via FHSS.
Advantages of FHSS:

 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.

 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.
Disadvantages of FHSS:

 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).

 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different technique. Here, each data
bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-
rate. The chip rate is n times the bit rate of the original signal.

Advantages of DSSS:

 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.

 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.

Disadvantages of DSSS:

 Processing Gain is lower than FHSS.

 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and receiver.
HiperLAN

 HiperLAN stands for High performance LAN. While all of the previous technologies have been
designed specifically for an adhoc environment, HiperLAN is derived from traditional LAN
environments and can support multimedia data and asynchronous data effectively at high rates (23.5
Mbps).
 A LAN extension via access points can be implemented using standard features of the HiperLAN/1
specification. However, HiperLAN does not necessarily require any type of access point
infrastructure for its operation.
  HiperLAN was started in 1992, and standards were published in 1995. It employs the 5.15GHz and
17.1 GHz frequency bands and has a data rate of 23.5 Mbps with coverage of 50m and mobility< 10
m/s.
 HiperLAN/1 is specifically designed to support adhoc computing for multimedia systems, where
there is no requirement to deploy a centralized infrastructure. It effectively supports MPEG or other
state of the art real time digital audio and video standards.
 HiperLAN 2 has been specifically developed to have a wired infrastructure, providing short-range
wireless access to wired networks such as IP and ATM.
The two main differences between HiperLAN types 1 and 2 are as follows:

 Type 1 has a distributed MAC with QoS provisions, whereas type 2 has a centralized schedule MAC.
 Type 1 is based on Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), whereas type 2 is based on OFDM.
 HiperLAN/2 automatically performs handoff to the nearest access point. The access point is basically
a radio BS that covers an area of about 30 to 150 meters, depending on the environment. MANETs
can also be created easily.
The goals of HiperLAN are as follows:

 QoS (to build multiservice network)

 Strong security
 Handoff when moving between local area and wide areas
 Increased throughput
 Ease of use, deployment, and maintenance
 Affordability
 Scalability

BLUETOOTH
Local Area Wireless Systems
1. WPABX (Wireless Private Automatic Branch Exchange)
WPABX is a wireless adaptation of the traditional Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABX) system
used in businesses for managing internal phone networks. It allows for wireless communication between the
internal phones and with the external phone network, enhancing flexibility and reducing the need for
extensive cabling.
Key Features:

 Enables wireless communication within an organization.

 Reduces infrastructure costs associated with wired systems.
 Often integrates with existing telephony systems.
 Can support various communication technologies such as DECT or Wi-Fi.
2. IrDA (Infrared Data Association)
IrDA is a set of protocols for wireless communication using infrared light. It is primarily used for short-
range, line-of-sight communication between devices such as computers, mobile phones, and printers.
Key Features:

 Short-range communication (typically up to 1 meter).

 Line-of-sight required for transmission.
 Low power consumption.
 Speeds up to 4 Mbps (IrDA Fast Infrared).

3. ZigBee
ZigBee is a specification for a suite of high-level communication protocols using low-power digital radios. It
is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard and is used for creating personal area networks with small, low-
power devices such as home automation systems and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
Key Features:

 Low power consumption.

 Supports large mesh networks (up to 65,000 nodes).
 Operates in the 2.4 GHz, 900 MHz, and 868 MHz frequencies.
 Range typically up to 100 meters.
4. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
RFID is a technology that uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to
objects. The tags contain electronically stored information that can be read from a distance by RFID readers.
Key Features:

 Tags can be passive (no battery) or active (battery-powered).

 Can be read at various distances, from a few centimetres to several meters.
 Widely used in inventory management, access control, and tracking systems.
 Operates in various frequency bands: LF (125-134 kHz), HF (13.56 MHz), and UHF (860-960
MHz).

5. WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

WiMax is a wireless communication standard designed to provide high-speed broadband access over long
distances. It is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard and is intended as an alternative to cable and DSL
broadband connections.
Key Features:

 Provides broadband wireless access over long distances (up to 50 km).

 Can deliver high data rates (up to 70 Mbps).
 Operates in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, and 3.5 GHz frequency bands.
 Supports both fixed and mobile access.

UNIT 3
MOBILE IP Network Layer
IP Layer: The IP (Internet Protocol) layer is a fundamental part of the Internet protocol suite, commonly
referred to as TCP/IP. It is responsible for addressing and routing packets of data so that they can travel
across networks and arrive at the correct destination. The IP layer operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of
the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model.
Significance in Mobile Networking
1. Seamless Mobility
Continuous Connectivity: Mobile IP allows devices to maintain ongoing connections even when they
change their network attachment point. This is crucial for applications requiring persistent connectivity, such
as VoIP calls, video streaming, and online gaming.
2. Transparency
User Experience: The movement of the device is transparent to the user and to applications running on the
mobile node. Users experience seamless service without interruptions.
3. Scalability
Network Efficiency: Mobile IP can scale to support numerous mobile devices across various types of
networks (e.g., Wi-Fi, cellular networks) without requiring changes to the underlying infrastructure.
Mobile IP Network Layer:
 The Mobile IP allows for location-independent routing of IP datagrams on the Internet.
 Each mobile node is identified by its home address disregarding its current location in the Internet.
 While away from its home network, a mobile node is associated with a care-of address which identifies
its current location and its home address is associated with the local endpoint of a tunnel to its home
agent.
 Mobile IP specifies how a mobile node registers with its home agent and how the home agent routes
datagrams to the mobile node through the tunnel.
Packet Delivery
 STEP 1: Correspondent Node (CN) sends the packet as usual to the IP address of Mobile Node (MN).
With Source address as CN and Destination address as MN .The internet, which does not have any
information of the current location of MN, routes the packet to the router responsible for the home
network of MN. This is done using the standard routing mechanisms of the internet.
 STEP 2: The Home Agent (HA) now diverts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its home
network. The packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated and tunnelled to the
Care-of Address (COA). A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new
destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet.
 STEP 3: The foreign agent (FA) now decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional header (newly
added as COA as destination and HA as source), and forwards the original packet with CN as source and
MN as destination to the MN. Again, for the MN mobility is not visible.
 Finally the MN Receives the packet with the Source address as CN and Destination address as MN.
 STEP 4: The MN sends the packet MN as Source Address and CN as Destination Address. The router
with the FA acts as default router and forwards the packet in the same way as it would do for any other
node in the foreign network. Simple mechanism works if CN is Fixed at a location if it has got mobility
then the above Steps 1 to 3 are to be followed to deliver the packet from MN to CN.
Handoff Management:
 CN transmits a message for connection establishment or a packet using the IP protocol.
  HAl receives the packets and uses the information that the destined mobile node MN1 is not at the
home network and is presently visiting a foreign network and is reachable via a foreign agent FAj.
 HAl encapsulates the received IP packet using a new header.
 Care-of address (COA) at the new header over the IP packet sent by Hal.
 Handover─ Packet encapsulated with the new header with COA transmits to FAj by tunnelling.
 The FAj reads the COA and decapsulates the IP packet.
 Reads the destination IP address and transfers the packet to MNl.
Location Management in Cellular Networks
Location management in cellular networks ensures that the system can effectively track the position of
mobile stations (MS) to deliver services such as voice calls, SMS, and data. This involves two key
processes: location registration (or update) and paging. Here, we delve into two specific aspects: Location
Areas (LAs) and Dynamic/Distributed Location Management.
1. Location Areas
Concept: A hybrid approach combining paging and updates is used for efficient location management. This
method is prevalent in current cellular networks, such as GSM.
Implementation:
 Partitioning: The network is divided into Location Areas (LAs), each comprising several cells, typically
around 10 cells in diameter.
 Announcement: Each cell, also known as a Base Transceiver Station (BTS), periodically broadcasts its
LA identifier (LAI).
 Update Mechanism: When a mobile station (MS) moves into a new LA, it registers its new location
with the base station, updating the network about its presence.
 Paging: When the network needs to locate an MS, it sends paging messages to all cells within the LA
where the MS was last registered.
Advantages:
 Reduced Signalling Load: By updating location only when moving between LAs, the system reduces
the frequency of updates compared to cell-level updates.
 Efficient Paging: Paging is confined to the LA, minimizing the number of cells that need to be
contacted, reducing latency and signalling overhead.

2. Dynamic/Distributed Location Management

Dynamic location management strategies adapt to the mobility patterns and behaviours of mobile stations to
optimize location updates and paging processes.
Strategies:
1. Timer-Based Updates:
 Mechanism: The MS sends a location update after a fixed time interval
 Use Case: Useful in scenarios where mobility patterns are unpredictable but frequent updates are
necessary to maintain up-to-date location information.
2. Movement-Based Updates:
 Mechanism: The MS updates its location after it has moved through n different cells.
 Use Case: Suitable for environments where the user moves frequently but within a localized area.

3. Distance-Based Updates:
 Mechanism: The MS updates its location after it has moved a specific distance.
  Use Case: Effective for users who travel long distances, such as in vehicular environments.
4. Profile-Based Updates:
 Mechanism: The MS uses predictive algorithms to model its mobility pattern and updates the
network only when necessary based on this model.
 Use Case: Ideal for users with predictable movement patterns, such as commuters.
Registering in Mobile IP
Registering is a critical process in Mobile IP, where a mobile node (MN) updates its home agent (HA) with
its current location to ensure seamless connectivity. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the registration process:
 Mobile node sends an update (called) registration request) to its home agent with the Care-of address
information
 Home agent approves/disapproves the request
 Home agent adds the necessary information to its routing table
 Home agent sends a registration reply back to the mobile node
Importance of the Registration Process
 Seamless Mobility: By ensuring the home agent always knows the current care-of address of the mobile
node, Mobile IP allows continuous connectivity even as the node moves between different networks.
 Routing Efficiency: Proper registration enables efficient routing of data packets, minimizing delays and
ensuring that data reaches the mobile node without interruption.
 Security: The registration process includes security mechanisms to prevent unauthorized updates and
ensure the integrity and authenticity of the communication between the mobile node and the home agent.
Tunnelling in Mobile IP
Tunnelling is a crucial concept in Mobile IP, enabling the delivery of packets to a mobile node (MN) as it
moves across different networks.
Concept of Tunnelling
Definition: Tunnelling: The use of a high-level transport service to carry packets or messages from another
service.
Key Difference from Encapsulation:
 Encapsulation: Involves wrapping a datagram within another packet when using hardware directly.
IP encapsulates each datagram in a packet for transmission.
 Tunnelling: Utilizes a high-level transport delivery service to send datagrams from one point to
another, effectively creating a "tunnel" through which the data travels.
Process: Same as packet delivery
Route Optimization:
 Route optimization enables the datagrams to be routed directly in both directions.
 Route optimization also provides support for smooth handoffs by letting the previous foreign agent
tunnel datagrams to mobile node's current location.
 The route optimization extension adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the
correspondent node and to the foreign agent.
 The binding cache contains bindings for mobile nodes' home addresses and their current care-of
addresses.
 With the binding the correspondent node can tunnel datagrams directly to the mobile node’s care-of
address.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used to dynamically
assign an IP address to nay device, or node, on a network so they can communicate using IP (Internet
Protocol). DHCP automates and centrally manages these configurations. There is no need to manually assign
IP addresses to new devices. Therefore, there is no requirement for any user configuration to connect to a
DHCP based network.
DHCP does the following:
 DHCP manages the provision of all the nodes or devices added or dropped from the network.
 DHCP maintains the unique IP address of the host using a DHCP server.
 It sends a request to the DHCP server whenever a client/node/device, which is configured to work with
DHCP, connects to a network. The server acknowledges by providing an IP address to the
client/node/device.
The DHCP lease process works as follows:
 First of all, a client (network device) must be connected to the internet.
 DHCP clients request an IP address. Typically, client broadcasts a query for this information.
 DHCP server responds to the client request by providing IP server address and other configuration
information. This configuration information also includes time period, called a lease, for which the
allocation is valid.
 When refreshing an assignment, a DHCP clients request the same parameters, but the DHCP server may
assign a new IP address. This is based on the policies set by the administrator.
What is ad-hoc network?
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and communicate with each
other. The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means "for this," implying improvised.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (WLANs). The devices communicate with each
other directly instead of relying on a base station or access points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-
ordination. Each device participates in routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm
and forwarding data to other devices via this route.
Localization
Localization in the context of networked nodes, such as in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) or Internet of
Things (IoT) systems, can be categorized into different types based on the precision and nature of the
location information provided:
1. Physical Localization:
Definition: Physical localization refers to the process where the exact physical location of nodes is
determined and expressed in a specific coordinate system (e.g., GPS coordinates, Cartesian coordinates).
Example: A GPS module on a drone providing latitude, longitude, and altitude coordinates.
2. Symbolic Localization:
Definition: Symbolic localization provides location information in terms of abstract, predefined notions of
place. This doesn't rely on exact coordinates but rather on semantic labels.
Example: Identifying that a sensor node is "in the kitchen" or "on the second floor".
3. Fine-Grained Localization:
Definition: Fine-grained localization involves nodes estimating their precise distance or angle relative to
multiple neighbouring nodes, allowing them to infer their exact position within a network.
4. Coarse-Grained Localization:
Definition: Coarse-grained localization is based on proximity or connectivity information. Nodes can detect
which other nodes are nearby but cannot measure the exact distance to them. They may know an upper
bound of the distance based on detection range.
MAC Issues:
Hidden Terminal Problem:
 A hidden node is one that is within the range of the intended destination but out of range of sender
 Node B can communicate with A and C both
 A and C cannot hear each other
 When A transmits to B, C cannot detect the transmission using the carrier sense mechanism ,C falsely
thinks that the channel is idle
 If C transmits, collision will occur at node B

Exposed Terminal Problem:

 An exposed node is one that is within the range of the sender but out of range of destination
 Consider the case that node B is attempting to transmit to A
 Node C can hear the transmission from B. When B senses the channel it finds the channel to be busy.
 However, any transmission by C cannot reach A (not in range), hence does not interfere with any
reception at A.
 In theory C can therefore have a parallel transmission with any node that cannot hear the transmission
from B, i.e. out of range of B.
 But C will not transmit to any node because it’s an exposed node. Exposed nodes waste bandwidth
1. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): It is a pro-active/table driven
routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector routing protocol of the wired networks as the
name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-ford routing algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was
not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks due to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination
Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table maintained by each
node. A node will include the new update in the table only if the entry consists of the new updated route to
the destination with higher sequence number.
2. Global State Routing (GSR): It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the link
state routing of the wired networks. It is based on the Dijkstra’s routing algorithm. Link state routing
protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks because in it, each node floods the link state routing
information directly into the whole network i.e. Global flooding which may lead to the congestion of
control packets in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the picture. Global state routing doesn’t
flood the link state routing packets globally into the network. In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains
one list and three tables namely, adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table.
3. Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In this type of
routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs
by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. In this protocol, Source node
stores the complete path information and intermediate nodes do not need to maintain routing
information. It consists of two phases:
Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data packets between
the source and the destination mobile nodes.
Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the topology in the mobile
ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases of link breakage resulting in the
network failure between the mobile nodes.
4. Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. It
is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage of
dynamic source routing protocol. In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the
data packet to the destination mobile node, it also contains the complete path in its header. Hence, as the
network size increases, the length of the complete path also increases and the data packet’s header size
also increases which makes the whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The main difference lies in the
way of storing the path, in AODV Source node does not stores complete path information, instead of that
each node stores information of its previous and next node. It also operates in two phases: Route discovery
and Route maintenance.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice calls over a broadband
Internet connection instead of an analog (regular) phone line. Some VoIP services allow you to call people
using the same service, but others may allow you to call anyone.
They can have a telephone number – including local, long-distance, mobile, and international numbers or
not. Some VoIP services only work over your computer or a special VoIP phone while other services allow
you to use a traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter.
How Does VoIP / Internet Voice Works?
Voice is converted into a digital signal by VoIP services that travel over the Internet. If the regular phone
number is called, the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal i.e. an analog signal before it reaches
the destination. VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer or having a special VoIP phone
or a traditional phone connected to a special adapter. Wireless hot spots in locations such as airports,
hospitals, cafes, etc. allow you to connect to the Internet and can enable you to use VoIP service wirelessly.
Equipment Required in VoIP
 An Internet connection must be very high to use VoIP services.
 Internet access can be via cable modem or LAN and other high-speed services.
 Users need compatible devices, such as computers, adapters, or special VoIP phones.
 Some VoIP services only work through a specific computer or VoIP phone.
 Other services give you the option of using a traditional phone that comes with a VoIP adapter.
 VoIP phones can be connected directly to a broadband connection.
 They work like traditional telephones.
 Using a phone with a VoIP adapter, users can dial numbers as usual.

Comparison of VoIP vs Traditional Phone Services

Features VoIP Traditional Phone Services

Method of transmission Digital Signals Analog Signals

Internet requirement Yes, high-speed broadband No, traditional phone line

Cost Lower cost for long-distance Higher cost for long-distance

Features and services More features and services Limited features and services

Power outages May not work Usually works

Emergency services access May not connect directly Direct connection

IPSEC:

 In computing, Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a network protocol suite that authenticates and
encrypts the packets of data sent over a network.
 IPsec includes protocols for establishing mutual authentication between agents at the beginning of the
session and negotiation of cryptographic keys for use during the session.
 IPsec can protect data flows between a pair of hosts (host-to-host), between a pair of security gateways
(network-to-network), or between a security gateway and a host (network-to-host).
 Internet Protocol security (IPsec) uses cryptographic security services to protect communications over
Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
 IPsec supports network-level peer authentication, data-origin authentication, data integrity, and data
confidentiality (encryption), and replay protection.
TCP/IP:
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defence (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on
standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main
condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same
information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps
in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the
destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which
does not require IP to communicate with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic
difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides
the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to
form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the
data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to
get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.
Snooping TCP
Overview:
Snooping TCP is one of the classical TCP improvement approaches. This approach is designed to solve the
end-to-end semantics loss in I-TCP. The basic concept is to buffer packets close to the mobile node and
retransmit them locally if a packet is lost.
Working of Snooping TCP:

 Until it receives an acknowledgement from the mobile node, the foreign agent buffers the packet.
 A foreign agent snoops the packet flow and acknowledgement in both directions.
 If the foreign agent does not receive an acknowledgement from the mobile node, or if it receives
duplicate acknowledgements, it believes that the packet or acknowledgement has been lost. The packet is
immediately retransmitted by the foreign agent from its buffer.
 In addition, the foreign agent maintains its own timer for retransmission of buffered packets in case it is
lost on the wireless link.
 While data transfer from the mobile node to the correspondent node, if the foreign agent detects a
missing packet, it returns NACK-Negative Acknowledgment to the mobile node. It can now retransmit
missing packet immediately. Reordering of packets is done automatically at the correspondent node by
TCP.
 In the concept of snooping TCP, the Time-out of the correspondent node still works and triggers
retransmission, if the foreign agent now crashes. The foreign agent may discard duplicates of packets
already retransmitted locally and acknowledged by the mobile node. This avoids unnecessary traffic on
the wireless link.
Advantages:

 The end-to-end TCP semantic is preserved –

The packet is not acknowledged by the FA. And if the foreign agent (FA) or base station (BS) fails, the
solution reverts to standard TCP.

 No Modifications at Fixed Host –

The fixed computer TCP does not need any changes. The majority of the changes are made at the foreign
agent (FA).

 No packet loss during handovers –

In the case of a handover, if any data is not passed to the new foreign agent, there will be a time-out at the
fixed host and activating retransmission of the packet, via mobile IP, to a new COA.
Disadvantages:

 A mobile node needs additional mechanisms –

The use of NACK between the foreign agent and the mobile node requires the mobile node to have
additional mechanisms. For arbitrary mobile nodes, this method is no longer transparent.

 Encryption at end-to-end –

If such encryption schemes are used end-to-end between the correspondent node and mobile node, snooping
and buffering data can be considered worthless. Snooping TCP may be used if encryption is used above the
transport layer (e.g. SSL/TLS).
UNIT 4
Mobile Database
Overview:
A Mobile database is a database that can be connected to a mobile computing device over a mobile network
(or wireless network). Here the client and the server have wireless connections. In today’s world, mobile
computing is growing very rapidly, and it is huge potential in the field of the database. It will be applicable
on different-different devices like android based mobile databases, iOS based mobile databases, etc.
Features of Mobile database:

 A cache is maintained to hold frequent and transactions so that they are not lost due to connection
failure.
 Mobile databases are physically separate from the central database server.
 Mobile databases resided on mobile devices.
 Mobile databases are capable of communicating with a central database server or other mobile
clients from remote sites.
 With the help of a mobile database, mobile users must be able to work without a wireless connection
due to poor or even non-existent connections (disconnected).
 A mobile database is used to analyse and manipulate data on mobile devices.

Mobile Database typically involves three parties:

Fixed Hosts –
It performs the transactions and data management functions with the help of database servers.
Mobiles Units –
These are portable computers that move around a geographical region that includes the cellular network that
these units use to communicate to base stations.
Base Stations –
These are two-way radios installation in fixed locations that pass communication with the mobile units to
and from the fixed hosts.
Limitations:

 It has limited wireless bandwidth.

 In the mobile database, Wireless communication speed.
 It required unlimited battery power to access.
 It is less secured.
 It is Hard to make theft-proof.
Data Hoarding in Mobile Devices
In the context of mobile devices, data hoarding refers to the practice of caching or storing data locally on the
device to reduce reliance on continuous server or network access. This strategy can enhance the performance
and usability of mobile applications by ensuring that necessary data is available even when the device is
offline or experiencing connectivity issues.
Key Characteristics

 Intermittent Connectivity: Mobile devices are not always connected to the server or network,
making constant data retrieval impractical.
 Local Caching: Specific data required for future computations is cached locally on the device during
periods of connectivity.
 Efficient Data Access: Cached data is readily available for instant access by the client device API,
reducing latency and improving performance.
Advantages of Data Hoarding in Mobile Devices
1. No Access Latency
Explanation: Eliminates delays associated with retrieving data from a server over wireless mobile
networks.
Benefit: Enhances user experience by providing immediate access to data, which is crucial for real-time
applications.
2. Instantaneous Data Access
Explanation: The client device API can instantly access hoarded or cached data without waiting for server
responses.
Benefit: Improves the responsiveness and efficiency of mobile applications, especially in environments with
poor connectivity.
3. Offline Functionality
Explanation: Once data is cached during periods of connectivity, it remains available even when the device
is offline.
Benefit: Allows mobile applications to function seamlessly without requiring a constant internet connection,
which is essential for users in areas with intermittent or no connectivity.
Data Dissemination in Wireless Sensor Network
Data Dissemination is a procedure where the server initiates and manages transfer of data as well as updates.
It also helps in maintaining data consistency and cache management. It is defined as “Pushing data to mobile
devices from a server or some other computer.” Mobile devices can select time and cache required data. In
ad-hoc network, traffic is peer to peer. Multi-hop routing is used to communicate data.
Data dissemination has three different entities:

 Source: Generating data.

 Event: Something that needs to be reported for example, in target detection, some abnormal activity.
 Sink: A node randomly located in the field that is interested in events and seeks such information.
User Agent Profile (UAPROF)
User Agent Profile (UAProf) is a specification that provides a standard way for mobile devices to describe
their capabilities and preferences to web servers and content providers. It was developed by the Open
Mobile Alliance (OMA) to facilitate the customization of content delivery based on the specific
characteristics of a user's device.
Key Components of UAProf

 Device Characteristics: Information about the device's hardware, such as screen size, resolution,
colour depth, and multimedia capabilities.
 Software Information: Details about the device's operating system, browser version, supported
mark-up languages (e.g., HTML, XHTML), and scripting languages.
 Network Capabilities: Descriptions of the network the device is operating on, including bandwidth,
latency, and support for various network protocols.
 User Preferences: Information about user settings and preferences, such as preferred languages and
content formats.
How UAProf Works

 Profile Document: Each mobile device has an associated UAProf document, which is typically an
XML file hosted on a web server. This document follows the RDF (Resource Description
Framework) schema.
 HTTP Headers: When a device requests content from a web server, it includes a URL in the HTTP
headers that points to its UAProf document.
 Content Adaptation: The web server retrieves the UAProf document, parses it, and adapts the
content delivery based on the device's capabilities and user preferences. This ensures that the content
is optimized for the specific device.
Benefits of UAProf

 Improved User Experience: By tailoring content to the device's capabilities, users receive a better
and more consistent experience.
 Efficient Content Delivery: Content providers can optimize resources by delivering only the
necessary content that fits the device's specifications.
 Device Compatibility: Ensures that a wide range of devices can access content appropriately,
promoting broader compatibility and reach.
Challenges and Limitations

 Adoption and Maintenance: Not all devices and content providers support UAProf, which can limit
its effectiveness.
 Privacy Concerns: Detailed device profiles could potentially be used to track and profile users,
raising privacy issues.
Service Discovery:

 Service discovery is the automatic detection of devices and services offered by these devices on a
computer network.
 A service discovery protocol (SDP) is a network protocol that helps accomplish service discovery.
 Service discovery requires a common language to allow software agents to make use of one another's
services without the need for continuous user intervention.
Main Protocols
1. Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
UPnP is designed to support zero-configuration networking, meaning devices can automatically discover
and interact with each other without manual setup. This makes it highly useful for home networks and small
office environments.
2. SLP (Service Location Protocol)
SLP allows devices and applications to discover services in IP networks without prior configuration.
3. Bluetooth SDP (Service Discovery Protocol)
SDP is specific to Bluetooth and is used to discover services offered by or available through Bluetooth
devices.
Data Management Issues:
1. Mobility:

 The search cost to locate mobile elements is added to the cost of each communication involving
them.
 Efficient data structures, algorithms, and query execution plans must be devised for representing,
managing, and querying the location of mobile elements, which is a fast changing data.
2. Wireless Medium:
Wireless networks are more expensive, offer less bandwidth, and are less reliable than wireline networks.
3. Portability:

 Mobile elements must be light and small to be easily carried around.

 Such considerations, in conjunction with a given cost and level of technology, will keep mobile elements
having less resources than static elements, including memory, screen size and disk capacity.
Data replication for mobile computers
Data replication for mobile computers involves synchronizing data across devices to ensure that the same
information is available, up-to-date, and consistent regardless of where the device is located.
This is crucial for maintaining productivity and data integrity, especially in environments where mobile
devices frequently move in and out of network connectivity.
Difference between backup and replication
Replication and backup are both essential data management strategies, but they serve different purposes and
operate distinctly. Replication ensures high availability and real-time synchronization of data across multiple
systems, enabling continuous data access and quick failover in case of system failure. It is commonly used
for load balancing, disaster recovery, and maintaining up-to-date copies of data that can be actively used by
applications. On the other hand, backup is designed to create point-in-time copies of data that can be used to
restore the original in case of data loss, corruption, or other disasters. Backups are typically taken at
scheduled intervals and stored for passive use until a restoration is needed. While replication minimizes
downtime by keeping data consistent and available across locations, backups provide protection against data
loss and maintain historical copies of data for recovery and compliance purposes.
Asynchronous Replication
Description:
In asynchronous replication, data is copied from the primary system to the secondary system after the
primary system has processed the changes. There is a delay between when data is written to the primary
system and when it is replicated to the secondary system.
Characteristics:

 Latency: There is a lag between the time data is written to the primary and when it appears on the
secondary.
 Performance: Generally has less impact on the performance of the primary system because it doesn’t
wait for the secondary system to acknowledge the write.
 Consistency: The secondary system may not always be in sync with the primary system, leading to
eventual consistency rather than real-time consistency.
Advantages:

 Performance: Minimal impact on the primary system’s write performance.

 Scalability: Can handle higher volumes of transactions without significant delays.

Disadvantages:

 Data Loss: Potential for data loss in the event of a failure since not all changes may have been
replicated.
 Consistency: Data on the secondary system is not always up-to-date.

Synchronous Replication
In synchronous replication, data is written to both the primary and secondary systems simultaneously. The
primary system waits for an acknowledgment from the secondary system before confirming the write
operation.
Characteristics:

 Latency: Ensures that data is consistent across both systems at all times, which can introduce write
latency.
  Performance: Can impact the performance of the primary system due to the need to wait for
acknowledgment from the secondary system.
 Consistency: Guarantees real-time consistency, meaning both systems always have the same data.

Advantages:

 Consistency: Provides real-time data consistency across systems.

 Data Integrity: No data loss occurs in the event of a failure since both systems are always in sync.

Disadvantages:

 Performance Impact: Higher write latency due to the need for acknowledgments from the secondary
system.
 Network Dependency: Requires a reliable and low-latency network connection to function
effectively.
Mobile File System:

 A mobile file system is a client/server-based application that allows clients to access and process
data stored on the server as if it were on their own computer.
 When a user accesses a file on the server, the server sends the user a copy of the file, which is cached
on the user's computer while the data is being processed and is then returned to the server.
 Ideally, a mobile file system organizes file and directory services of individual servers into a global
directory in such a way that remote data access is not location-specific but is identical from any
client.
 All files are accessible to all users of the global file system and organization is hierarchical and
directory-based.
 Since more than one client may access the same data simultaneously, the server must have a
mechanism in place (such as maintaining information about the times of access) to organize updates
so that the client always receives the most current version of data and that data conflicts do not arise.
Data Synchronization:

 Data synchronization technologies are designed to synchronize a single set of data between two or
more devices, automatically copying changes back and forth.
 Data synchronization can be local synchronization where the device and computer are side-by-side
and data is transferred or remote synchronization when a user is mobile and the data is synchronized
over a mobile network.
 Models:
a. One to Many: Each system or device caches the data pushed from the server or sends a pull
request to the central server and gets a response
b. Many to Many: Employs peer-to-peer architecture where each system is capable of sending
pull requests and of pushing responses

SyncML
SyncML (Synchronization Mark-up Language) is a platform-independent, XML-based standard for data
synchronization. It allows data to be synchronized across multiple devices and platforms, ensuring
consistency and accuracy. Here are some key aspects of SyncML:
 Purpose: To enable the synchronization of data (such as contacts, calendar events, tasks, and notes)
across different devices and platforms.
 Standardization: Developed by the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA), a consortium of various technology
companies aiming to standardize mobile and wireless technologies.
 XML-Based: Uses XML for data representation, making it flexible and platform-independent.

Architecture
SyncML architecture typically involves several components:

 Client: The device or application that initiates synchronization.

 Server: The central repository that stores the master copy of the data and coordinates
synchronization among multiple clients.
 Data Store: The actual storage location of data on both the client and server sides.

Protocols
SyncML defines two primary protocols:

 Synchronization Protocol: Manages the exchange of data updates between devices and ensures that
changes are applied correctly.
 Device Management Protocol: Handles device configuration, software updates, and other
management tasks.
Benefits
Cross-Platform Compatibility: Works across different operating systems and devices, making it a versatile
solution for data synchronization.
Flexibility: The XML-based approach allows for easy adaptation and extension to new data types and
synchronization needs.
Standardization: Being an open standard, it encourages interoperability and reduces vendor lock-in.
Challenges
Performance: XML-based protocols can be less efficient compared to binary protocols, potentially
impacting performance on resource-constrained devices.
Complexity: Implementing a full-featured SyncML solution can be complex, requiring careful handling of
synchronization conflicts, data integrity, and error management.
Introduction to Wireless Devices and Operating systems
PALM OS is an operating system for personal digital assistants, designed for touchscreen. It consists of a
limited number of features designed for low memory and processor usage which in turn helps in getting
longer battery life.

 The User Interface in the architecture is used for graphical input-output.

 The Memory Management section is used for maintaining databases, global variables, etc.
 System Management’s job is to maintain events, calendars, dates, times, etc.
 Communication TCP/IP as the name denotes is simply used for communication.
 Microkernel is an essential tool in architecture. It is responsible for providing the mechanism needed for
the proper functioning of an operating system.

Development Cycle For the development of the PALM OS, these are the phases it has to go through before
it can be used in the market:

 Editing the code for the operating system that is checking for errors and correcting errors.
 Compile and Debug the code to check for bugs and correct functioning of the code.
 Run the program on a mobile device or related device.
 If all the above phases are passed, we can finally have our finished product which is the operating
system for mobile devices named PALM OS.
Advantages

 Fewer features are designed for low memory and processor usage which means longer battery life.
 No need to upgrade the operating system as it is handled automatically in PALM OS.
 More applications are available for users.
 Extended connectivity for users. Users can now connect to wide areas.

Disadvantages

 The user cannot download applications using the external memory in PALM OS. It will be a
disadvantage for users with limited internal memory.
 Systems and extended connectivity are less compared to what is offered by other operating systems.