Microbiology: A Human Perspective

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 sixth edition

A HUMAN PERSPECTIVE

Eugene W. Nester
University of Washington

Denise G. Anderson
University of Washington

C. Evans Roberts, Jr.

University of Washington

Martha T. Nester

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 MICROBIOLOGY: A HUMAN PERSPECTIVE, SIXTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas,
New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous
editions © 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, and 1995. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
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McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or trans-
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United States.

This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing 10% postconsumer waste.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QPD/QPD 0 9 8

ISBN 978–0–07–299543–5
MHID 0–07–299543–2

Publisher: Michelle Watnick

Senior Sponsoring Editor: James F. Connely
Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts
Senior Developmental Editor: Lisa A. Bruflodt
Project Coordinator: Mary Jane Lampe
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Senior Designer: David W. Hash
Cover/Interior Designer: Jamie E. O’Neal
(USE) Cover Image: color enhanced photomicrograph of Salmonella Enteritidis,
©Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc.
Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John C. Leland
Photo Research: David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC
Compositor: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NY
Typeface: 10/12 Times
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The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Microbiology : a human perspective / Eugene W. Nester ... [et al.]. — 6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978–0–07–299543–5 — ISBN 0–07–299543–2 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Microbiology.
I. Nester, Eugene W.
[DNLM: 1. Microbiological Techniques. 2. Communicable Diseases—microbiology. QW 4 M62555 2009]
QR41.2.M485 2009
616.9’041—dc22 2008019596

www.mhhe.com

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 We dedicate this book to our students;
we hope it helps to enrich their lives and to make them
better informed citizens,

to our families
whose patience and endurance
made completion of this project a reality,

to Anne Nongthanat Panarak Roberts

in recognition of her invaluable help,
patience, and understanding,

to our colleagues
for continuing encouragement
and advice.

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 PART I PART IV
LIFE AND DEATH OF MICROORGANISMS INFECTIOUS DISEASES

1 Humans and the Microbial World 1 22 Respiratory System Infections 495

2 The Molecules of Life 18 23 Skin Infections 531
3 Microscopy and Cell Structure 40 24 Wound Infections 559
4 Dynamics of Prokaryotic Growth 83 25 Digestive System Infections 581
5 Control of Microbial Growth 107 26 Genitourinary Infections 618
6 Metabolism: Fueling Cell Growth 126 27 Nervous System Infections 647
7 The Blueprint of Life, from DNA to Protein 161 28 Blood and Lymphatic Infections 674
8 Bacterial Genetics 185 29 HIV Disease and Complications of
9 Biotechnology and Recombinant DNA 212 Immunodeficiency 697

PART II PART V
THE MICROBIAL WORLD APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY

10 Identification and Classification of Prokaryotic 30 Microbial Ecology 721

Organisms 232 31 Environmental Microbiology: Treatment of Water,
11 The Diversity of Prokaryotic Organisms 251 Wastes, and Polluted Habitats 738
12 The Eukaryotic Members of the Microbial World 280 32 Food Microbiology 753
13 Viruses of Bacteria 302
14 Viruses, Prions, and Viroids: Infectious Agents of
Animals and Plants 320 APPENDICES A-1
GLOSSARY G-1
CREDITS C-1
PART III
MICROORGANISMS AND HUMANS INDEX I-1

15 The Innate Immune Response 346

16 The Adaptive Immune Response 366
17 Host-Microbe Interactions 391
18 Immunologic Disorders 414
19 Applications of Immune Responses 431
20 Epidemiology 450
21 Antimicrobial Medications 469

vi

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 About the Authors xxii CHAPTER TWO
Preface xxiv
Guided Tour xxx The Molecules of Life 18
A Glimpse of History 18
Key Terms 19

2.1 Atoms and Elements 18

2.2 Chemical Bonds and the Formation of Molecules 20
Ionic Bonds 20
PART I Covalent Bonds 21
LIFE AND DEATH OF MICROORGANISMS Hydrogen Bonds 22
2.3 Chemical Components of the Cell 23
CHAPTER ONE
Water 23
Humans and the Microbial World 1 pH 24
Small Molecules in the Cell 25
A Glimpse of History 1
Macromolecules and Their Component Parts 25
Key Terms 2
2.4 Proteins and Their Functions 25
1.1 The Origin of Microorganisms 1 Amino Acid Subunits 26
Theory of Spontaneous Generation Revisited 2 Peptide Bonds and Their Synthesis 28
1.2 Microbiology: A Human Perspective 6 Protein Structure 28
Features of the Microbial World 6 Substituted Proteins 30
Vital Activities of Microorganisms 6 2.5 Carbohydrates 30
Applications of Microbiology 6 Monosaccharides 30
Medical Microbiology 7 Disaccharides 32
Microorganisms As Model Organisms 9 Polysaccharides 32
1.3 Members of The Microbial World 9 2.6 Nucleic Acids 32
Bacteria 10 DNA 32
Archaea 10 RNA 34
Eucarya 10
Nomenclature 12 2.7 Lipids 35
Simple Lipids 35
1.4 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 12 Compound Lipids 36
1.5 Size in the Microbial World 14
PERSPECTIVE 2.1: Isotopes: Valuable Tools for the Study of Biological
PERSPECTIVE 1.1: The Long and the Short of It 15 Systems 26
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Entering a New Golden Age 16 FUTURE CHALLENGES: Fold Properly: Do Not Bend or Mutilate 37

SUMMARY 16 SUMMARY 37
REVIEW QUESTIONS 17 REVIEW QUESTIONS 38

vii

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 viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER THREE Ribosomes 68

Cytoskeleton 68
Microscopy and Cell Structure 40 Storage Granules 68
A Glimpse of History 40 Gas Vesicles 68
Key Terms 41
Endospores 69

THE EUKARYOTIC CELL

MICROSCOPY AND CELL MORPHOLOGY
3.10 The Plasma Membrane 72
3.1 Microscopic Techniques: The Instruments 41
Principles of Light Microscopy: The Bright-Field 3.11 Transfer of Molecules Across the Plasma
Microscope 41 Membrane 73
Light Microscopes That Increase Contrast 43 Transport Proteins 73
Electron Microscopes 46 Endocytosis and Exocytosis 73
Atomic Force Microscopy 48 Secretion 74
3.2 Microscopic Techniques: Dyes and Staining 48 3.12 Protein Structures Within the Cell 74
Differential Stains 49 Ribosomes 74
Special Stains to Observe Cell Structures 50 Cytoskeleton 74
Fluorescent Dyes and Tags 51 Flagella and Cilia 74
3.3 Morphology of Prokaryotic Cells 52 3.13 Membrane-Bound Organelles 75
Shapes 52 The Nucleus 75
Groupings 53 Mitochondria 76
Multicellular Associations 53 Chloroplasts 77
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 77
THE STRUCTURE OF THE PROKARYOTIC CELL The Golgi Apparatus 78
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes 79
3.4 The Cytoplasmic Membrane 55
Structure and Chemistry of the Cytoplasmic PERSPECTIVE 3.1: The Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 77
Membrane 56 FUTURE CHALLENGES: A Case of Breaking and Entering 79
Permeability of the Cytoplasmic Membrane 56
The Role of the Cytoplasmic Membrane in Energy SUMMARY 79
Transformation 57 REVIEW QUESTIONS 81

3.5 Directed Movement of Molecules Across the

Cytoplasmic Membrane 57 CHAPTER FOUR
Transport Systems 58 Dynamics of Prokaryotic Growth 83
Secretion 59
A Glimpse of History 83
3.6 Cell Wall 59
Key Terms 84
Peptidoglycan 60
The Gram-Positive Cell Wall 61 4.1 Principles of Prokaryotic Growth 84
The Gram-Negative Cell Wall 62
4.2 Bacterial Growth in Nature 85
Antibacterial Substances that Target Peptidoglycan 63
Biofilms 85
Differences in Cell Wall Composition and
the Gram Stain 63 Interactions of Mixed Microbial
Communities 86
Characteristics of Bacteria that Lack a Cell Wall 63
Cell Walls of the Domain Archaea 64 4.3 Obtaining a Pure Culture 86
Cultivating Bacteria on a Solid Culture
3.7 Capsules and Slime Layers 64
Medium 86
3.8 Filamentous Protein Appendages 65 The Streak-Plate Method 87
Flagella 65 Maintaining Stock Cultures 88
Pili 66
4.4 Bacterial Growth in Laboratory Conditions 88
3.9 Internal Structures 67 The Growth Curve 88
The Chromosome 67 Colony Growth 89
Plasmids 68 Continuous Culture 90

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 CONTENTS ix

4.5 Environmental Factors That Influence Microbial 5.4 Using Other Physical Methods to Remove or Destroy
Growth 90 Microbes 115
Temperature Requirements 90 Filtration 115
Oxygen (O2) Requirements 91 Radiation 115
pH 92 High Pressure 116
Water Availability 93
5.5 Using Chemicals to Destroy Microorganisms and
4.6 Nutritional Factors That Influence Microbial Viruses 116
Growth 93 Potency of Germicidal Chemical Formulations 117
Required Elements 93 Selecting the Appropriate Germicidal Chemical 117
Growth Factors 94 Classes of Germicidal Chemicals 118
Energy Sources 94
5.6 Preservation of Perishable Products 121
Nutritional Diversity 95
Chemical Preservatives 122
4.7 Cultivating Prokaryotes in the Laboratory 95 Low-Temperature Storage 122
General Categories of Culture Media 95 Reducing the Available Water 122
Special Types of Culture Media 96
PERSPECTIVE 5.1: Contamination of an Operating Room by a Bacterial
Providing Appropriate Atmospheric Pathogen 121
Conditions 97
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Too Much of a Good Thing? 123
Enrichment Cultures 98
SUMMARY 123
4.8 Methods to Detect and Measure Bacterial
REVIEW QUESTIONS 124
Growth 99
Direct Cell Counts 99
Viable Cell Counts 100 CHAPTER SIX
Measuring Biomass 102
Detecting Cell Products 103 Metabolism: Fueling Cell Growth 126
PERSPECTIVE 4.1: Can Prokaryotes Live on Only Rocks and A Glimpse of History 126
Water? 94 Key Terms 127
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Seeing How the Other 99% Lives 104
6.1 Principles of Metabolism 127
SUMMARY 104 Harvesting Energy 128
REVIEW QUESTIONS 105 Components of Metabolic Pathways 129
Precursor Metabolites 131
Overview of Metabolism 132
CHAPTER FIVE
6.2 Enzymes 134
Control of Microbial Growth 107 Mechanisms and Consequences of Enzyme
A Glimpse of History 107 Action 134
Cofactors and Coenzymes 135
Key Terms 108
Environmental Factors That Influence Enzyme
5.1 Approaches to Control 107 Activity 136
Principles of Control 108 Allosteric Regulation 137
Situational Considerations 108 Enzyme Inhibition 137
5.2 Selection of an Antimicrobial Procedure 110 6.3 The Central Metabolic Pathways 138
Type of Microorganism 110 Glycolysis 139
Numbers of Microorganisms Initially Pentose Phosphate Pathway 139
Present 110 Transition Step 141
Environmental Conditions 111 Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle 142
Potential Risk of Infection 111
6.4 Respiration 142
Composition of the Item 111
The Electron Transport Chain—Generating Proton
5.3 Using Heat to Destroy Microorganisms and Motive Force 143
Viruses 111 ATP Synthase—Harvesting the Proton Motive Force to
Moist Heat 112 Synthesize ATP 145
Dry Heat 114 ATP Yield of Aerobic Respiration in Prokaryotes 146

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 x CONTENTS

6.5 Fermentation 147 7.6 Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression 179

6.6 Catabolism of Organic Compounds Other Than 7.7 Sensing and Responding to Environmental
Glucose 148 Fluctuations 180
Polysaccharides and Disaccharides 149 Signal Transduction 180
Lipids 150 Natural Selection 181
Proteins 150
7.8 Genomics 181
6.7 Chemolithotrophs 150 Analyzing a Prokaryotic DNA Sequence 181
6.8 Photosynthesis 151 PERSPECTIVE 7.1: RNA: The First Macromolecule? 175
Capturing Radiant Energy 152 FUTURE CHALLENGES: Gems in the Genomes? 182
Converting Radiant Energy into Chemical
Energy 153 SUMMARY 182
REVIEW QUESTIONS 183
6.9 Carbon Fixation 154
Calvin Cycle 154
CHAPTER EIGHT
6.10 Anabolic Pathways—Synthesizing Subunits from
Precursor Molecules 155 Bacterial Genetics 185
Lipid Synthesis 155
A Glimpse of History 185
Amino Acid Synthesis 156
Key Terms 186
Nucleotide Synthesis 157
8.1 Genetic Change in Bacteria 186
PERSPECTIVE 6.1: Mining with Microbes 151
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Going to Extremes 158
GENE MUTATION AS A MECHANISM
SUMMARY 158 OF GENETIC CHANGE
REVIEW QUESTIONS 160
8.2 Spontaneous Mutation 187
Base Substitution 188
CHAPTER SEVEN Removal or Addition of Nucleotides 189
The Blueprint of Life, from DNA Transposable Elements (Jumping Genes) 189
to Protein 161 8.3 Induced Mutations 190
A Glimpse of History 161
Chemical Mutagens 190
Transposition 191
Key Terms 162
Radiation 192
7.1 Overview 162
8.4 Repair of Damaged DNA 192
Characteristics of DNA 162
Repair of Errors in Base Incorporation 192
Characteristics of RNA 164
Repair of Thymine Dimers 193
Regulating the Expression of Genes 164
Repair of Modified Bases in DNA 193
7.2 DNA Replication 164 SOS Repair 193
Initiation of DNA Replication 166
8.5 Mutant Selection 195
The Replication Fork 166
Direct Selection 195
7.3 Gene Expression in Bacteria 168 Indirect Selection 195
Transcription 168 Testing of Chemicals for Their Cancer-Causing
Translation 170 Ability 196

7.4 Differences Between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Gene GENE TRANSFER AS A MECHANISM
Expression 175 OF GENETIC CHANGE
7.5 Regulation of Bacterial Gene Expression 176
8.6 DNA-Mediated Transformation 199
Principles of Regulation 176
Natural Competence 200
Mechanisms to Control Transcription 176
Artificial Competence 201
The lac Operon As a Model for Control of Metabolic
Pathways 177 8.7 Transduction 201

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 CONTENTS xi

8.8 Conjugation 202

Plasmid Transfer 202
Chromosome Transfer 203
F’ Donors 204
8.9 The Mobile Gene Pool 205
Plasmids 205
PART II
Transposons 207
THE MICROBIAL WORLD
Genomic Islands 208

PERSPECTIVE 8.1: The Biological Function of DNA: A Discovery

Ahead of Its Time 199 CHAPTER TEN
PERSPECTIVE 8.2: Bacteria Can Conjugate with Plants: A Natural Case
of Genetic Engineering 206
Identification and Classification
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Hunting for Magic Bullets 208 of Prokaryotic Organisms 232
SUMMARY 209 A Glimpse of History 232
REVIEW QUESTIONS 210 Key Terms 233

10.1 Principles of Taxonomy 233

CHAPTER NINE Strategies Used to Identify Prokaryotes 233
Biotechnology and Recombinant DNA 212 Strategies Used to Classify Prokaryotes 233
Nomenclature 235
A Glimpse of History 212
10.2 Using Phenotypic Characteristics to Identify
Key Terms 213
Prokaryotes 237
9.1 Fundamental Tools Used in Biotechnology 213 Microscopic Morphology 237
Restriction Enzymes 213 Metabolic Capabilities 238
Gel Electrophoresis 214 Serology 240
Fatty Acid Analysis (FAME) 240
9.2 Applications of Genetic Engineering 215
Genetically Engineered Bacteria 215 10.3 Using Genotypic Characteristics to Identify
Genetically Engineered Eukaryotes 217 Prokaryotes 241
Detecting Specific Nucleotide Sequences
9.3 Techniques Used in Genetic Engineering 218 Using Nucleic Acid Probes 242
Obtaining DNA 218 Amplifying Specific DNA Sequences Using the
Generating a Recombinant DNA Molecule 218 Polymerase Chain Reaction 242
Introducing the Recombinant DNA into Sequencing Ribosomal RNA Genes 242
a New Host 220
10.4 Characterizing Strain Differences 243
9.4 Concerns Regarding Genetic Engineering and Other Biochemical Typing 243
DNA Technologies 221 Serological Typing 243
9.5 DNA Sequencing 221 Genomic Typing 243
Techniques Used in DNA Sequencing 221 Phage Typing 244
Antibiograms 245
9.6 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 223
Techniques Used in PCR 224 10.5 Classifying Prokaryotes 246
The Three-Step Amplification Cycle 224 16S rDNA Sequence Analysis 246
DNA Hybridization 247
9.7 Probe Technologies 227
DNA Base Ratio (G+C Content) 248
Colony Blotting 228
Phenotypic Methods 248
Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) 228
DNA Microarrays 228 PERSPECTIVE 10.1: Tracing the Source of an Outbreak of Foodborne
Disease 244
PERSPECTIVE 9.1: Science Takes the Witness Stand 225 FUTURE CHALLENGES: Tangled Branches in the Phylogenetic Tree 249
SUMMARY 230 SUMMARY 249
REVIEW QUESTIONS 230 REVIEW QUESTIONS 250

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 xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER ELEVEN SUMMARY 277

REVIEW QUESTIONS 278
The Diversity of Prokaryotic
Organisms 251 CHAPTER TWELVE
A Glimpse of History 251 The Eukaryotic Members of the Microbial
Key Terms 252 World 280
METABOLIC DIVERSITY A Glimpse of History 280
Key Terms 281
11.1 Anaerobic Chemotrophs 253
Anaerobic Chemolithotrophs 253 12.1 Algae 281
Anaerobic Chemoorganotrophs—Anaerobic Classification of Algae 282
Respiration 254 Algal Habitats 282
Anaerobic Chemoorganotrophs— Structure of Algae 282
Fermentation 254 Algal Reproduction 283
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning 284
11.2 Anoxygenic Phototrophs 256
The Purple Bacteria 256 12.2 Protozoa 285
The Green Bacteria 257 Classification of Protozoa 285
Other Anoxygenic Phototrophs 257 Protozoan Habitats 286
Structure of Protozoa 287
11.3 Oxygenic Phototrophs 257
Protozoan Reproduction 287
The Cyanobacteria 258
Protozoa and Human Disease 288
11.4 Aerobic Chemolithotrophs 259
12.3 Fungi 288
The Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria 259
Classification of Fungi 288
The Nitrifiers 260
Fungal Habitats 290
The Hydrogen-Oxidizing Bacteria 260
Fungal Disease in Humans 292
11.5 Aerobic Chemoorganotrophs 261 Symbiotic Relationships Between Fungi and Other
Obligate Aerobes 261 Organisms 292
Facultative Anaerobes 262 Economic Importance of Fungi 293
12.4 Slime Molds and Water Molds 294
ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Plasmodial and Cellular Slime Molds 294
11.6 Thriving in Terrestrial Environments 263 Oomycetes (Water Molds) 294
Bacteria That Form a Resting Stage 264 12.5 Multicellular Parasites: Arthropods and
Bacteria That Associate with Plants 267 Helminths 295
11.7 Thriving in Aquatic Environments 266 Arthropods 295
Sheathed Bacteria 266 Helminths 297
Prosthecate Bacteria 266 PERSPECTIVE 12.1: How Marine Phytoplankton Help Combat Global
Bacteria That Derive Nutrients from Other Warming 285
Organisms 267 FUTURE CHALLENGES: The Continued Fight to Eradicate
Bacteria That Move by Unusual Mechanisms 269 Malaria 299
Bacteria That Form Storage Granules 270 SUMMARY 300
11.8 Animals As Habitats 270 REVIEW QUESTIONS 301
Bacteria That Inhabit the Skin 270
Bacteria That Inhabit Mucous Membranes 272 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Obligate Intracellular Parasites 273
Viruses of Bacteria 302
11.9 Archaea That Thrive in Extreme Conditions 275
Extreme Halophiles 275 A Glimpse of History 302

Extreme Thermophiles 275 Key Terms 303

FUTURE CHALLENGES: Astrobiology: The Search for Life on Other 13.1 General Characteristics of Viruses 302
Planets 276 Virus Architecture 303

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 CONTENTS xiii

The Viral Genome 304 14.7 Other Infectious Agents 340

Replication Cycle—Overall Features 304 Prions 341
Viroids 342
13.2 Phage Interactions with Host Cells 306
Lytic Phage Replication by Double-Stranded PERSPECTIVE 14.1: A Whodunit in Molecular Virology 336
DNA Phages 306
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Great Promise, Greater Challenges 343
Lytic Single-Stranded RNA Phages 308
Phage Replication in a Latent State—Phage SUMMARY 343
Lambda 308 REVIEW QUESTIONS 344
Extrusion Following Phage Replication—Filamentous
Phages 311
Lytic Infection by Single-Stranded DNA
Phages 311
13.3 Transduction 313
Generalized Transduction 313
Specialized Transduction 313 PART III
13.4 Host Range of Phages 314 MICROORGANISMS AND HUMANS
Receptors on the Bacterial Surface 314
Restriction-Modification System 314
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
PERSPECTIVE 13.1: Microbe Mimicker 305
The Innate Immune Response 346
PERSPECTIVE 13.2: Viral Soup 309
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Take Two Phage and Call Me in the A Glimpse of History 346
Morning 316 Key Terms 347

SUMMARY 316 15.1 Overview of the Innate Defenses 347

REVIEW QUESTIONS 318
15.2 First-Line Defenses 348
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Physical Barriers 348
Antimicrobial Substances 348
Viruses, Prions, and Viroids: Normal Microbiota (Flora) 349
Infectious Agents of Animals
15.3 The Cells of the Immune System 350
and Plants 320
Granulocytes 350
A Glimpse of History 320 Mononuclear Phagocytes 350
Key Terms 321 Dendritic Cells 352
Lymphocytes 352
14.1 Structure and Classification of Animal Viruses 321
Classification of Animal Viruses 321 15.4 Cell Communication 353
Groupings Based on Routes of Transmission 322 Surface Receptors 353
Cytokines 353
14.2 Interactions of Animal Viruses with their Hosts 325 Adhesion Molecules 354
Acute Infections 325
Persistent Infections 329 15.5 Sensor Systems 354
Toll-Like Receptors and NOD Proteins 355
14.3 Viruses and Human Tumors 333 The Complement System 355
Retroviruses and Human Tumors 333 Sensors That Detect Long Double-Stranded RNA
14.4 Viral Genetic Alterations 335 (dsRNA) 357
Genome Exchange in Segmented Viruses 335 15.6 Phagocytosis 358
14.5 Methods Used to Study Viruses 336 The Process of Phagocytosis 358
Cultivation of Host Cells 336 Specialized Attributes of Macrophages 358
Quantitation 337 Specialized Attributes of Neutrophils 359

14.6 Plant Viruses 339 15.7 Inflammation—A Coordinated Response to

Spread of Plant Viruses 339 Invasion or Damage 360
Insect Transmission of Plant Viruses 340 Factors That Initiate the Inflammatory Response 360

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 xiv CONTENTS

The Inflammatory Process 360 Positive and Negative Selection of Self-Reactive

Outcomes of Inflammation 361 T Cells 387
Apoptosis—Controlled Cell Death That Circumvents
PERSPECTIVE 16.1: What Flavor Are Your Major Histocompatibility
the Inflammatory Process 362 Complex Molecules? 385
15.8 Fever 362 SUMMARY 388
PERSPECTIVE 15.1: For Schistosoma, the Inflammatory Response REVIEW QUESTIONS 389
Delivers 362

SUMMARY 363 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

REVIEW QUESTIONS 364
Host-Microbe Interactions 391
CHAPTER SIXTEEN A Glimpse of History 391
Key Terms 392
The Adaptive Immune Response 366
A Glimpse of History 366 MICROBES, HEALTH, AND DISEASE
Key Terms 367 17.1 The Anatomical Barriers As Ecosystems 392
16.1 Strategy of the Adaptive Immune Response 367 Symbiotic Relationships Between Microorganisms
and Hosts 392
Overview of Humoral Immunity 367
Overview of Cellular Immunity 368 17.2 The Normal Microbiota 393
The Protective Role of the Normal
16.2 Anatomy of the Lymphoid System 369
Microbiota 393
Lymphatic Vessels 370
The Dynamic Nature of the Normal
Secondary Lymphoid Organs 370
Microbiota 393
Primary Lymphoid Organs 370
17.3 Principles of Infectious Diseases 394
16.3 The Nature of Antigens 370
Pathogenicity 394
16.4 The Nature of Antibodies 371 Characteristics of Infectious Disease 394
Structure and Properties of Antibodies 371 17.4 Establishing the Cause of Infectious Disease 395
Protective Outcomes of Antibody-Antigen Koch’s Postulates 396
Binding 372 Molecular Koch’s Postulates 396
Immunoglobulin Classes 373
16.5 Clonal Selection and Expansion of MECHANISMS OF PATHOGENESIS
Lymphocytes 375
17.5 Establishment of Infection 397
16.6 B Lymphocytes and the Antibody Response 376 Adherence 397
B-Cell Activation 377 Colonization 398
Characteristics of the Primary Response 377 Delivery of Effector Molecules to Host
Characteristics of the Secondary Response 379 Cells 398
The Response to T-Independent Antigens 379
17.6 Invasion—Breaching the Anatomical
16.7 T Lymphocytes: Antigen Recognition and Barriers 399
Response 379 Penetration of Skin 399
General Characteristics of T Cells 380 Penetration of Mucous Membranes 399
Activation of T Cells 381
17.7 Avoiding the Host Defenses 400
Functions of TC (CD8) Cells 382
Hiding Within a Host Cell 400
Functions of TH (CD4) Cells 383
Avoiding Killing by Complement System
Subsets of Dendritic Cells and T Cells 383
Proteins 400
16.8 Natural Killer (NK) Cells 384 Avoiding Destruction by Phagocytes 401
Avoiding Antibodies 403
16.9 Lymphocyte Development 385
Generation of Diversity 387 17.8 Damage to the Host 403
Negative Selection of Self-Reactive B Cells 387 Exotoxins 403

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 CONTENTS xv

Endotoxin and Other Bacterial Cell Wall CHAPTER NINETEEN

Components 407
Damaging Effects of the Immune Response 408 Applications of Immune
Responses 431
17.9 Mechanisms of Viral Pathogenesis 408
Binding to Host Cells and Invasion 408 A Glimpse of History 431
Avoiding Immune Responses 409 Key Terms 432

17.10 Mechanisms of Eukaryotic Pathogenesis 410

IMMUNIZATION
Fungi 410
Protozoa and Helminths 410 19.1 Principles of Immunization 432
Active Immunity 432
FUTURE CHALLENGES: The Potential of Probiotics 411
Passive Immunity 432
SUMMARY 411
19.2 Vaccines and Immunization Procedures 433
REVIEW QUESTIONS 412
Attenuated Vaccines 433
Inactivated Vaccines 435
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN An Example of Vaccination Strategy—The Campaign
to Eliminate Poliomyelitis 436
Immunologic Disorders 414 The Importance of Routine Immunizations for
A Glimpse of History 414 Children 436
Key Terms 415
Current Progress in Immunization 437

18.1 Type I Hypersensitivities: Immediate IMMUNOLOGICAL TESTING

IgE-Mediated 415
Localized Anaphylaxis 416 19.3 Principles of Immunological Testing 439
Generalized Anaphylaxis 417 Obtaining Antibodies 439
Treatments to Prevent Allergic Reactions 417 Quantifying Antigen-Antibody Reactions 439

18.2 Type II Hypersensitivities: Cytotoxic 418 19.4 Observing Antigen-Antibody Aggregations 441
Transfusion Reactions 418 Precipitation Reactions 441
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 418 Agglutination Reactions 443

18.3 Type III Hypersensitivities: Immune 19.5 Using Labeled Antibodies to Detect Antigen-Antibody
Complex—Mediated 420 Interactions 444
Fluorescent Antibody (FA) Tests 444
18.4 Type IV Hypersensitivities: Delayed Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 445
Cell–Mediated 421 Western Blotting 446
Tuberculin Skin Test 421 Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorter (FACS) 447
Delayed Hypersensitivity in Infectious Diseases 422
Contact Hypersensitivities 422 PERSPECTIVE 19.1: Monoclonal Antibodies 440
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Global Immunization 447
18.5 Rejection of Transplanted Tissues 423
SUMMARY 447
18.6 Autoimmune Diseases 424
REVIEW QUESTIONS 448
The Spectrum of Autoimmune Reactions 425
Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases 425
CHAPTER TWENTY
18.7 Immunodeficiency Disorders 426
Primary Immunodeficiencies 426 Epidemiology 450
Secondary Immunodeficiencies 427
A Glimpse of History 450

PERSPECTIVE 18.1: The Fetus As an Allograft 423 Key Terms 451

FUTURE CHALLENGES: New Approaches to Correcting Immunologic 20.1 Principles of Epidemiology 451
Disorders 428
Rate of Disease in a Population 451
SUMMARY 428 Reservoirs of Infection 453
REVIEW QUESTIONS 429 Portals of Exit 454

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Transmission 454 21.3 Mechanisms of Action of Antibacterial

Portals of Entry 455 Drugs 473
Factors That Influence the Epidemiology Antibacterial Medications That Inhibit Cell Wall
of Disease 455 Synthesis 475
Antibacterial Medications That Inhibit Protein
20.2 Epidemiological Studies 457
Synthesis 477
Descriptive Studies 457
Antibacterial Medications That Inhibit Nucleic Acid
Analytical Studies 458 Synthesis 478
Experimental Studies 458 Antibacterial Medications That Inhibit Metabolic
20.3 Infectious Disease Surveillance 459 Pathways 478
National Disease Surveillance Network 459 Antibacterial Medications That Interfere with Cell
Worldwide Disease Surveillance 460 Membrane Integrity 479
Antibacterial Medications That Interfere
20.4 Trends in Disease 460 with Processes Essential to Mycobacterium
Reduction and Eradication of Disease 460 tuberculosis 479
Emerging Diseases 461
21.4 Determining the Susceptibility of a Bacterial Strain
20.5 Healthcare-Associated Infections 462 to an Antimicrobial Drug 480
Reservoirs of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Determining the Minimum Inhibitory and Bactericidal
Settings 462 Concentrations 480
Transmission of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Conventional Disc Diffusion Method 481
Settings 464 Commercial Modifications of Antimicrobial
Preventing Healthcare-Associated Susceptibility Testing 482
Infections 464
21.5 Resistance to Antimicrobial Drugs 483
PERSPECTIVE 20.1: Standard Precautions—Protecting Patients and Mechanisms of Acquired Resistance 483
Healthcare Personnel 465 Acquisition of Resistance 484
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Maintaining Vigilance Against Examples of Emerging Antimicrobial
Bioterrorism 466 Resistance 484
SUMMARY 466 Slowing the Emergence and Spread of Antimicrobial
REVIEW QUESTIONS 467 Resistance 485
21.6 Mechanisms of Action of Antiviral
Drugs 486
CHAPTER TWENTY ONE Entry Inhibitors 486
Viral Uncoating 486
Antimicrobial Medications 469 Nucleic Acid Synthesis 487
A Glimpse of History 469 Integrase Inhibitors 488
Key Terms 470 Assembly and Release of Viral Particles 488

21.1 History and Development of Antimicrobial 21.7 Mechanisms of Action of Antifungal

Drugs 469 Drugs 488
Discovery of Antimicrobial Drugs 469 Plasma Membrane Synthesis
and Function 488
Discovery of Antibiotics 470
Cell Wall Synthesis 489
Development of New Generations of Drugs 470
Cell Division 489
21.2 Features of Antimicrobial Drugs 471 Nucleic Acid Synthesis 489
Selective Toxicity 471
21.8 Mechanisms of Action of Antiprotozoan and
Antimicrobial Action 471
Antihelminthic Drugs 490
Spectrum of Activity 471
Effects of Combinations of Antimicrobial
PERSPECTIVE 21.1: Measuring the Concentration of an Antimicrobial
Drugs 472 Drug in Blood or Other Body Fluids 481
Tissue Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion FUTURE CHALLENGES: War with the Superbugs 491
of the Drug 472
Adverse Effects 472 SUMMARY 491
Resistance to Antimicrobials 472 REVIEW QUESTIONS 493

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FUTURE CHALLENGES: Global Preparedness vs. Emerging

Respiratory Viruses 528

SUMMARY 528
REVIEW QUESTIONS 529

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE

PART IV
INFECTIOUS DISEASES Skin Infections 531
A Glimpse of History 531
Key Terms 532
CHAPTER TWENTY TWO
23.1 Anatomy and Physiology 531
Respiratory System Infections 495
23.2 Normal Microbiota of the Skin 533
A Glimpse of History 495
Diphtheroids 533
Key Terms 496
Staphylococci 534
22.1 Anatomy and Physiology 495 Fungi 534
The Mucociliary Escalator 498 23.3 Bacterial Skin Diseases 535
22.2 Normal Microbiota 498 Hair Follicle Infections 535
Scalded Skin Syndrome 537
INFECTIONS OF THE UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Streptococcal Impetigo 538
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever 540
22.3 Bacterial Infections of the Upper Respiratory Lyme Disease 542
System 499
Strep Throat (Streptococcal Pharyngitis) 499 23.4 Skin Diseases Caused by Viruses 545
Diphtheria 502 Chickenpox (Varicella) 545
Pinkeye, Earache, and Sinus Infections 504 Measles (Rubeola) 547
German Measles (Rubella) 549
22.4 Viral Infections of the Upper Respiratory System 507
Other Viral Rashes of Childhood 552
The Common Cold 507
Warts 552
Adenoviral Pharyngitis 508
23.5 Skin Diseases Caused by Fungi 554
Superficial Cutaneous Mycoses 554
INFECTIONS OF THE LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
CASE PRESENTATION 551
22.5 Bacterial Infections of the Lower Respiratory
System 509 PERSPECTIVE 23.1: The Ghost of Smallpox, An Evil Shade 554
Pneumococcal Pneumonia 509 FUTURE CHALLENGES: The Ecology of Lyme Disease 556
Klebsiella Pneumonia 511 SUMMARY 556
Mycoplasmal Pneumonia 511 REVIEW QUESTIONS 557
Whooping Cough (Pertussis) 513
Tuberculosis 514 CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR
Legionnaires’ Disease 517
Wound Infections 559
22.6 Viral Infections of the Lower Respiratory
System 519 A Glimpse of History 559
Influenza 519 Key Terms 560
Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections 521
Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome 522 24.1 Anatomy and Physiology 560
Wound Abscesses 560
22.7 Fungal Infections of the Lung 525 Anaerobic Wounds 561
Valley Fever (Coccidioidomycosis) 525
Spelunkers’ Disease (Histoplasmosis) 526 24.2 Common Bacterial Wound Infections 562
Staphylococcal Wound Infections 562
PERSPECTIVE 22.1: Terror by Mail: Inhalation Anthrax 512 Group A Streptococcal “Flesh Eaters” 563
PERSPECTIVE 22.2: What to Do About Bird Flu 524 Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections 564

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24.3 Diseases Due to Anaerobic Bacterial Wound LOWER DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INFECTIONS
Infections 566
“Lockjaw“ (Tetanus) 566 25.5 Bacterial Diseases of the Lower Digestive
Gas Gangrene (Clostridial Myonecrosis) 568 System 595
“Lumpy Jaw“ (Actinomycosis) 570 Cholera 596
Shigellosis 598
24.4 Bacterial Bite Wound Infections 572 Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis 599
Pasteurella multocida Bite Wound Infections 572 Salmonellosis 601
Cat Scratch Disease 572 Campylobacteriosis 602
Streptobacillary Rat Bite Fever 574
Human Bites 574 25.6 Viral Diseases of the Lower Digestive System 604
Rotaviral Gastroenteritis 604
24.5 Fungal Wound Infections 576 Norovirus Gastroenteritis 604
“Rose Gardener’s Disease“ (Sporotrichosis) 576 Hepatitis A 605
Hepatitis B 606
CASE PRESENTATION 573
Hepatitis C 608
PERSPECTIVE 24.1: Infection Caused by a Human “Bite“ 575
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Staying Ahead in the Race with 25.7 Protozoan Diseases of the Lower Digestive
Staphylococcus aureus 578 System 609
SUMMARY 578 Giardiasis 609
REVIEW QUESTIONS 579 Cryptosporidiosis 610
Cyclosporiasis 612
Amebiasis 612
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE CASE PRESENTATION 591
Digestive System Infections 581 PERSPECTIVE 25.1: Ecology of Cholera 597
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Defeating Diarrhea 614
A Glimpse of History 581
Key Terms 582
SUMMARY 614
REVIEW QUESTIONS 616
25.1 Anatomy and Physiology 582
The Mouth 582 CHAPTER TWENTY SIX
Salivary Glands 582
The Esophagus 583 Genitourinary Infections 618
The Stomach 584
A Glimpse of History 618
The Small Intestine 584
Key Terms 619
The Pancreas 584
The Liver 584 26.1 Anatomy and Physiology 619
The Large Intestine 585 The Urinary System 619
The Genital System 620
25.2 Normal Microbiota 585
The Mouth 585 26.2 Normal Microbiota of the Genitourinary System 620
The Intestines 585
26.3 Urinary System Infections 621
Bacterial Cystitis 621
UPPER DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INFECTIONS
Leptospirosis 622
25.3 Bacterial Diseases of the Upper Digestive System 586
26.4 Genital System Diseases 625
Tooth Decay (Dental Caries) 586
Bacterial Vaginosis 625
Periodontal Disease 588
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis 625
Trench Mouth 588
Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome 626
Helicobacter pylori Gastritis 589
26.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Scope of the
25.4 Viral Diseases of the Upper Digestive
Problem 628
System 592
Herpes Simplex (Cold Sores or Fever Blisters) 592 26.6 Bacterial STDs 629
Mumps 593 Gonorrhea 629

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Chlamydial Genital System Infections 631 CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT

Syphilis 633
Chancroid 636 Blood and Lymphatic Infections 674
26.7 Viral STDs 638 A Glimpse of History 674
Genital Herpes Simplex 638 Key Terms 675
Papillomavirus STDs: Genital Warts and Cervical
28.1 Anatomy and Physiology 675
Cancer 639
The Heart 675
AIDS 640
Arteries 676
26.8 Protozoal STDs 642 Veins 676
“Trich” (Trichomoniasis) 642 Lymphatics (Lymphatic Vessels) 676
Spleen 677
CASE PRESENTATION 623
PERSPECTIVE 26.1: The Demise of Syphilis? 634 28.2 Bacterial Diseases of the Blood Vascular System 677
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Getting Control of Sexually Transmitted Subacute Bacterial Endocarditis 677
Diseases 643 Gram-Negative Septicemia 678
SUMMARY 644 28.3 Bacterial Diseases of the Lymph Nodes and Spleen 680
REVIEW QUESTIONS 645 “Rabbit Fever” (Tularemia) 680
“Undulant Fever” (Brucellosis, “Bang’s Disease”) 681
CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN “Black Death” (Plague) 682

Nervous System Infections 647 28.4 Viral Diseases of the Lymphoid and Blood Vascular
Systems 686
A Glimpse of History 647 “Kissing Disease” (Infectious Mononucleosis,
Key Terms 648 “Mono”) 686
Yellow Fever 688
27.1 Anatomy and Physiology 648
Pathways to the Central Nervous System 649 28.5 Protozoan Diseases 690
Malaria 691
27.2 Bacterial Nervous System Infections 650
Meningococcal Meningitis 650 CASE PRESENTATION 688
Listeriosis 653 PERSPECTIVE 28.1: Arteriosclerosis: The Infection Hypothesis 676
Hansen’s Disease (Leprosy) 655 PERSPECTIVE 28.2: Walter Reed and Yellow Fever 690
Botulism 657 FUTURE CHALLENGES: Rethinking Malaria Control 694
27.3 Viral Diseases of the Nervous System 658 SUMMARY 694
Viral Meningitis 659 REVIEW QUESTIONS 695
Viral Encephalitis 659
Infantile Paralysis, Polio (Poliomyelitis) 661 CHAPTER TWENTY NINE
Rabies 663
HIV Disease and Complications
27.4 Fungal Diseases of the Nervous System 666
of Immunodeficiency 697
Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis 666
A Glimpse of History 697
27.5 Protozoan Diseases of the Nervous System 667
African Sleeping Sickness 667 Key Terms 698

27.6 Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies 669 29.1 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection and
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy in AIDS 698
Humans 669 HIV Disease 699
HIV Vaccine Prospects 709
CASE PRESENTATION 651
29.2 Malignant Tumors That Complicate Acquired
PERSPECTIVE 27.1: A Rabies Survivor! 665
Immunodeficiencies 710
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Eradicate Polio: Then What? 670
Kaposi’s Sarcoma 710
SUMMARY 671 B-Lymphocytic Tumors of the Brain 711
REVIEW QUESTIONS 672 Cervical and Anal Carcinoma 711

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29.3 Infectious Complications of Acquired 30.5 Mutualistic Relationships between Microorganisms

Immunodeficiency 712 and Eukaryotes 733
Pneumocystosis 712 Mycorrhizae 733
Toxoplasmosis 713 Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixers and Plants 734
Cytomegalovirus Disease 715 Microorganisms and Herbivores 735
Mycobacterial Diseases 717 SUMMARY 735
REVIEW QUESTIONS 736
CASE PRESENTATION 707
PERSPECTIVE 29.1: Origin of AIDS-Causing Viruses 705
CHAPTER THIRTY ONE
FUTURE CHALLENGES: AIDS and Poverty 718
SUMMARY 719
Environmental Microbiology: Treatment of
REVIEW QUESTIONS 720
Water, Wastes, and Polluted Habitats 738
A Glimpse of History 738
Key Terms 739

31.1 Microbiology of Wastewater Treatment 739

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 739
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Methods 739
Individual Wastewater Treatment Systems 744
PART V 31.2 Drinking Water Treatment and Testing 744
APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY Water Treatment Processes 745
Water Testing 746

CHAPTER THIRTY 31.3 Microbiology of Solid Waste Treatment 747

Sanitary Landfills for Solid Waste Disposal 747
Microbial Ecology 721 Municipal and Backyard Composting—Alternative
to Landfills 747
A Glimpse of History 721
Key Terms 722 31.4 Microbiology of Bioremediation 749
Pollutants 749
30.1 Principles of Microbial Ecology 722 Means of Bioremediation 749
Nutrient Acquisition 722
Bacteria in Low-Nutrient Environments 723 PERSPECTIVE 31.1: Now They’re Cooking with Gas 743
Microbial Competition and Antagonism 723 FUTURE CHALLENGES: Better Identification of Pathogens in Water
Microorganisms and Environmental Changes 723 and Wastes 750
Microbial Communities 724 SUMMARY 751
Studying Microbial Ecology 724 REVIEW QUESTIONS 751
30.2 Aquatic Habitats 725
Marine Environments 726 CHAPTER THIRTY TWO
Freshwater Environments 726
Food Microbiology 753
Specialized Aquatic Environments 726
A Glimpse of History 753
30.3 Terrestrial Habitats 727
Key Terms 754
Characteristics of Soil 727
Microorganisms in Soil 727 32.1 Factors Influencing the Growth of Microorganisms
The Rhizosphere 728 in Foods 754
30.4 Biogeochemical Cycling and Energy Flow 728 Intrinsic Factors 755
Carbon Cycle 728 Extrinsic Factors 755
Nitrogen Cycle 730 32.2 Microorganisms in Food and Beverage
Sulfur Cycle 731 Production 756
Phosphorus Cycle and Other Cycles 732 Lactic Acid Fermentations by the Lactic Acid
Energy Sources for Ecosystems 732 Bacteria 756

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Alcoholic Fermentations by Yeast 758 APPENDIX I Microbial Mathematics A-1

Changes Due to Mold Growth 761 APPENDIX II Microbial Terminology A-2
32.3 Food Spoilage 762 APPENDIX III Pronunciation Key for Bacterial, Fungal, Protozoan,
Common Spoilage Bacteria 762 and Viral Names A-4
Common Spoilage Fungi 762 APPENDIX IV Metabolic Pathways A-7
32.4 Foodborne Illness 762 APPENDIX V Answers to Multiple Choice Questions A-11
Foodborne Intoxication 763
GLOSSARY G-1
Foodborne Infection 764
CREDITS C-1
32.5 Food Preservation 765
INDEX I-1
PERSPECTIVE 32.1: Botox for Beauty and Pain Relief 764
FUTURE CHALLENGES: Using Microorganisms to Nourish
the World 766

SUMMARY 766
REVIEW QUESTIONS 767

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 Eugene Nester Denise Anderson
Eugene (Gene) Nester performed his Denise Anderson is a Senior Lecturer
undergraduate work at Cornell Uni- in the Department of Microbiology at
versity and received his Ph.D. in the University of Washington, where
Microbiology from Case Western she teaches a variety of courses
University. He then pursued postdoc- including general microbiology,
toral work in the Department of recombinant DNA techniques, medi-
Genetics at Stanford University with cal bacteriology laboratory, and
Joshua Lederberg. Since 1962, Gene medical mycology/parasitology lab-
has been a faculty member in the oratory. Equipped with a diverse edu-
Department of Microbiology at the cational background, including
University of Washington. Gene’s undergraduate work in nutrition and
research has focused on gene transfer graduate work in food science and in
systems in bacteria. His laboratory microbiology, she first discovered a
demonstrated that Agrobacterium transfers DNA into plant cells, the basis passion for teaching when she taught microbiology laboratory courses
for the disease crown gall. He continues to study this unique system of as part of her graduate training. Her enthusiastic teaching style, fueled
gene transfer which has become a cornerstone of plant biotechnology. by regular doses of Seattle’s famous caffeine, receives high reviews by
In 1990, Gene Nester was awarded the inaugural Australia Prize her students.
along with an Australian and a German scientist for their work on Agro- Outside of academic life, Denise relaxes in the Phinney Ridge
bacterium transformation of plants. In 1991, he was awarded the Cetus neighborhood of Seattle, where she lives with her husband, Richard
Prize in Biotechnology by the American Society of Microbiology. He has Moore, and dog, Dudley (neither of whom are well trained). When not
been elected to Fellowship in the National Academy of Sciences, the planning lectures, grading papers, or writing textbook chapters, she can
American Academy for the Advancement of Science, the American usually be found chatting with the neighbors, fighting the weeds in her
Academy of Microbiology, and the National Academy of Sciences in garden, or enjoying a fermented beverage at the local pub.
India. Throughout his career, Gene has been actively involved with the
American Society for Microbiology in several leadership positions.
In addition to his research activities, Gene has taught an introductory
microbiology course for students in the allied health sciences for many
years. He wrote the original version of the present text, Microbiology:
Molecules, Microbes and Man, with C. Evans Roberts, Brian McCarthy,
and Nancy Pearsall more than 30 years ago because they felt no suitable
text was available for this group of students. The original text pioneered
the organ system approach to the study of infectious disease.
Gene enjoys traveling, museum hopping, and the study and collect-
ing of Northwest Coast Indian Art. He and his wife, Martha, live on Lake
Washington with their labradoodle, Twana, and a well-used kayak. Their
two children and four grandchildren live in the Seattle area.

xxii

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxiii

C. Evans Roberts, Jr. Martha Nester

Evans Roberts was a mathematics Martha Nester received an under-
student at Haverford College when a graduate degree in biology from
chance encounter landed him a sum- Oberlin College and a Master’s de-
mer job at the Marine Biological gree in education from Stanford Uni-
Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massa- versity. She has worked in university
chusetts. There, interactions with research laboratories and has taught
leading scientists awakened an inter- elementary school. She currently
est in biology and medicine. After works in an environmental education
finishing his degree at Haverford, he program at the Seattle Audubon Soci-
went on to get a M.D. degree at Co- ety. Martha has worked with her
lumbia University College of Physi- husband, Gene, for more than 40
cians and Surgeons, complete an years on microbiology textbook proj-
intership at University of Rochester ects, at first informally as an editor
School of Medicine and Dentistry, and sounding board, and then as one
and a residency in medicine at University of Washington School of of the authors of Microbiology: A Human Perspective. Martha’s favorite
Medicine where he also completed a fellowship in Infectious Diseases activities include spending time with their four grandchildren, all of
under Dr. William M. M. Kirby, and a traineeship in Diagnostic Microbi- whom live in the Seattle area. She also enjoys playing the cello with a
ology under Dr. John Sherris. number of musical groups in the Seattle area.
Subsequently, Dr. Roberts taught microbiology at University of
Washington, University of Oregon, and Chiang Mai University, in Chiag-
mai, Thailand, returning to University of Washington thereafter. He has
directed diagnostic medical microbiology laboratories, served on hospital
infection control committees, and taught infectious diseases to nurse
practitioners in a camp for Karen refugees in Northern Thailand. He has
had extensive experience in the practice of medicine as it relates to infec-
tious diseases. He is certified both by the American Board of Microbiol-
ogy and the American Board of Internal Medicine.
Evans Roberts worked with Gene Nester in the early development of
Microbiology: A Human Perspective. His professional publications con-
cern susceptibility testing as a guide to treatment of infectious diseases,
etiology of Whipple’s disease, group A streptococcal epidemiology, use of
fluorescent antibody in diagnosis, bacteriocin typing, antimicrobial resis-
tance in gonorrhea and tuberculosis, Japanese B encephalitis, and rabies.
For relaxation, he enjoys hiking, bird watching and traveling worldwide.

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