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Document 20

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dhineshravi223
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INTRODUCTION

Integrals may be generalized depending on the type of the function


as well as the domain over which the integration is performed. For
example, a line integral is defined for functions of two or more
variables, and the interval of integration is replaced by a curve
connecting two points in space. In a surface integral, the curve is
replaced by a piece of a surface in three-dimensional space.
INTEGRALS
In mathematics, an integral is the continuous analog of a sum, which
is used to calculate areas, volumes, and their generalizations.
Integration, the process of computing an integral, is one of the two
fundamental operations of calculus,[a] the other being differentiation.
Integration was initially used to solve problems in mathematics and
physics, such as finding the area under a curve, or determining
displacement from velocity. Usage of integration expanded to a wide
variety of scientific fields thereafter.

A definite integral computes the signed area of the region in the


plane that is bounded by the graph of a given function between two
points in the real line. Conventionally, areas above the horizontal axis
of the plane are positive while areas below are negative. Integrals also
refer to the concept of an antiderivative, a function whose derivative is
the given function; in this case, they are also called indefinite integrals.
The fundamental theorem of calculus relates definite integration to
differentiation. To compute the definite integral of a function when its
antiderivative is known; differentiation and integration are inverse
operations.

WHO INVENTED INTEGRATION

The major advance in integration came in the 17th century


with the independent discovery of the fundamental theorem
of calculus by Leibniz and Newton.[11] The theorem
demonstrates a connection between integration and
differentiation. This connection, combined with the
comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to
calculate integrals. In particular, the fundamental theorem of
calculus allows one to solve a much broader class of problems.
Equal in importance is the comprehensive mathematical
framework that both Leibniz and Newton developed. Given
the name infinitesimal calculus, it allowed for precise analysis
of functions with continuous domains. This framework
eventually became modern calculus, whose notation for
integrals is drawn directly from the work of Leibniz.
TYPES OF INTEGRALS
Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most widely used definitions of the
integral, a number of others exist, including:

• The Darboux integral, which is defined by Darboux sums (restricted Riemann sums) yet is
equivalent to the Riemann integral. A function is Darboux-integrable if and only if it is
Riemann-integrable. Darboux integrals have the advantage of being easier to define than
Riemann integrals.
• The Riemann–Stieltjes integral, an extension of the Riemann integral which integrates with
respect to a function as opposed to a variable.
• The Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral, further developed by Johann Radon, which generalizes
both the Riemann–Stieltjes and Lebesgue integrals.
• The Daniell integral, which subsumes the Lebesgue integral and Lebesgue–Stieltjes
integral without depending on measures.
• The Haar integral, used for integration on locally compact topological groups, introduced
by Alfréd Haar in 1933.
• The Henstock–Kurzweil integral, variously defined by Arnaud Denjoy, Oskar Perron, and
(most elegantly, as the gauge integral) Jaroslav Kurzweil, and developed by Ralph
Henstock.
• The Itô integral and Stratonovich integral, which define integration with respect to
semimartingales such as Brownian motion.
• The Young integral, which is a kind of Riemann–Stieltjes integral with respect to certain
functions of unbounded variation.
• The rough path integral, which is defined for functions equipped with some additional
"rough path" structure and generalizes stochastic integration against both
semimartingales and processes such as the fractional Brownian motion.
• The Choquet integral, a subadditive or superadditive integral created by the French
mathematician Gustave Choquet in 1953.
• The Bochner integral, an extension of the Lebesgue integral to a more general class of
functions, namely, those with a domain that is a Banach space.
APPLICATION OF
INTEGRALS
Integrals are used extensively in many areas. For example, in
probability theory, integrals are used to determine the probability of
some random variable falling within a certain range.[48] Moreover, the
integral under an entire probability density function must equal 1,
which provides a test of whether a function with no negative values
could be a density function or not.[49]

Integrals can be used for computing the area of a two-dimensional


region that has a curved boundary, as well as computing the volume
of a three-dimensional object that has a curved boundary. The area of
a two-dimensional region can be calculated using the aforementioned
definite integral.[50] The volume of a three-dimensional object such as
a disc or washer can be computed by disc integration using the

equation for the volume of a cylinder, 𝜋𝑟2ℎ , where 𝑟 is the


radius. In the case of a simple disc created by rotating a curve about
the x-axis, the radius is given by f(x), and its height is the differential dx.
Using an integral with bounds a and b, the volume of the disc is equal
to:[51]𝜋∫𝑎𝑏𝑓2(𝑥)𝑑𝑥. Integrals are also used in physics, in areas like
kinematics to find quantities like displacement, time, and velocity. For
example, in rectilinear motion, the displacement of an object over the

time interval [𝑎,𝑏] is given by

𝑥(𝑏)−𝑥(𝑎)=∫𝑎𝑏𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡,

where 𝑣(𝑡) is the velocity expressed as a function of time. [52] The work done by a force

𝐹(𝑥) (given as a function of position) from an initial position 𝐴 to a final position 𝐵

is:[53]

𝑊𝐴→𝐵=∫𝐴𝐵𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

Integrals are also used in thermodynamics, where thermodynamic


integration is used to calculate the difference in free energy between
two given states.
IMPORTANT FORMULAS OF
INTEGRATION
INDEX
TOPIC
INTRODUCTION

INTEGRALS

WHO INVENTED INTEGRALS

TYPES OF INTEGRALS

APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

FORMULAS OF INTEGRALS
MATHS

PROJECT
BY: R. DHINESH

GRADE: XII

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